GeneralEntomol

ogy
Def
ini
ti
onofent
omologyandimport
anceofi
nsect
s.
I
ntr
oducti
ontoPhy
ll
um Art
hropoda

Def
ini
ti
onof‘
Ent
omol
ogy
’andi
mpor
tanceofi
nsect
s

Thet er
m entomologyisderived f
rom two Gr
eekwor [Link]
meansan i nsectand l
ogosmeanst o st
[Link] term ‘i
nsect’i
s
der
ivedfrom t
heLati
nwordinsectum whi
chmeans‘cutinto’
.

Insectscamei nt
oear t
h480mi l
li
[Link] omother
earthonlyonemi l
li
onyearsago.Outof17lakhli
vi
ngspeci
esonearth,
9.5lakhspeciesareinsect
s,2.5lakhspeci
esarepl
ant
sand0.45lakh
speciesalonearevert
ebrat
es.

Insectsar ehar mfult o manaspest sofculti

vated crops,animals,
storedpr oducts,carriesofhumandi seasesandpest sofhousehol d
andi ndustr
ialarti
[Link]
pfulasproducersofhoney,l
ac,
sil
k,dy es,etc.,polli
nator
sofcr opsandasnat uralenemi esofcr op
[Link] soser veasi mport
antli
nkinthefood-webofbi ologi
cal
cycleinecosy stem.

I
nsect
saregroupedwi t
hot
herani
mal
swi
thsi
mil
archar
act
eri
sti
csi
n
t
hePhyll
um Ar
thropoda.

I
ntr
oduct
ionToPhy
lum Ar
thr
opoda

Thereareabout1-2mi ll
ionspeciesofani malsintheworl
dandmor e
than70percentoft hesear [Link]
gnedt o
29phy l
[Link] nephy l
aar el
arge,andthei
rrepr
esentat
ives
arecommonandf amili
[Link] ecal l
edthemajorphyl
[Link]
otherphyl
aaresmal landt hei
rrepresentat
ivesareuncommonandof
uncert
ainrel
ati
onshi
ps.

Posi
ti
onofi nsect
sinani
malki
ngdom and t
hei
rrel
ati
onshi
pwi
th
ot
herArt
hropods
I
nsectsareinver
tebr
atesgr
oupedinthephylum Art
hropoda(Ar
thr
o-
j
oint
,poda-f
oot)andsubphy
lum Uni
rami
[Link]
ersofthePhyl
um
Art
hropodaare
Segment
1. edbody
Segment
2. sgroupedi
nto2or3r
egi
ons(
tagma)knownasTagmosi
s.

1
 [Link]
nousexoskel
eton
[Link] ti
ng.
[Link]
later
alsymmet ryofbody.
[Link]
yfil
ledwithbloodandcal
ledashaemocoel
.
[Link] bul
arali
ment ar
ycanalwithmout handanusatanter
ior
andpost eriorends.
[Link] heartwithvalveli
keostia.
[Link] brainwithventralner
vecor d.
[Link]
atedmuscl es(wit
hdar kandl i
ghtbands).
[Link] l
ia( hai
rli
kev i
brati
lestr
uct ur
eont hesurf
aceoft
hecel
l
).
[Link]
ed,segment edappendages.
Phy
lum Arthr
opodai sClassi
fiedinto7cl asses.
Ony
1. chophora(clawbear i
ng)[Link]
Cr
2. ustacea(Crust a-shell
)[Link], cr
ab,woodl ouse
Ar
3. achnida(Arachne-spi der)[Link]
on,spider
, ti
ck,mit
e
Chi
4. lopoda(Chilo-lip;
poda-appendage)e. [Link]
Di
5. plopoda(Diplo-two; poda-appendage)e. [Link]
li
pede
Tr
6. il
obita(anextinctgroup)
Hexapoda(
7. Hexa-si x;poda-
legs)orInsecta(In-i
nternal;
sect–cut
)e.
g.I
nsect
s.

MAJORPHYLAOFANI
MALS

Sl
. Phy
lum Approxi
mat Exampl
es
No. eknown
speci
es
1 Pori
fer
a 4,
500 Sponges
2 Pl
atyhelmi
nthe12,
700 Fl
atworms:
Planar
ia,
tapewor
m
s
3 Nematoda 12,
000 Roundwor ms
4 Moll
usca 100,000 Snail
s, octopus,oysters
5 Anneli
da 7,
000 eart
hwor ms, l
eech
6 Art
hropoda 1,
000,000 Crabs, t
icks,mites,shri
mps,
scorpions,spidersandi nsect
s
7 Echi mat 6,
noder 500 Star
fishes, seaurchins,sanddol
l
ars
a
8 Chor
data 43,
000 Fi
shes,amphibians, r
ept
il
es,
bi
rds andmammal s
9 Coel ent
er a 80,
at 000 Coral
s,Jel
lyf
ish,hydra
[Link]
oduct
iontoCl
assI
nsect
[Link] nance

2
 Therel
ati
onshi
pbet
weeni
nsect
sandot
hermaj
orgr
oupsi
ntheani
mal
ki
ngdom

Ani
malKi
ngdom

Subki
ngdom
I
nver
tebr
ata Ver
tebr
ata
Ani
mal
swi
thabackbone
Ani
mal
swi
thoutabackbone
(
Fish,
Amphibi
ans,
Rapt
il
es,
Bir
dsand
Mammals)

Phy
lum Pl
aty
helmi
nthes Nemathelmi
nth Moll
usca Ar
thr
opoda
(Fl
atwor
m) es (
Slugs,
Snail
s)
(Roundwor
m)

Cr
ust
acea My
riapoda Ar
achni
da I
nsecta
-I
nsect
s
-Crabs -Cent
epedes -Spi
ders
-Shri
mps -Mil
li
pedes -Scorpi
ons
Onycophora -Lobster
s -Symphil
ids -Mites
Cl
ass
(
Peri
patus) -Sowbugs -Ti
cks
-Crayf
ish

3
 Charact
er Cr
ustacea Arachni
da Chi lopoda Diplopoda Onychopoda I
nsecta
Habi
tat Aquati
cand Ter
rest
ri
al Terrest r
ial Terrestr
ial Ter restrial Manyt err
estri
al
ter
rest
ri
al andf ew
aquat i
c
Body Two– Thr
ee-Pr
o, Two-head Two-head Wor ml ike- Three: Head,
regi
ons cephal
othor
ax mesoand and and unsegment ed t horaxand
multi multi i
nadul t
s
andabdomen metasoma abdomen
segment ed segment ed
tr
unk tr
unk
Ant
ennae Twopair Noantenna Onepai r Onepai r Onepai r Onepai r
Vi
sual Onepairof Onepairof Onepai rof Onepai rof Si mpleey es Bothsi mple( 3
or
gans stal
ked si
mpleey es si
mpl eey es si
mpl eey es no.)andt wo
compoundeyes compound
eyes
Locomotor Fi
vepai
rsof Fourpai
rs One Twopai rs/ Manybi lateral 3pai rsoflegs
organs bi
ramousl
egs pair
/ segment segment l
obel ikel egs on3t horacic
segment sand
2pai rofwi ngs
onmesoand
met a
thorax
Respi
rat
ion Gi
llbr
eat
hing Booklungs Tracheal Tracheal Tracheal Tracheal
tr
acheal
Habi
t Herbi
vores, Phytophagous Car
niv
orous Her
bivorous Organi
cmat t
er Phytophagous,
car
nivor
es andpredators predator
sand
parasi
toi
ds
Exampl
es Cray
fish,
crabs, Spider
s, Cent
ipedes Mil
l
ipedes Peri
patussp. Insects
wood scorpi
ons,
l
iceandlobster mitesandti
cks

4
5
 Insectdominance
I
nsectsarethemostdominantspeci
esont heear
thast
hey
or
igi
natedonearth480mill
ionyear
sago.Among1. 7mil
li
on
l
iv
ingspecies,0.
95mil
li
onspeciesareinsect
s.

