Ethics Reviewer

of knowledge: science aspires to discover facts; philosophy

aspires to interpret these facts to gain knowledge of the
world.
Science:
General Introduction to Ethics: - Medical science, e.g., wants to understand how the
human body works, such as, the different causes of
Definition of Key Terms and Ideas various diseases.
Philosophy
Ethics Defined - Philosophy, though not contradicting science, goes
Four Main Branches of Philosophy beyond the cold-hard facts to ask deeper questions, such
1. Logic – study of correct argumentation as:
2. Epistemology – study of knowledge 1. Why do diseases exist in the first place?
3. Metaphysics – study of Being/beings 2. What’s the point of having diseases?
4. Ethics – study of the morality of human actions 3. If human life is afflicted by diseases, is human life
worth living at all?
The relation between Ethics and Philosophy Major Questions in Ethics
- It is widely believed that philosophy in the Western world - Ethics, to modify the words of Henderson, is a rigorous,
was inaugurated by disciplined, guarded analysis of some these questions:
- Thales – a citizen of the Greek colony of Ionia (now in ● What is a good action?
modern- day Turkey) who is also considered as the ●Why should we be good?
Western world’s first ever philosopher.c. 620 BCE – c. ● What is a good life and how do we attain it?
546 BCE ●All of us possess an ethical standpoint that governs
- If, as Thales ruminated, all things depend on water, then our everyday actions.
everything, at one point, must have come from water.
- e.g., living things require moisture, silt forms in water
(hence perhaps water also forms rocks and the ground?)
Moral Dilemmas
A situation where the individual is required to
The significance of Thales’ act choose between two or more conflicting moral
- Before Thales, humans explained the underlying requirements but designed in such a way that
causes of all phenomena as interventions of the the person seems fated to commit something
divine. Thales, therefore, is considered as the first wrong no matter which option she chooses.
philosopher because he was the first person ever
recorded to explain the nature of things using logical Ethical Thinking and It’s Relevance in the
and critical thinking, and not faith.
Philippines (by Romaldo Abulad rip kuya)
“Faith emerges when reason fails.” - Critical thinking = Ethical thinking Critical thinking –
-- Immanuel Kant type of thinking that questions:
● the status quo/accepted ideas: why our knowledge
Philosophy defined should be “broad and wide...deep and profound”.
- “Philosophy is a rigorous, disciplined, guarded analysis of ● one’s assumptions, biases, Prejudices• “learned
some of the most difficult problems which men have ever ignorance” is a mark of the wise man.
faced”. - The philosophers have only interpreted the world, the
- Stella Van Petten Henderson point, however, is to change it”.- Karl Marx
- E.g.,: God, Existence, Morality - Critical thinking sheds light on the injustices of the
status quo. It, therefore, prompts us to take actions that
Philosophy vs. Science would lead to ethical outcomes. Critical and ethical
Philosophy and science are rooted in the same thing – the thinking are the foundations in the battle for a just and
love of knowledge – and they aspire the same goal – humane society.
understanding reality. They differ in the depth of their pursuit
Critical Thinking in the Age of Post-Truth Without a fully functioning rational faculty, they are
not considered as fully free or autonomous agents,
“Arnel Agravante, a YouTuber in the Philippines, told
thereby exempting them from being fully responsible
his followers last October [2022] that he knew how Ferdinand
for most of their actions.
Marcos Jr., the presidential front-runner and his candidate of
choice, had become wealthy.
II. Are Moral Agents Inherently Good or Bad?
The story, he said, was simple: Mr. Marcos’s dictator The bombing of Nagasaki and Hiroshima by the U.S. during
father, Ferdinand Marcos Sr., did not steal money from the World War II indicates that human beings are capable of the
government, as has been widely reported. Rather, he was most horrendous actions.
given tons of gold by a secretive royal family in the
Philippines. “That’s what they call ‘ill-gotten wealth,’” Mr.