InsectOrder Numberofspeci
es
Coleoptera(Beetl
esandweev i
ls) 350,
000
Lepidoptera(Butter
fl
iesandmot hs) 160,
000
Hy menopt er
a(Bees, waspsandant s) 120,
000
Diptera(Fli
esandmosqui toes) 120,
000
Hemi ptera(Bugs) 98,
000
Orthoptera(Grasshoppers,cr
icket
s 20,
000
andl ocust)

Measur
esofdomi
nance:

Mor
1. enumberofspeci
es
[Link]
genumberof9i
ndi
vi
dual
sinasi
ngl
especi
es:e.
[Link]
m
compri
singof10
numberofi ndivi
dual
s, occupy
ingl
argear
ea.
Gr
3. eatv
arietyofhabitats
Longgeol
4. ogicalhi
story
Reasonsfordominance:
Ther
eareseveralstr
uctural
,morphologi
calandphy
siol
ogi
cal
fact
orsresponsi
[Link]:
Capaci
1. tyf
orf
li
ght
Mor
2. eadapt
abi
li
tyoruni
ver
sal
i
ty
[Link]
ler si
ze:Maj
ori
ty
of insects ar
e smallinthei
r si
ze
conf
err
ingt
hef
oll
owi
ngphy
siol
ogicalandecol
ogi
cal
adv
antages.
[Link]
esenceofexoskel
eton:I
nsectbodyi
scov
eredwi
thanout
er
cut
icl
ecal
ledexoskel
etonwhi
chi
smadeupofacut
icul
arpr
otei
n
6
call
edChi [Link] sli
ghtinwei ghtandgi vesstrengt
h, r
igidit
yand
fl
exibil
it
yt othei nsectbody .
[Link] si
stancet odesi ccati
on:Insectsmi ni
mi sethewat erlossf r
om
theirbodysur f
acet hroughpr eventi
onofwat erloss( waxl ayerof
epicuti
cle,closabl espi r
acles,eggshel l
)conser vat
ion ofwat er
(capableofut il
izingmet abol i
cwat er,resorpt
ionofwat erf r
om
fecalmat ter,uselessquant ityofwat ertoremov etheni t
rogenous
wast e)
[Link]
achealsy
stem ofrespi
rat
ion:Thisensuresdir
ecttransf
erof
adequateoxy
gentoactivel
ybreat
[Link]
racl
est hr
ough
thei
rclosi
ngmechanism admitairandrestri
ctwat
erloss.
Hi
7. gherr
epr
oduct
ivepot
ent
ial
:Repr
oduct
ivepot
ent
ialofi
nsecti
shi
gh
[Link] ay
ingcapacity(fecundit
y)ofqueent ermit
eis6000-
7000eggsperdayf or15l [Link]
opment
periode.
g.,Cornaphidpr oduces16ny mphsperf emalewhich
reachestheadulthoodwi thi
n16day [Link]
typesofreproducti
onot herthanov ipar
it
yandv ivi
par
ityli
ke
Polyembryony,ParthenogenesisandPaedogenesi s

[Link]
ati
veaccountofi
nsectext
ernal
mor
phol
ogy
:
Head,
Ant
enna

HEAD

Theheadofani nsectiscomposedofaser iesofsegments,which

are special
ized f orfood gathering and manipulat
ion,sensory
percepti
on,and neur alint
egrati
on. The head bear st he eyes
(compound ey es and ocelli
),ant ennae,and mout hpar
[Link]
anteri
orpartoft heheadi [Link] er
iorar
eabelowt he
dorsum ofthehead,bet weenandbehi nd t
heey esi
st hevert
ex.
Thear eabelowt hecompoundey e,ont hesideofthehead,i
st he
[Link] i
plikescleri
teistheclypeus.

7
 Based on t
he i
ncl
inat
ion oflong axis ofthe head and
or
ient
ati
onofmouthpart
stherearet
hreetypesofinsect
sheads.
[Link]:(Hy po-below;gnat hous-j
aw)
Thistypei scalledor thopteroi
dt [Link]
soft he
headi svert
ical,i
tisatr i
ghtangl estothel ongaxi
softhebody.
Mout h par
tsar ev entrall
ypl aced and pr oj
ectdownwards.E.
g.
grasshopper,cockroach.
[Link]
ognathous:(Pro-i
nfr
ont; ganthous-j
aw)
Thistypeisal socalledcoleopt er
[Link]
sof
[Link]
newi tht hel
ongaxisofthebody
.
[Link]
e.
[Link]
sthognathuos:(
Opist
ho-benind;gnat
huos-j
aw)
Thisi sal
socall
edhemi pter
oidtypeoropisthorhy
[Link]
deflexed.
Mouthpartsaredir
ectedbackwardsandhel di
nbet weenthefor
elegs.e.
[Link]
ink
bug.
Str
uctureofinsectant enna:Ant
ennaear ealsocalledfeel
[Link]
arepaired,highlymobi leandsegment [Link] elocated
betweenorbehi ndt hecompoundey [Link]
nsectsexceptpr ot
ura
haveapai rofant [Link] ewel ldevelopedinadults
andpoor l
ydev elopedinimmat [Link] ennaissetina
socketoft hecr anium [Link] he
antennaisconnect edt otheedgeoft hesocketbyanar t
iculat
ory
membr [Link] sper mit
sf r
eemov ementofant [Link]
segmenti s

8
 calledscape.I tisconspi cuousl ylargert hansucceedi ng
segment [Link] ennalsegmenti scal ledpedi cl
ewhci h
i
mmedi atelyf ollow [Link] lscalled
Johnst on'sor gani spresenti nthepedi cel,whi chi susedasa
chor datonalor gani nsomeoft heinsect slikemosqui [Link]
scapeandpedi celar epr ovidedwi thintrinsicmuscl [Link]
remai ningannul iorf l
agel l
omer esareknownasf lagellum or
clavolawhi chl acki ndivi
dualmuscl [Link] faceoft hef lagel l
um is
suppl i
edwi thmanysensor yr eceptorsthatar einnervat edbyt he
duet ocerebr um ofbr [Link] mayv eryi nsizeandf orm.
Funct i
on:Ant ennai susef ult o detectchemi calsi ncluding
food and pher omones( chemi cals secr et
ed int o air
by opposi t
esex) .It per ceiv
es smel l,
humi dit
y
changes,v ariationi nt emper atur
e,v ibration,wi nd v elocityand
directi
[Link] ennai susef ult operceivethef orwar denv ir
onment
anddet ectdanger .I
tisusef ulforhear i
ngi nmosqui toesand
communi cationi nant [Link] elyitisalsousef ultocl aspt he
mat e( [Link])andgr aspt hepr ey.

Ant
ennaevarygr
eatl
yamongi nsect
s,butallfoll
owabasi cplan:segment
s1and
2ar etermedthescapeandpedi cel
,respectiv
ely
.The
remaini
ngantennalsegments(f
lagell
omer es)ar
ejoint
lycal
led
thefl
agell
um.

Antennaefuncti
onalmostexclusi
vel
yinsensorypercept
[Link]
oft he i
nformati
on thatcan be det ect
ed by i
nsectant ennae
i
ncludes:mot i
on and ori
ent
ation,odor,sound,humidit
y,and a
var
ietyofchemi [Link] hemostcommont ypesof
i
nsectantennaewi t
hwhi chyoushouldbef amil
iarareil
lustr
ated
bel
ow:

9
 (
e.g.
,Odonat
a) (
e.g.
,Col
eopt
era)

(
e.g.
,Lepi
dopt
era) (
e.g.
,Di
pter
a)

Ty
pesofant
ennae:

[Link]
aceous:(
Bri
stl
eli
ke)Si
zeoft
hesegment
sdecr
eases
f
rom baset
oapex.e.
[Link]
hopper
,Dr
agonf
ly,
Damsel
fl
y.
[Link]
li
for
m:(
Thr
eadl
ike)Segment
sar
eusual
lycy
li
ndr
ical
.
Thicknessofsegment
sremai
nssamet
hroughout
.e.
g.
Grasshopper
.
[Link]
li
for
m:(
Beaded)Segment
sar
eei
thergl
obul
aror
spher
icalwi
thpr
omi
nentconst
ri
cti
oni
nbet
weene.
[Link]
mit
e.
[Link]
rat
e:(
Saw l
ike)Segment
shav
eshor
ttr
iangul
arpr
oject
ions
ononesi
de.e.
[Link]
cor
nbet
tl
e
[Link]
pect
inat
e:(
Combl
ike)Segment
swi
thl
ongsl
ender
pr
ocessesononesi
dee.
[Link]
ly
[Link]
pect
inat
e:(
Doubl
ecombl
ike)Segment
swi
thl
ongsl
ender
l
ater
alpr
ocessesonbot
hthesi
dese.
[Link]
lkwor
m mot
h
[Link]
avat
e:(
Clubbed)Ant
ennaenl
argesgr
adual
lyt
owar
dst
het
ip.e.
[Link]
ist
er
beet
le
Capi
8. tat
e:(
Knobbed)Ter
minalsegment
sbecomeenl
argedsuddenl
ye.
g.
but
ter
fl
y
[Link]
lat
e:(
Plat
eli
ke)Ant
ennalt
ipi
sexpandedl
ater
all
yon
onesi
det
ofor
mfl
atpl
atese.
g.l
amel
li
cor
nbeet
le
[Link]
ist
ate:Thet
ermi
nalsegmenti
senl
arged.I
tbear
sa
conspi
cuousdor
salbr
ist
lecal
ledar
ist
ae.
[Link]
ly
[Link]
ylat
e:Ter
minalsegmentbearast
ylel
ikepr
[Link]
sef
ly,
Robberf
ly.
[Link]
umose:(
Feat
her
y)Segment
swi
thl
ongwhor
lsofhai
rse.
g.
mal
[Link]
lose:(
Hairy)Ant
ennai sl
essf
eat
her
ywi
th
f
ew hai
rsatt
hejunct
ionofflagell
omeres.

10
e.
[Link]
emosqui
to.
Geni
14. cul
ate:(
Elbowed)Scapei
slongr
emai
ningsegment
sar
e
smal
landarearr
angedatanangletot hefi
rstr
esembl
ingan
el
bow j
oint
.[Link],weev
ilandhoneybee.

11
LECTURE4.I
nsectmout
hpar
tandt
ypesofmout
hpar
ts

MOUTHPARTS

Just as insectstake on many differ

ent forms,they al
so
possessav ari
etyofdiff
erentmoutht
ypes,eachofwhichcanbe
groupedunderoneoftwomai ncat
egori
es:chewing(mandi
bul
ate)
andsucking(haust
ell
ate)
.

Mandi
bul
ate mout
hpar
ts,l
ike t
he ones i
ll
ust
rat
ed bel
ow,ar
e
bel
iev
ed t o be the mostpr i
mit
[Link]
s,i ncl
udi
ng those
cat
egorized as haustel
late,are presumed to have ev
olv
ed as
modifi
cationsofthi
sbasi ctype.

Thef
ivepr
imar
ypar
tsoft
hei
nsect"
mout
h"ar
e:

1)Thecl
ypeus
2)The"
upperl
ip"
,orl
abr
um
3)Two"
jaw-
li
kest
ruct
ures"
,ormandi
bles
4)Themaxi
ll
ae(
[Link]
l
la)
5)The"
lowerl
ip"
,orl
abi
um

Themaxi ll
aeandl
abi
um ar
edivi
dedint
ov ar
ioussubst
ruct
ures,
whichincludet
hegal
ea,
paragl
ossa,
glossa,andthemaxil
lar
yand
l
abialpalps.

12
13
Haust
ell
atemout
hpar
tsar
epr
imar
il
yusedf
or"
sucki
ngup"l
iqui
ds,
and
canbebr okendowni ntotwosubgroups:thoset hatpossessst yl
ets
andt hosethatdonot .Styl
etsareneedle-l
ike project
ions used to
penetrat
eplantandani malti
[Link] nsectswit
hst yl
ets
i
ncludeHemi pt
era(
truebugs),Di
pter
a(fl
ies),
andSi phonaptera(fl
eas).

Somehaust ell
atemout hpart
sl ackst yl
[Link] i
ssues,
thesei nsectsmustr elyoneasi l
yaccessi bl
ef oodsourcessuchas
nectar at t he base of a f l
ower . One example of nonst y l
ate
mout hpartsi sthe l ong si phoning proboscis of butt
erfl
ies and
mot hs( OrderLepi
dopt era).Althought hemet hodofliqui
dt ransport
diff
er sfrom thatoft hebut t
erfl
y's pr
oboscis,therasping-
sucki ng
rostrum ofsomef li
esi salsoconsi deredtobehaust ell
atewi thout
styl
et s.

14
 ADAPTATI
ONSOFTHEMOUTHPARTS

InsectMouthparts:Toplef
t,chewi
ng,t
opr
ight,
sponging;center
,pierci
ng-
sucki
ng;
bott
om,
siphoni
ng.
([Link]
er,Cornel
l)

Ty
pesofi
nsectmout
hpar
ts

Mout hpart
s ofi nsectsv aryt o a greatext end among i nsects of
di
fferentgroupsdependi ngupont heirf eedinghabi t
[Link] emainl
y
oft wo typesv iz.,Mandi bulat
e( f
eedi ng mai nlyon sol i
df ood)and
haustell
ate(feedingmai nlyonliqui
dfood) .
Bit
ing and chewi ng ty
pe:e. [Link] oach & gr asshopper.I tisthe
pri
mi ti
vetypeofmout hpar tandconsistsoft hef oll
owingpar ts.
Labrum :(Upperl ip)Itisflapli
ke,bi
lobedandat tachedt otheclypeus
byanar t
icul
armembr ane.I ti
smov abl [Link] erst hemout hcavit
y
fr
om abov [Link] lthefoodintot hemout [Link]
dst hefoodin
positi
onsot hatmandi blescanactoni [Link] her oofoft hepre

15
oralf oodcav ity.
Labr um- epiphar ynx:I nnersur face oft he labr um i sr eferred to as
epiphar ynx.I ti sf requent lymembr anous and cont i
nuous wi t
ht he
dorsal wal lofphar ny [Link] ganoft aste.
Mandi bles:
 Ther ei sapai rofmandi bles.
 Theyar et hef irstpai rofj aws.
 Theyar eal socal ledaspr imar yj awsort ruej aws.
 Mandi blesar ticulat ewi ththecr anium att wopoi nts.
 Theyar eheav ilyscl er otised.
 Theyar et oothedont hei rinnerbor der .
 Ther ear et wot ypesoft eeth.
 Di stalar eshar pl ypoi nt edandar ecal l
edi ncisororcut tingt eet
hand
proximalt eet har ecal ledmol arorgr i
ndingt eet h.
 They actt ransv ersel yt o bi te and gr i
nd t he food i nto smal l
fragment s.
Maxi l
lae:
 Theyar epai redandmor ecompl icatedt hanmandi bl
es.
 Theyar ecal ledsecondar yjawsoraccessor yj aws.
 Atpr oxi malendt hef i
r stscler it
ecar dojoinst hemaxi l
latohead.
 Thesecondscl eritei scal ledst ipeswhi char ticulateswi thcardo.
 St ipescar riesal ateralscl er it
ecal ledpal pi ferwhichbear saf i
ve
segment edant ennal ikemaxi l
larypal p.
 Ont hedi stalendoft hest i
pes, ther ear etwol obes.
 Theout erl obei s cal ledgal eaandi nnerl obei sl aciniawhi chis
toothed.
 Maxi l
ledi r
ectt hef oodi ntot hemout h.
 Theyhol dt hef oodi npl acewhent hemandi blesar einact i
on.
 Theyactasauxi ll
ar yjawsandassi stinmast icati
onoff ood.
 Senseor gansconnect edwi tht heper cept ionoft ouch,smel land
tastear eabundant l
yf oundi npal pi
.
i
.Hy
pophar
ynx:
I
tisat
onguel
ikeor
gan.
I
tisl ocat
ed cent
ral
lyinthe pr
eor
alcav
ity
.Sal
i
var
y
glandductopenst
hroughi
t.
Labi
um /
lowerl
ip:
I
tisacomposit
estr
uct
ureformedbyt
hef
usi
onoft
wo
pri
mit
ivesegment
edappendages.
I
tboundst
hemout
hcav
ityf
rom bel
oworbehi
nd.