Agravante said, ridiculing Mr. Marcos’s critics. (wtf is this
???)
The gold story has been debunked by multiple fact
checkers as well as by Mr. Marcos himself, but that has not
stopped Mr. Agravante from repeating it. The way he sees it,
he is part of the “alternative media” countering a mainstream
press “spreading stupid and wrong information about our
history” before next week’s election”
On the other hand, many actions also show that humans are
- “discourses that exhibit a lack of concern for facts and
capable of moral excellence. Image above shows a
expertise”
community pantry in the Philippines which became popular
- Some post-truth discourses sway the public to act
during the pandemic – an initiative that shows humans are
harshly against other people: Mudslinging,
capable of the most selfless actions.
slut-shaming, name-calling, bullying, etc.
Is human nature inherently good or bad?
- Critical thinking acts as a layer of protection from the
A. The Hobbes vs. Rousseau Debate
pernicious effects of post-truth.
1. Thomas Hobbes (1588 – 1679)
a) Humans in the state of nature compete with one
The Moral Agent: Characteristics, another for the same finite resources. This leads
Development, and Relation with them to dominate and inflict violence against others.
the World b) The life of man in its natural state is “solitary, poor,
nasty, brutish, and short” because individuals are in
I. The Moral Agent a “war of all against all”.
A. There is no human action without a moral agent. -- See Stephen Finn, “Thomas Hobbes:
B. A moral agent “is a person who has the ability to Methodology,”
discern right from wrong and to be held c) Hence, we need to have a strong government that
accountable for his or her own actions”.* can strictly implement law and order to stop us from
1. Has the ability to discern right from wrong. killing one another
a. Reason (ability to think and deliberate) 2. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 – 1778)
b. Autonomy (capacity to determine what action to a) Humans in their natural state are content and
perform) amicable because the natural world provided
i. We must think for ourselves and not act solely everything they needed.
based on the injunctions of a higher authority. b) Humans only became violent when the notion of
2. Accountable for his/her actions. private property was introduced into society. With
- Animals cannot be considered as moral agents private property, humans became selfish and
since they lack reason and autonomy. competitive.
- The clinically insane and children, because of their 3. Psychology steps in – Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939)
undeveloped rational capacities, are held in a a) Freud offers a complex theory of personality and
different moral standard compared to normal adults. behavior that may help explain whether humans are
 inherently good or bad. For Freud, human behavior a) Emotional upsurges can be so strong that it could
is the result of the complex interaction between the cloud our mind.
Id, Ego, and Superego. b) Emotions are fleeting, particular, and biased.
(1) Id - Pleasure Principle B. Impartiality – acting and thinking without
(a) Present since birth. a) bias and prejudice.
(b) Demands immediate gratification. (1) Other people’s welfare is just as important as
(c) The dominance of the Id could lead to our own.
actions that are disruptive and socially and C. Reason – proper and careful thinking and deliberation.
morally unacceptable. D. Moral Courage – having the will or courageto enact a
(2) Ego - Reality Principle good action.
(a) Develops as the child grows. V. Culture in Moral Behavior
(b) Functions to satisfy the demands of the Id in A. Female Genital Mutilation
ways that are realistic and socially – Partial or total removal of external female genitalia for
acceptable. non-medical purposes.
(3) Superego – Morality Principle B. How does culture affect moral behavior?
(a) Refers to the internalized moral standards 1. Culture presents individuals with norms and unwritten
and ideals we obtained from our parents and rules to follow.
society. 2. The individual slowly internalizes these rules until they
(b) Compels the person to always act perfectly become a part of his own thinking and dispositions.
within the bounds or morality. VI. Cultural/Moral Relativism
(c) The dominance of the superego leads to A. Different cultures have different moral codes or
unrealistic demands on the self. Could lead standards of right and wrong.
to harsh self-guilt, self-harm, anxiety, B. What is thought right within one group may be utterly
depression, etc. abhorrent to the members of another group, and vice
b) Freud’s theory teaches us that humans may be both versa.
inherently good and inherently bad. C. There is no universal standard of right and wrong.
III. Moral Character D. If a culture says that their particular practice is right,
A. Every moral agent has a moral character: then it is right within that culture.
1. “an individual’s disposition to think, feel, and E. We should not judge other cultures. We should merely
behave in an ethical versus unethical manner”.* tolerate them.
2. Patterns of behavior related to morality.
Strengths Weaknesses
3. E.g., one’s tendency to lie, or help other people,
Encourages empathy, Embracing it potentially
or cheat, and so on
tolerance, and a deeper perpetuates forms of
**Taya R. Cohen and Lily Morse, “Moral understanding of different injustices within the
character: What it is and what it does,” cultural perspectives. culture.
B. A person’s moral character is not innate or in-born.
It respects cultural It inhibits critical thinking.
C. It is a product of habituation. It is shaped slowly by the autonomy.
minutiae of practices of everyday life. The more we act
It promotes diversity of It limits progress (e.g.,
and think in a certain way, the more it also becomes
points of view and women empowerment,
ingrained into our character. perspectives. abolishment of slavery,
D. “We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not etc.)
an act, but a habit”.
– Quote attributed to Aristotle. VII. Neoliberalism and its Impact on our moral
IV. Making a Good Moral Decision principles
A. Should we listen to feelings and emotions when making A. Our individual identity is produced by the internalization
a moral decision? of our social character (tradition, culture, shared social
1. For many philosophers: “we should not”. identity).
– E.g., my individual identity is grounded on me being a
 Filipino. a) We try to create artificial worlds (virtualidentities)
– Our social character is the foundation of our individual – To try to make sense of who we are, we curate our
identity. It is the ground upon which our identity is built. identities in the virtual world.
B. When our social character is destroyed, our individual – We develop narcissistic traits (self-centered, we
identity becomes unstable. In fact, our identity becomes form idealized and grandiose images of ourselves,
empty. an excessive need for admiration)
– We lose our sense of who we are as individuals. b) We latch on to idol figures and products to give
C. What is Neoliberalism? ourselves an identity.
1. A socioeconomic structure that aims to impose – We tend to think that our identity hinges on the
a) the rule of the market/capitalism. products we have or the people we follow.
2. It also holds the view that human fulfilment and – We try to fill our emptiness within by buying more
happiness can best be attained in a capitalist and more consumer goods.
society. “Never has there been in the history of humanity that our age
– Where people have an endless array of goods and is characterized as the unlimited enjoyment of freedom in the
services to choose from. Where we do not run out of sense that with the help and use of computer technology,
things to consume. unlimited production and unrestricted happiness turn into the
– Where people have the freedom and the means nucleus of modern life. Nevertheless...all of these only
(money) to live their dream life. obscure real issues that beset life, for they provide only
3. The more we live in this capitalist society, we also temporary relief from our helplessness, boredom, and anxiety
slowly adopt many of its values, such as: due to the colossal effect of modern capitalism” (Pacquing
a) Treating everything as commodities 143).
(1) We look at skills and assess them based on
how much profit they can give in return. We
study the course which we know is good.
Virtue Ethics
(2) Parents see their kids as sources of profit; kids Virtue Ethics as an Agent-Centered Moral Theory
see their parents as sources of wealth; Moral theory – a systematic claim that determines what
students see their teachers as sources of good or bad is and the reasons that make actions good or
grades. bad.
(3) In other words, even human relationships 1. Act-Centered Moral Theories
become transactional, i.e., suppliers and - Focus on actions; try to explain why a particular action
consumers. is good or bad.
b) Individual Competition - “What should I do?”
(1) We see one another as competitors. 2. Agent-Centered Moral Theories
Colleagues fight for the same promotion. - Focus on the moral agent, not on the action.