16
I
tformst hebaseoft hepr eoralcavit
y.I
tconsist
sof
three medi an scler
ies v
t iz., submentum ( l
arge
basalscl
eri
te), mentum ( middle scleri
te) and
prementum (api
calscl
erit
e).
Ont helateralsideoft heprement
um therearetwo
smalll
ateralscl er
it
escall
ed pal
pigerbear
ing t
hree
segmentedlabialpalpi
.
Di
stal
lypr
ement
um bear
stwopai
rsofl
obes.
Theot herpairofl
obesiscal
ledpar
agl
ossaeandinner
pai
rofl obes,gl
[Link]
h pair
s when f
used are
cal
ledligul
a.
2.
Pier
cingandsucki
ng/hemi
pter
ous/bugt
ypee.
[Link]
antbugs.

Labi um pr ojectsdownwar dsf rom t heant eri

orpar toft heheadl ikea
[Link] i sf oursegment ed and gr ooved t hroughouti t
s ent ire
l
engt [Link] hebaseoft helabium t hereisat riangularf laplikestructur e
call
edl [Link] um isnei theri nvolvedi npi ercingnorsucki ng.I t
funct ionsasapr otect i
vecov eringf orthef ourst yl
et s( f
ascicle)found
withi nt hegr [Link] hmandi blesandmaxi ll
aear emodi f
iedintol ong
slenderscl eroti
zedhai rli
kest ruct urecal l
edst yl
et [Link] el yi
ng
closet ogetherandsui t
edf orpi ercingandsucki [Link] ipsoft he
styletsmayhav emi nuteteethf orpi er
cingt hepl antt i
[Link] nner
maxi l
larysty l
etsaredoubl ygr oov edont heirinnerf [Link] hese
arecl oselyopposedt heyformt wocanal sviz.,foodcanalandsal ivary
canalt hrough sap and sal i
v a ar e conduct ed respect ively
.Sal iva
cont ainsenzy mesort oxinsthatcandi stortplantcel lwal ltopermi tt he
styletst openet ratedownandr eachphl oem f orsuki ngt [Link] h
palpsar eabsent .

3.
Pier
cing and sucki
ng /di
pter
ous/mosqui
tot
ype :e.
[Link]
e
mosquit
o

Mout hpart
soff emal emosqui t
oconsi stsofanelongat elabi
um whi ch
i
sgr oovedf or
mi ngagut terwhichencl osessixst
y l
[Link] y
letsare
composed ofl abrum -epi pharynx( enclosi
ng the food canal),the
hyphophrynx( containingthesal i
varycanal )
,two maxi l
laeand t wo
mandi bl
[Link] htheendsofmaxi ll
arystylet
sandmandi bularstyl
ets
aresaw l i
keandsui [Link] yl
etsar einsertedinto
host'
sski nbyast rongdownwar dandf orwardthrustofbody .Both
mandi bl
esandmaxi l
laearer educedi nmal eandt heyfeedonpl ant

17
nectarand jui
ces ofdecayi
ng f
rui
[Link]
e pier
ces t
he ski
n of
human bei ngs into which it inj
ects sal
iv
a containi
ng an
anti
coagul
ant(tokeep

Thebloodflowi
ngwithoutclot
ti
ng)andananest het
ic( t
okeept he
vi
cti
m unawareoft
hebite)andsucksupt [Link] doesnot
pi
ercebutf
oldsuporbackasstyl
etspi
[Link]
lar
ypalpiarepresent.
4.
Chewi
ngandl
appi
ngt
ype:e.
[Link].

Labrum andmandi blesar easi nbi t

ingandchewi ngtypeofmout h
[Link] bl
esar ebluntandnott [Link] eusef ult o
crushandshapewaxf orcombbui lding;ingestpollengrai
nsandot her
mani pul
ati
vef uncti
[Link] l
lol
abialstructuresar emodi f
iedtof orm
[Link] ongueuni tconsistsoftwogal eaofmaxi l
lae,
twol abi
alpal piandel ongatedf l
exiblehai r
ygl ossaofl [Link]
glossa ter
mi nates i
nto a smal lci r
cularspoon shaped l obe called
spoonorbout onorflabell
um whi chisusef ult
ol i
ckt henect
ar.
[Link]
ngandsucki ng:[Link]
ps
Mout hconeconsi stsoflabrum,labi
um [Link]
ee
styl
etsderivedf r
om twomaxi l
[Link]
e
i
s absent .Stylets ar
e usefult olacer
atetheplantt i
ssueandt he
oozingsapi ssuckedupbyt [Link] l
larypal
piand
l
abialpalpiarepresent.
[Link]
altype:[Link]
ubofantl
ion

Mandi bl
es are el
ongate si
ckl
e shaped and gr
ooved on the i
nner
[Link] ll
aiselongat
edandf itsagai
nstthemandi bul
ar
groovet ofr
om acl osedfoodcanal
.Thebodyoft heinsectvi
cti
mi s
pier
cedbyt heopposingmandibl
esandflui
dsareextr
acted.
[Link]:e.
[Link] ly
Thepr oboscisisfl
eshy,elbowed,r etracti
leandpr oj
ectsdownwar ds
from [Link] fferentiatedi ntobasalrostrum and
distalhaust
ell
[Link] pr oboscisconsi st
sofl abium whichi sgrooved
oni tsanter
iorsurf
[Link] thi
nt hi
sgr oov eliet hel abrum- epi
phraynx
(enclosi
ngt hefoodcanal )andsl enderhy pophar ynx(cont ai
ningthe
sali
v ar
ycanal).Mandiblesar eabsent .Maxi ll
aear erepresented by
singlesegmentedmaxill
arypal pi
.Theendoft hepr obosci
si senlarged,
spongel i
keandtwol obedwhi chactsassuct ionpads.

Theyar
e cal
led or
aldi
scs orl
abel
[Link] sur
faces ofl
abel
la ar
e

18
tr
ansv eredbycapi
llarycanalscal
ledpseudot
racheaewhi chcoll
ectt
he
l
iquidf oodandconv eyi
ttot [Link]
af unct
ionassponging
organsandar ecapabl eoftaki
ngexposedf l
[Link] nsect
soft
en
spitenzy mecont
ainingsali
vaontosoli
dfoodst oli
quif
ythem.

[Link] y
pe:e. [Link] hsandbut terf
li
es
Mout h partsconsi stsofel ongatesucki ng tubeorpr [Link]
formedbyt wogr eatl
yel ongatedgaleaeofmaxi ll
aewhichar ezippered
togetherbyi nter
lockingspi [Link] eaearegr oovedont hei
r
i
nnersur f
aceandwhent heyarefitt
ingt ogethercloselytheyf or
ma
suctorialfood canalt hrough which the nect aris sucked [Link]
proboscisi scoiledupl ikewat chspr i
ngandkeptbeneat ht hehead
wheni tisnoti [Link] ngofbloodi ntogaleae,theproboscisis
[Link] hermout hpar t
sarer educed or absent except
the l abi
al pal pi and smal l
er maxi ll
ary pal pi

LECTURE5.I
nsectthor
ax:segmentat
ionoft
hor
[Link]
st
ructur
eanditsmodif
icat
ions

THORAX
Theinsectthoraxisdivi
dedi nt
ot hreepar t
s:theprothorax( pr
o=fir
st)
,
mesothorax (meso=mi ddle)
, and met at
horax ( meta=last)
. Each
segmentconsi st
sofhar dened plates,orscleri
[Link] salscleri
tes
arecall
ednot a([Link]),lat
eralsclerit
esarecal l
edpl eura(si
ng.
pleur
on),andventr
alscler
itesarecalledsterna(si
[Link]) .

Eachoft
hethreet
hor
aci
csegmentscont
[Link]
ngs
aref
oundonl
yonthemeso-andmetat
hor
acicsegments.