Students fight for who becomes valedictorian. - “How should I live?” or “What traits should I develop?”
Friends compete to become more “successful”. Virtue Ethics- an agent-centered moral theory. It wants to
* “Neoliberalism creates in us the character of know how moral agents should live their lives.
trampling, crushing, elbowing, and treading on ●We should focus not on individual actions but on the
each other’s heels” (136). cultivation of good characteristics.
4. The combination of these effects shatters our social ● “What traits or characteristics should I develop to
character. We have become too individualistic, thereby become a good person?”
losing our social character (our sense of shared culture, ● A good person will not need to be told what a good
tradition,group identity). action is. She will simply be good in most situations.
5. When our social character is destroyed, our ●Being a good person is necessary for living a good
individual identity becomes unstable. In fact, our life.
identity becomes empty.
– We lose sense of who we are as individuals
6. To try to fill our emptiness within, we do two things:
Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics - Performing her function (being reasonable) leads to
virtues.
Aristotle (384 – 322 BCE): was an ancient Greek
- Therefore, a person attains what is good for him if he is
philosopher whose contributions to science and philosophy
virtuous.
were vast.
Aristotle calls this eudaimonia.
I. Teleology (The Function Argument)
– Eudaimonia = human flourishing = where we are
Teleology – the belief that everything has a true purpose,
flourishing as human beings
goal, or function (telos in Greek).
- What does it mean when a human being is
- An object attains its own good if it can perform its
flourishing/has attained eudaimonia?:
specific function well.
●John is a pianist. He can play simple tunes such as
● E.g. A chair is good if it can properly support us
“Happy Birthday” and the supremely difficult ones
while we sit on it.
like Beethoven’s “Moonlight Sonata”. Although John
● A student obtains what is good for her if she can
is fulfilling his function as a pianist when he plays
successfully perform the function of a student.
both tunes, it is only when he is playing the more
- What is the function of a human being?
complex pieces that he is truly flourishing as a
● What is that one feature which only human beings
pianist. In this sense, flourishing/eudaimonia refers
have, the feature which separates us from other
to a state where something or someone is exhibiting
beings?
excellence in their respective functions.
● Aristotle: Reason
- For example: A chair is flourishing if it is excellent for
- All objects have a telos. An object is good when it
sitting down.
properly performs its telos.
- Thus, a human being is a eudaimon (a person in a
- The telos of a human being is to reason. The good
state of eudaimonia) when she is virtuous because
for a human being is, therefore, acting in accordance
when she is virtuous it means that she is acting in
with reason.
accordance with reason.
II. Virtues
- attaining eudaimonia does not happen after one action
When individuals use their reason, they develop virtues.
done with reason. Rather, it is only reached through
– A virtuous individual is an individual that uses her
repetition of reasonable actions which develop into
reason.
virtues.
● Virtues – dispositions or traits that encourage
reasonable actions or actions that are appropriate to the
situation. Friedrich Nietzche’s Virtue Ethics
- Honesty in this example is the virtue - Friedrich Nietzsche (1844 – 1900) was a German
- Virtues fall within the GOLDEN MEAN (they are neither philosopher and is considered as one of the most
Deficient nor Excessive) influential thinkers of the modern period
VICE OF DEFICIENCE VIRTUE VICE OF I. Life as Will to Power
EXCESS ● For Nietzsche, all life forms possess the will or urge to
grow or develop.
Lack of spirit Patience Irascibility
- A male lion wants to become the most dominant.
Shyness Modesty Shameless - A tree wants to grow as big as possible.
Stinginess Generosity Profligacy - A person wants to improve in whatever field he finds
Cowardice Courage Rashness meaningful.
●life is a will to power.
III. Eudaimonia - It is a constant striving for something better – for
When humans are virtuous, they achieve what is good for more growth and development. In short, life is a
them, i.e., the good life. constant striving for power.
- A person attains what is good if he performs her - Power means growth or expansion. For example, a
function well student who improves his ability to learn is becoming
a more powerful student
II. Christianity as Slave Morality
 ● His understanding that life is a will to power led ● The journey of self-improvement requires
Nietzsche to criticize Christianity. In his mind, moments of isolation.
Christianity negates life by exalting the weak and the - Creativity: “set for yourself goals, high and noble
powerless. goals, and perish in pursuit of them! I know of no
●Christianity is “the chief instrument of a slave morality – better life purpose than to perish in attempting the
the morality of the weak, the timid, the unfit – in short of great and the impossible.”
life’s losers. Its eternal “shall not” contradicts a ● Creativity means creating lofty goals for yourself.
fundamental fact of life – that all life activity exemplify a ● Goals are stepping stones for our improvement and
will to power.” growth.
●Jesus’ Sermon on the Mount: “Blessed are the poor in
spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.” St. Thomas Aquainas’ Natural Law
- For Nietzsche, Christianity encourages the people to be
weak and discourages them from seeking power.
Theory
1. St Thomas Aquinas (1225 –1274)
III. Nietzsche’s Virtue Ethics
a. Doctor of the Church.
●For him, we must create a new ethical system that
b. Considered as the greatest philosopher and
would help humans accumulate power. In other words,
theologian of the 13th century.
we must follow an ethical system that will help us grow,
c. Philosophical ideas were inspired by Aristotle.
develop, and improve as living human beings.
2. The Summa Theological is St. Thomas Aquinas’
●This begins with self-love. Self-love means:
best-known work and one of the greatest books ever
1. You care about your own growth and
written. It consists of around 3,000 pages and contains
improvement.
many of his most influential ideas, such as the five
2. Dissatisfaction with your present state.
proofs for God’s existence.
1. Accepting the fact that you are not perfect and that
3. For Aquinas, all things were created by God with a
you always have things to improve on.
natural desire to obtain what is good for them. This is
2. A person who is perfectly satisfied with who he is
what he called the “natural law”.
will stagnate.
4. For example: Plants are designed so that they naturally
3. Self-love means developing the following virtues:
seek what is good for them – life and reproduction.
- Courage: “For believe me! – the secret for harvesting
Hence, God made sure that plants would naturally seek
from existence the greatest fruitfulness and the
things that would allow the plant to survive and
greatest enjoyment is: to live dangerously”.- Nietzsche
reproduce, such as sunlight, water, and soil.
in The Gay Science (the what?)
5. Humans, God’s special creation, were designed by God
● To grow, we must be courageous enough to invite
tonaturally desire ultimate happiness. Hence, God
challenges in life.
made sure that humans will naturally seek the things
● Running away from challenges leads to
that will allow them to be happy. These are the seven
stagnation.
basic goods
● We must step out of ourcomfort zone.
The Seven Basic Goods
- Strength: “That which does not kill us makes us
1. Life (Survival)
stronger”.- Nietzsche in Twilight of the Idols
2. Reproduction
● To overcome our challenges and grow, we must
3. Educate One’s Offspring
be tough and strong.
4. Seek God
- Solitude: “Become who you are. Do what only you
5. Live in Society
can do. Be the master and sculptor of yourself.” -
6. Avoid Offense
Nietzsche in The Gay Science
7. Shun Ignorance
● We must not be afraid to be alone or to go against
6. For Aquinas, these seven basic goods are necessary
the herd. Following the herd all the time will limit
for man to obtain happiness. Man instinctually desires
our growth. Many people are afraid to pursue their
these goods.
dreams because they are afraid that others may
7. The natural law is the barometer which allows us to
disagree.
judge whether human actions are moral or immoral.