19
LEGS
The fore-l
egs ar el ocated on the pr othorax,t he mi d-l
egs on the
mesothorax,andt hehi ndl egsont hemet at hor
[Link] eghassi x
majorcomponent s,l ist
ed her efrom pr oximalt o distal
:coxa (p1.
coxae),t
rochanter,femur( [Link] a),
ti
bia([Link]
biae)
,tarsus([Link]
),
pret
arsus.
Thefemurandt ibi
amaybemodi f
iedwi t
hspi [Link] arsusappears
tobedividedint
oonet ofiv
e" pseudosegment s"call
edt arsomeres.

Str uctur
e:
Inal mostal li nsect sallt het hreet horacicsegment sv i
z.,pro- ,meso-
andmet at hor axbearapai rofsegment edl [Link] egconsi st
sof
fi
v esegment sv iz., coxa, trochant er, femur ,ti
biaandt arsus.
Coxa:( Pl .coxae)I tist hef ir
storpr oximall egsegment .Itar t
icul
ates
wi tht hecupl ikedepr essi onont het hor aci cpl euron.I ti sgener all
y
freel ymov abl e.
Trochant er:I ti st hesecondl egsegment .Iti susual lysmal landsi ngle
segment [Link] ochant erseems t o be t wo segment ed i n dragonf l
y,
damesel fyandi chneumoni [Link] entsecondt rochanteris
i
nf actapar toff emur ,whi chi scal ledt rochant ellus.
Femur :(Pl .femor a)I tist hel argestandst out estpar toft hel egandi s
closel yat t
achedt ot het rochant er.
Tibi a:(Pl .t ibi ae)I ti s usual l
yl ong and pr ovided wi th downwar d
proj ecti
ngspi neswhi chai di ncl imbi ngandf oot [Link] biaofmany
i
nsect sisar medwi thlargemov ablespurneart heapex.
Tar sus:( Pl .t ar si)I tisf ur thersub- divi
[Link] he
tarsusi scal ledt ar somer [Link] arsomer esv ar yfrom onet o
fi
v [Link] ar salsegmenti sof tenl argert hanot hersandi snamed
asbasi t
ar sus.
Pr etarsus:Bey oundt het arsust her ear esev eralst r
uctur ecol lect
ivel
y
knownaspr et ar [Link] sust ermi nat esi napai rofst ronglycur ved
clawswi t honeort wopadsofcushi onsatt heirbasebet weent hem.A
medi anpadbet weent hecl awsi susual l
yknownasar ol
ium andapai r
ofpads,att hei rbasear ecal ledpul vi
ll
i(Pul vill
us- singular).Legpads
areusef ulwhi lewal ki
ngonsmoot hsur faceandcl awsgi veneededgr i
p
whi l
ewal ki ngonr oughsur [Link] r
uct urei sused,t heother
i
sbentupwar ds.

20
 LEGTYPESANDFUNCTI
ON

Cursorial:Usedf orwalki
ng/
[Link] extbooks Raptorial:For
elegsmodif
ied
dist
inguisht hetwobycal l
ing [Link]
ten
walkinglegsambul at
oryor associatedwithPrey
ing
gressorial
, butt
helegst r
uctur
eis Mantids.
basicall
yt hesame.

21
Fossori
al:Forel
egsandt
ibi
aespeci
ali
zed
fordi
gging;commoninground-
dwel
li
ng
i
nsects.
Salt
atori
al:Hi
ndl
egsadapt
edf
orj
umping;
charact
eri
zedbyanel
ongat
edf
emurandti
bia.

22
 Nat
atori
al:f
oreorhindlegsadaptedfor
swi
mmi ng;char
achter
izedbyelongat
ed
set
aeont ar
si
PRONOTUM

I
sthedorsalscler
it
eoftheprothor
ax,whi
chcanbehighl
y
modif
iedinvar
iousgroupssuchastheHomopt
era,
Blat
tar
ia,
and
Col
eopter
a.

Ty
pesofl
egs

Insect
saresixleggedarthr
opodsandhencetheclassi
s
al
socal l
[Link]
egsper
for
mv ar
iedf
uncti
ons
andaremodif
iedaccordi
ngly.

[Link]
ggi
ng or Fossor ial type: The f or
elegs ar e gr eatl
y
expanded,t i
biai s digi
tatewiththree segment ed t arsus
[Link] l egs ar e used f
ordi gging soil
.[Link] e
cri
cket
[Link] tatori
alt y
pe:Thehi ndlegsar emodi f
iedf or
l
eapingorj [Link] sgreat
lyenl arged,ti
biaisv ery
l
onge. [Link]
asshopper

23
[Link]
kingorr
unni
ngt
ype:Al
lthr
eepai
rsofl
egsar
eequali
n
sizeandcompar at i
v [Link] ochant eri st wosegment ed.
[Link] oach
[Link] aspi ngorRapt or ialty pe:Thef or elegsar emodi fiedf or
cat chi ngpr ey .The coxaear eel ongat eandmov eable,t he
femor aar espi nyand gr oov ed al ong t he l owersi de,t he
ti
bi aear eal sospi nyandf itint othegr oov eal ongt hef emur .
Thepr eyi shel dbet weent hef emurandt [Link] susi sf iv e
segment ed.E. [Link] ey i
ngmant i
ds.
[Link] mmi ng orNat atorialt ype:Usual lyt he hi nd l egs ar e
modi fiedf orswi mmi [Link] ndcoxaear ef l
atandf i
xedt ot he
body .Numer ousl ongst iffhai r
sar epr esentont hel ater al
aspect soft het ibiaandt ar sus.E. [Link] v
ingbeet les.
[Link] llen car ry ing t y pe: The hi nd l egs ofhoney bees ar e
modi fiedf orcar r
y ing pol [Link] hej unct i
onoft i
biaand
basi tar sus,acav ityguar dedbyhai rsi spr esentwhi chi s
used f orcar rying pol len. Thi s st ruct urei s al so cal led
car bicul um.E. [Link] kerhoney bee.
[Link] tennacl eaner :t hef orel egsofhoneybeesar emodi fied
forcl eani ng ant [Link] irstsegmentoft ar sushasa
not ch,whi chcanbecl osedbyt hef l
att ibialspur .Thenot ch
hasani nnerl iningoff i
nehai r [Link] ennai spl acedi nt he
not ch,cl osedbyt hespurandt hendr awnoutt ocl ean.E. g.
Wor kerhoney bees
[Link]
ngi ng t y pe: The l egs ar e st rong and adapt ed f or
mai ntainingast rongandf irm hol dont hehost .Tar siar e
singl esegment edandt ermi natei nasi ngl esi ckle shaped
claw whi ch wor ks agai nsta t ibialpr ocess.E. [Link]
l
ouseandbodyl ouse.
[Link] ngt ype:Thet er
mi nalsegmentoft hel eg,pr etar sus,
bear st wo cl aws and beneat ht he cl aws ar et wo l obes
ccal ledpul v ulii
.Bet weent hepul v uli
ii sanel ongat espi ne
cal l
edempodi [Link] um andpul vuliihel pt hei nsect
tocl imbsmoot hsur faces.E. [Link] l
y.

24
LECTURE6.I
nsectwi
ng:st
ruct
ureandi
tsmodi
fi
cat
ions

WI
NGS

I
nsect
shaveevolv
edmanyv ar
iat
[Link]
v
enati
onisacommonl yusedtaxonomicchar
acter
,especi
all
yat
t
hefamil
yandspeciesl
evel
.

Membranouswingsaret
hinandmoreorlesst
ranspar
[Link]
s
t
ypeofwingsisfoundamongtheOdonat
aandNeuropt
era.

Halt
eresareanext r
ememodi f
icat
ionamongt heor
derDi
pter
a
(t
ruefl
ies)
,inwhichthehindwi
ngsar ereducedt
omerenubs
usedforbalanceanddi
recti
onduri
ngf l
ight
.

HALTERE

25
Elytr
a( si
[Link]
ytr
on)ar
et hehardened,heavi
lyscl
erot
ized
forewingsofbeetl
es(OrderCol
eoptera)andaremodif
iedto
protectthehi
ndwingswhenatrest.