 When actions abide by and promote the natural law, 11. However, for Aquinas, ultimate happiness, the natural
they are moral. On the other hand, when human actions desire of all men, is something that cannot be attained
violate the natural law, they are considered immoral. while we are [Link] the world is finite and
This is why the Church is vehemently opposed to imperfect, the happiness we can attain while living will
abortion and contraception because these actions do also be finite and imperfect.
not promote life but curtail [Link] natural law is the 12. For him, the ultimate happiness we can attain by
barometer which allows us to judge whether human following the natural law will only be reached in the
actions are moral or immoral. When actions abide by afterlife, i.e.,when we have
and promote the natural law, they are moral. On the 13. returned to God.
other hand, when human actions violate the natural law, 14. God is perfect. Thus, the happiness we will obtain in
they are considered immoral. This is why the Church is union with him is also perfect. This perfect happiness is
vehemently opposed to abortion and contraception called by St. Thomas as the beatific vision.
because these actions do not promote life but curtail it.
8. Question: If human beings are instinctually driven to
obtain the seven basic goods, why are humans still
Utilitarianism
capable of doing bad actions? Jeremy Bentham’s Utilitarianism
– E.g., if humans naturally want to promote life, why are - An action is good if it produces the greatest happiness
there so many killings in the world? for the greatest number of people involved.
9. Answer: For Aquinas, this is because of two things: - The happiness of the doer is not the sole determinant of
ignorance and emotions. the morality of an action but of the majority.
a. Ignorance - Jeremy Bentham: father of utilitarianism, Bentham’s
– Lack of knowledge can encourage us to do preserved skeleton is displayed at University College
actions that violate the natural law. London.
– For example, out of the 1 million Covid-19 Peter Singer’s Utilitarianism
deaths in the USA, it is estimated that 1/3 of these A. Animal Liberation
deaths were due to people refusing to get ● “Many non-human animals can experience pain and
vaccinated because of their belief in conspiracies pleasure....Therefore they are morally significant
and their ignorance when it comes to vaccines. entities”.
• In this example, choosing not to get ● Thus, a good action is the action which maximizes the
vaccinated violates the natural, that is, man’s happiness not just of the majority of humans but also of
natural desire to promote life. Thus, this action is animals involved in the action.
considered immoral. ● We rear animals for consumption in factory farms where
b. Emotions millions of them suffer every single day. Thus, the moral
– Emotions are not always bad for they can also thing to do is to avoid eating animals and animal
encourage us to take actions that reflect the products. Since if we do, we are also promoting the
natural law. suffering of millions of animals worldwide.
• E.g., emotions such as empathy could ● “I am a utilitarian. I am also a vegetarian. I am a
encourage us to help the poor and the needy, vegetarian because I am a utilitarian. I believe that
thereby helping promote their lives. applying the principle of utility to our present situation –
– However, emotions could also drive us to especially the methods now used to rear animals for
commit actions that violate the natural law. food and the variety of food available to us – leads to
• E.g., anger may lead to various offenses the conclusion that we ought to be vegetarian.”
10. Thus, in order to reach happiness, we must make sure B. Donating Money to the Poor
that our actions are not done out of ignorance and - For Singer, we live in a world where many suffer and
[Link], we must always use our reason. die everyday because of poverty.
Using our reason will naturally incline us to follow the - For Singer, if the rich refuse to donate their money to
natural law. the extremely poor (those who suffer from
malnutrition, hunger, diseases, etc.), that is immoral.
- For Singer, we live in a world where many suffer and
die everyday because of poverty. However, these
things are preventable with the aid of money.
- “[I]f it is in our power to prevent something bad from
happening, without thereby sacrificing anything of
comparable moral importance, we ought, morally, to
do it.”
- The amount of money the extremely rich will donate
will not actually hinder the from living a fulfilling life.
- But if they refuse to help those who need help the
most, and instead use their money to buy things they
do not need, then they are allowing suffering to
happen even if it is in their reach to prevent them.
Therefore, it is immoral not to donate money to the
poor.

End