ELYTRA

Av ar
iati
on oft he el
ytraist he hemelyt
[Link] for ewings of
Hemi pter
ans ar e saidt o be hemel yt
rous because t hey are
hardened throughoutt he proxi
malt wo-t
hir
ds (approximat el
y),
whilethedist alporti
oni smembr [Link]
keelytra,hemel yt
ra
functi
onpr i
mar il
yasf l
[Link],t
hemembr anous
hind wings (when pr esent)are used infli
ghtand ar ef olded
beneaththef orewingswhenatr est.

HEMELYTRA

Membrano
ushi
nd

The wi
ngs ofbut
terf
li
es and moths ar
e cov
ered wi
th scal
es,
andmosqui
toespossessscal
esalongwingvei
ns.

26
NEOPTEROUSVSPALEOPTEROUSWI
NGCONDI
TIONS

In mostl ivi
ng i nsect s( the Neopt era),there arethree axil
lary
scleri
test hatar ticulatewi thv ar
ious par ts ofthe [Link] he
Neopt era,amuscl eont het hir
daxi l
larycausesi ttopivotabout
thepost eriornot alwi ngpr ocessandt herebyt ofoldt
hewi ngov er
thebackoft hei nsect .( Insomegr oupsofNeopt era,suchas
butterfl
ies,theabi l
itytof oldt hewi ngsov erthebackhasbeen
l
ost .
) Two Or ders ofwi nged insects,t he Ephemeroptera and
Odonat a,hav enotev olvedt hiswing-fl
exingmechani sm,andt heir
axil
laryscl eri
tesar ear rangedi napat t
erndi f
fer
entfrom thatof
theNeopt era;theset woor ders(togetherwi thanumberofext i
nct
orders)f ormt hePal eopt era.

Pal
eopt
erous

Ty
pesofi
nsectwi
ngs
Amonginver
tebr
ateani
mal
s,onl
yinsect
sposseswi
[Link]
ar
epresentonl
yinadul
tst
[Link]
ngsvar
yfrom two
27
pair
st [Link] t
ainprimiti
veinsect
sl i
kesi l
verfishandspr i
ng
tai
lhav e no wings (apter
ous).Ectoparasi
tes like head l ouse,
poultr
yl ouse and f l
ea are secondari
ly [Link] ngs are
deciduousinantsandt er
[Link] rofwingsin
thetruefli
[Link],t
wopai r
sofwi ngsar epr esentininsects
andt heyarebor neonpt erot
horaci
csegment sv iz.,mesothorax
and met at
[Link] ngs are moved by thoacicf l
ightmuscl es
att
achedt othei
rbases.
Wi ngi saf latteneddoubl e-l ay eredexpansi onofbodywal lwitha
dor salandv ent rall ami na hav ing the same st ructure as the
i
nt egument .Bot hdor salandv entral
l
ami nanegr ow,meetandf useexceptal ongcer [Link]
ser i
es ofchannel si sf or
[Link] channel s ser vef orthe
passageoft r acheae,ner v
esand bl [Link] ng isnour i
shed by
bloodci rculatingt hroughv [Link] erthewal lsoft hesechannel s
becomet hickenedt of ormv einsorner [Link] r
angementof
veinsont hewi ngsi scal ledv enat i
onwhi chi sext ensivel
yusedi n
i
nsectcl assi f
icat i
[Link] inci pallongitudi
nalv einsar rangedin
orderf r
om t heant er iormar gin ar ecost a( C) ,sub cost a( Sc),
radius( R) ,medi an( M) ,cubi t
us( Cu)and analv eins( A).Smal l
veins of ten f ound i nterconnect ingt he longitudi nalv ei
ns are
called cross v ei
[Link] t ot he pr esence ofl ongi t
udinalv ei
ns
andcr ossv eins,t hewi ngsur f aceget sdividedi ntoanumberof
encl osed spaces t er med cel ls.I ni nsectsl i
ke dr agonf l
y and
damesef ly,ther ei sanopaquespotneart hecoast almar ginofthe
wingcal ledpt er otigma.
Mar gi
nsand angl es:Thewi ng istri
angul
ari n shapeand has
thereforet hr
ee si des and t hree angl
[Link] ant eriormar gin
strengthenedbyt hecostaiscal l
edcoastalmarginand t hel
ateral
mar giniscalledapi calmar ginandt hepost
eriormar giniscall
ed
analmar [Link] ebywhi chthewingisatt
achedt othet
hor ax
i
scal ledhumer [Link] ebetweenthecoast alandapical
mar ginsiscalledapi [Link] calandanal
mar gi
nsi sanal angle.
Wingr egi
ons:Theant eri
orareaoft hewingsuppor tedbyv einsis
usuall
ycal l
ed [Link] f lexibl
e posteri
orar ea i
st ermed
[Link] t wo r egi
ons are separ at
ed by v annalf [Link]
proxi
malpar tofv annusiscal l
edj ugum,whenwel ldevelopedi s
separatedbyaj ugalfol
[Link] eacont ai
ningwi ngarticulati
on
scler
it
es,pteral
iaiscall
edaxil
la.
Wi
ngt
ypes:
28
[Link]
na:(
Singul
ar:Tegmen)Wi
ngsar
eleat
her
yorpar
chment
l
[Link]
eprotect
iveinfunct
[Link]
orf
li
ght
.
[Link]
ewi
ngsofcockroachandgrasshopper
.
[Link]
ytr
a:(
Sigul
ar:El
ytr
on)Thewi
ngi
sheav
il
yscl
erot
[Link]
ng
venat ioni [Link] ngi stoughandi tisprotect
iveinfuncti
[Link]
prot ectshindwi ngsandabdomen.I tisnotuseddur i
ngfli
[Link]
dur ingf l
ighttheyar ekeptatanangl eall
owingfreemov ementof
hindwi [Link] ngsofbeet l
esandweev il
s.
[Link] ytra:(Singular:Hemel yt
ron)Thebasalhalfofthewi ngis
thickandl eatheryanddi stalhalfismembr [Link] enot
invol vedinf li
ghtandar eprotect
iveinfuncti
[Link]
het eropteranbugs.
[Link]
ter
es:(
Singul
ar:Hal
ter
e)I
ntr
uef
li
est
hehi
ndwi
ngsar
e
modi fi
edintosmallknobbedv i
brat
ingor
ganscal [Link]
haltereisaslenderrodcl ubbedatt hefr
eeend( capit
ellum)and
enlarged atthebase( scabell
um).Ont hebasalpar ttwol arge
group ofsensorybodi esf ormingthesmallerhick'
spapi ll
aeand
thel ar
gesetofscapelpl [Link] ancingorgansand
prov i
detheneededstabi l
ityduri
ngfli
ght
.[Link]
uef li
es,mosqui to,
mal escalei
nsect.
Fr
5. i
ngedwi
ngs:Wi
ngsar
eusual
lyr
educedi
nsi
[Link]
ngmar
gins
arefri
ngedwi [Link] slit
erall
yswimt hr
ough
theair
.[Link]
ps.
[Link]
ywi ngs:Wi ngsofbut t
erf
lyandmot hsar ecov eredwi th
[Link]
ularflat
tenedout gr
owt h
ofbodywal [Link]
esar eincli
nedtothewi ngsur faceandov erl
ap
eachot hertoform acompl et
[Link] eresponsible
[Link] ei mportantinsmoot hing theairf l
ow ov er
wingsandbody .
[Link]
anous wings:They aret hin,transparentwi ngs and
suppor t
edbyasy stem oft
[Link] nsectseither
for
ewi ngs(tr
uef l
ies)orhind wings( gr
asshopper ,cockroach,
beetlesandear wi
g)orbot hf or
ewi ngsandhi ndwi ngs(wasp,
bees,dragonfl
yanddamsel f
ly)aremembr [Link] euseful
i
nf l
ight.
Wingcoupling:Amongt heinsectswithtwopai rsofwi ngs,the
wingsmaywor kseparatel
yasint hedragonfli
esanddamsel fl
ies.
Butinhigherpter
ygoteinsect
s,foreandhi ndwingsar ecoupled
toget
herasauni t
,sot hatbothpairsmov esynchronously
.By
coupl
ingthewingstheinsect
sbecomef unctional
lyt
wowi nged.

29
Ty
pesofwi
ngcoupl
i
ng
[Link]
ate:A r
ow ofsmallhooksispresentont hecoastal
margin oft
he hi
nd wi
ng which i
s known as [Link]
engagethefol
dedpost
eri
oredgeofforewing.e.
[Link].
Ampl
2. exi
for
m :I
tist
hesi
mpl
estf
orm ofwi
ngcoupl
[Link]
inki
ng
str
[Link]
ingisachi
evedbybr
oadov
erl
appi
ngof
adjacentmargi
[Link]
ter
fl
ies.
Fr
3. enat
e:Ther
ear
etwosubt
ypes.e.
[Link]
uitsucki
ngmot
h.
.Ma
i l
efr
enat
e:Hi
ndwi
ngbear
sneart
hebaseoft
hecoast
al
margi
nast outbri
stl
ecalledfrenul
um whichisnor
mall
yheld
byacurvedprocess,ret
inaculum ari
singfr
om t
hesubcost
al
vei
nfoundont hesurf
aceoft heforewing.
.F
i
i emal
efr
enat
e :Hi
ndwi
ng bear
s neart
he base oft
he
costalmargi
nagr oupofst
outbrist
le(f
renul
um)whi chli
es
beneath extended for
ewi
ng and engages t herei n a
ret
inacul
um formedbyapatchofhair
snearcubi
tus.
Jugat
4. e:Jugam oft
hef
orewi
ngsar
elobel
ikeandi
tisl
ockedt
o
t
hecoast
almar
ginoft
hehi
ndwi
ngs.e.
[Link]
ali
dmot
hs.

LECTURE7.I
nsectabdomen:st
ruct
ureandi
tsmodi
fi
cat
ions

ABDOMEN

Thedor salandv ent

ralabdomi nalsegment saretermedt erga(si
ngul
art
ergum)
andsterna
(si
ngularsternum),respect i
vel
[Link]
lycanbef oundin
theconjunctiveti
ssuebet weent het er
gaandst ernaofabdomi nal
segment s1- [Link] ivestructur
esar elocated ont he9th
segmenti nmal es(includingtheaedeagus,orpeni s,andoftena
t
h
pairofclaspers)andont he8thand9 abdomi nalsegment si
n
females (female ext ernalgeni tal
ia copul
atory openings and
ovi
positor).

30
MODI
FICATI
ONSOFTHEOVI
POSI
TOR

SEXUALDI
MORPHI
SM

CERCI

OVI
POSI
TO

R
31
 Femal
e( not
ethel
ongovi
posi
tor Mal
e(twocer
ciat
theendofBet
weenthecer
ci) t
heabdomen)

Abdomi
nalst
ruct
uresi
ninsect
s

Basi
cst
ruct
ures
Segment ationismor eev i
[Link] cnumberof
abdomi nalsegment sininsecti
selev enplusat elsonwhi chbear s
[Link] nalsegment sare call
edur omer [Link] ghthand
nineth segmentoff emale and nineth segmentofmal e,the
appendagesar emodi fi
edasext ernalorgansofr eproductionor
genitali
[Link] segment s are known as geni talsegment s.
Usual l
y eightpai rs ofsmal llateralopeni ngs ( spir
acles)are
presentont hefirsteightabdominalsegment [Link] asshoppers,
apai roftympanum i s
foundoneonei thersideoft hefi
rstabdomi nalsegment .Itisan
auditory organ.I ti s obli
quel
y placed and connect ed tot he
met athoracicgangli
at hroughaudit
orynerv e.
Modi
fi
cat
ions:
Reductioni nnumberofabdomi nalsegment shast akenplacei n
manyi [Link] ingt ailonlysi xsegment sarepr esent
.I n
housef lyonlysegment s2t o5arev i
sibl
eandsegment s6t o9ar e
tel
escoped wi thin others.I n ants,bees and wasps,t he fi
rst
abdomi nalsegmenti sf usedwi tht hemet athor
axandi scall
ed
[Link] tenthesecondsegmentf or
msanar row peti
ole.
Ther estoft heabdomeni scalledgast [Link] ermiteafter
mat i
ng t he abdomen becomes gr adually swoll
en due t othe
enlar
gementofov [Link] oatedandasa
resul
tscl eri
tesareev entuallyi
solatedassmal li
[Link]
ofabdomenofqueent ermiteiscalledphy sogastr
y.
Abdomi
nalappendages

[Link]
egeni
talabdomi
nalappendagesi
nwi
ngl
essi
nsect
s:
1)Styl
i:( St
ylus:Singul
ar)Varyingnumberofpai
redt ubeli
ke
out
growthsar efound on the v
entralsi
de oft
he abdomen of
si
lv
erfi
[Link] arer educed abdominall
egs which helpin
l
ocomotion.
2)
.Col
lophor
eorv
ent
ralt
ubeorgl
uepeg:I
tisl
ocat
edont
he
ventr
alsideofthefi
rstabdominalsegmentofspr i
ngt ai
l.I
ti s
cyl
indri
cal
.Iti
s prot
ruded outbyt he hy
drost
ati
c pressure of

32
haemol
[Link] ghtserv
easanorganofadhesi
on.I
tai
dsin
waterabsor
pti
on f
rom the subst
rat
um and
al
so i
n respir
ati
on.

.Re
3) t
inacul
um ort
enacul
um orcat
ch:I
tispr
esentont
hev
ent
ral
si
deoft hethi
rd abdomi
nalsegment
.Iti
susef
ult
o hol
dthe
spr
ingi
ngor
ganwhennotinuse.
.F
4) ur
cul
aorFur
ca:Thi
sisa'
Y'shapedor
gan.I
tispr
esentont
he
venteroffourt
habdominalsegment
.Whenitisr
eleasedf
rom the
catch,itexer
tsaforceagainstt
hesubst
rat
um andt hei
nsectis
propell
edintheai
r.
)Ab
i
i domi
nalappendagesi
nimmat
urei
nsect
s:
1)Tr
achealgi
ll
s:Gi
ll
sar
elat
eralout
growt
hsofbodywal
lwhi
ch
arer i
chlysuppli
edwi tht r
acheaet oobtainoxygenfrom wat erin
naiads( aquati
ci mmatur e stagesofhemi met
abolousi nsects).
Sev enpairsoff il
ament ousgi ll
sar epr esenti
nt hef i
rstsev en
abdomi nalsegment sofnai adsofmayf l
y andar
ecal l
edasl ateral
gil
[Link] eafl
ikegi ll
s(lamell
ate)arefoundattheendof
adbomenofnai adofdamsel f
lyandar ecal l
edascaudalgi ll
[Link]
dragonflythegil
lsareretainedwi thi
ntheabdomeni napouchl i
ke
rectum andarecalledasr ectalgi
lls.
2)Analpapi
ll
ae:A gr
oupoff
ourpapi
ll
aesur
roundst
heanusi
n
mosqui
tol
arv
[Link]
ll
aear
econcer
nedwi
thsal
tregul
ati
on.
3)Dol
ichast
ers:Thesest
ruct
uresar
efoundont
heabdomenof
antl
ion gr
[Link] dol
ichast
eri
s a segment
alpr
otuber
ance
fr
ingedwit
hset
ae.
4)Pr
oloegs:Thesear
epr
esenti
nthel
arv
aeofmot
h,but
ter
fl
yand
sawfl
y .Two t of i
ve pairs are normally present
. They ar
e
unsegment ed,t
[Link] i
poftheproleg
i
scalledplantauponwhichar ebor neheav
il
yscleroti
sedhooks
cal
[Link]
di ncrawlingandclingi
ngt osur
face.
i
i
i)Abdomi
nalappendagesi
nwi
ngedadul
ts:

1)Cor
nicl
es:Aphi
dshav
eapai
rofshor
ttubesknownascor
nicl
es
orsiphonculiproj
ecti
ngfrom dorsum off
if
thorsi
xthabdominal
segment .Theyper mi
ttheescapeofwaxyf l
uidwhichper
haps
serv
esf orprot
ecti
onagainstpredator
s.
2)Caudalbr
eat
hing t
ube:I
tconsi
stsoft
wo gr
oov
ed f
il
ament
s
cl
osel
yappl
iedt
oeachot
herf
ormi
ngahol
lowt
ubeatt
heapexof

33
abdomen.e.
[Link]
erscor
pion.
3)Cer
ci:(
Cer
cus -Si
ngul
ar)Theyar
ethe mostconspi
cuous
appendagesassoci
ated nor
mal
lywit
ht he el
event
h abdominal
segment. They ar
e sensoryi
n funct
ion. They exhi
bitwi
de
div
ersi
tyandfor
m.

Longandmanysegment
ed:
-e.
g.
May
flyLongandunsegment
ed:
-
e.
[Link]
icket
Shor
tandmanysegment
ed:
-e.
g.
Cockr
oachShor
tandunsegment
ed:
-e.
[Link]
asshopper
Scleroti
sedandf or
cepsl i
ke:[Link]
ciar
e
usefulindefense,preycaptur
e,unf
oldi
ngwingsand
courtship.
Asymmet r
ical
cerci:
-Mal
[Link]
tcercusi
slonger
thanr
ightandfuncti
onsascl
aspingorganduri
ng
copul
ati
on.
4)Medi
ancaudalf
il
ament
:Inmay
fly(
andal
soi
nawi
ngl
essi
nsect
si
lver
fi
sh)t
heepi
procti
sel
ongat
edi
ntocer
cusl
ikemedi
ancaudal
fi
lament
.
5)Py
gost
yles:A pai
rofunsegment
ed cer
cil
ike st
ruct
uresar
e
f
oundi
nthel
astabdomi
nalsegmentofscol
ii
dwasp.
6)Analst
yli
:Apai
rofshor
tunsegment
edst
ruct
uref
oundatt
he
endoftheabdomenofmalecockr
[Link]
eusedt
ohol
dthe
femal
eduri
ngcopul
ati
on.
7)Ov
iposi
tor
:Theeggl
ayi
ngor
ganf
oundi
nfemal
einsecti
scal
led
ovi
positor
.Itis suit
edtolayeggsinpreci
semicr
ohabi
tat
s.I
t
exhibi
tswidedi ver
sit
yand f
[Link]
tand hor
ny:[Link]
t
hornedgrasshopper
Long and swor
dli
ke :e.
[Link]
ydi
d,l
ong
hor
nedgr
asshopperNeedl
eli
ke:e.
[Link]
icket
Ov
iposi
tormodi
fi
edi
ntost
ing:e.
[Link]
kerhoneybee.
Pseudoovi
positor
:Anappendicul
arov i
posit
orisl acki
nginf r
uit
fli
es and house fl
ies.I
nf r
uitfli
es,the elongated abdomen
termi
natesint
oashar ppoi
ntwit
hwhi chthefl
ypiercestheri
ndof
34
thefrui
tbefor
edeposit
[Link]
heterminal
abdominal segments are tel
escopic and these tel
escopi
c
segmentsaidinovi
positi
[Link]
positorofhousefl
yiscall
ed
pseudoovi
posit
ororovi
tubusorovi
scapt.
Male geni
tal
ia:Ext
ernalsexualorgans of malei nsects ar
e
confi
nedtoni
nthabdominalsegment
.Indamself
ly,t
hef uncti
onal
copul
ator
yorganispresentont hevent
erofsecondabdomi nal
segment

35
[Link]
omy
:Di
gest
ivesy
stem

Di
gest
ivesy
stem

Thedi gest i
vesy stem ( somet i
mesr eferredt oast heal iment ary
canal )shoul dbeeasi lyseeni nthedi ssect edspeci mens.I ti
sa
l
ongt ube- l
ikestructuret hatr unsfrom t hemout ht ot heanusand
i
s cent rall
yl ocated wi thint he bodycav i
ty,orhemocoel . The
anter i
or-mostr egioni scal ledthef oregut( orst omodeum)whi ch
i
ncludest heBuccalcav i
ty,theesophagus,and t he cr [Link]
pri
mar yf unctionoft hef oreguti stobegi nt hebr eakdownoff ood
particlesandt r
anspor tt hem t othenextr egion,t hemi dgut( or
mesent eron).The mi dguti sthe maj orar ea ofdi gestion and
absor [Link] gest edf oodpar ti
clest henpassi ntot het hird
region,t hehi ndgut(orpr octodeum) ,whi chconsi st
soft hei l
eum,
colon,r ectum,and( often)r [Link] ndgutf unctionsi n
wat erandsol utereabsor pt i
onandwast eexcr etion.

Thethreesect ionsoft hedi gest

ivetr
actcanbeeasilyident i
fi
edby
str
ucturesf oundatt hej uncti
onofeachr [Link] r
iccaecae,
forexampl e,mar ktheendoft heforegutandbegi nningoft he
[Link] ievedt hatt hepurposeoft hesestr
uctur esisto
i
ncrease sur face ar ea f or great
er nutri
ent absorption. The
constr
icti
onatt hegast r
iccaecaeal so marksthespotoft he
cardi
acv al
v e(orsphinct er)
.

Theali
mentarycanalofinsectsisalong,muscul
arandt ubul
ar
str
uct
ureextendi
ngfrom mout [Link]
sdiff
erent
iat
edinto
thr
eeregi
onsviz.
,For
egut
, midgutandhi
ndgut
.
[Link]
egut
:Iti
s ect
oder
mali
n or
igi
[Link]
eri
ori
nvagi
nat
ion of
ectoder
mf or
msf or
egut(
Stomodeum) .I
nternalcut
icularli
ningis
present
. Termi
nal mouthpar
ts leads i nto a pr eoral
cavit
y.

36
Preor alcavi
tybet weenepi pharynxandhy pophar ynxi scal
ledas
[Link] eor alcav i
tybetweenhy pophar y nxandsal i
varyductis
[Link] ndt hemout ha
wellmuscul at edor gancal l
edPhar ynxi spr esentwhi chpushes
thef ood i [Link] ynxact sasasucki ngpumpi n
sapf eeder [Link] sanar row tubewhi chconductf ood
i
ntocr [Link] opi st hedi l
ateddistalpar tofoesophagusact i
ngas
foodr [Link] opi scalledashoneyst omachwher e
nectar conv ersion occur [Link] ovent r
iculus or Gi zzardi st he
poster i
orpar toff or egutandi smuscul at ed.I tisf oundinsol i
d
feeder sandabsenti nf l
uidfeedersorsapf eeder [Link]
foregutt omi dguti sregulatedthr oughcar dialoroesophageal
[Link] i nternalcut i
cle ofgizzar di sv ari
ousl ymodi f
ied as
foll
ows.
.Te
i ethl
ikei
ncockr
oachtogri
ndandstr
ainfood.
.Pl
i
i atel
ikei
nhoneybeetosepar
atepol
lengrai
nsfr
om nect
ar
i
i
[Link]
nel
ikei
nfl
eatobreakthebl
oodcorpuscl
es
Mi
2. dgut
:Iti
sendoder
mali
nor
igi
nandal
socal
ledasmesent
ron.
Thispar tcontainsnocut i
cularl
[Link] hree
typesofepi t
hel i
alcel
ls.(i)Secretor
ycells(Columnarcell
s)(ii
)
Gobl etcell
s( agedsecr et
orycells),(
ii
i)Regener
ati
vecell
swhi ch
replacessecr etorycel
[Link]
urespresenti
nmi dgut
areasf oll
ows:
[Link] i
tr
ophi c membr ane:I ti st he internallining ofmi dgut ,
secr eted byant eriororent ir
el ayerofmi dgutepi theli
alcel ls.
Pr esenti nsol idf eeder sandabsenti nsapf eeder [Link] ayeri s
semi per meabl ei n nat uret o digest i
vej uices and di gest i
on
product [Link] ubricat eandf acil
it
at efoodmov ement .Envelopst he
foodandpr ot ectst hemi dgutepithelialcel
lsagai nsthar derf ood
par ti
cles.
(i
i)Ga stri
ccaecae:( Ent ericcaecaeorHepat iccaecae)Fi ngerl ike
out growt hsf oundi nant eri
ororpost er i
orendsofmi dgut .Thi s
structur eincr eases t he f uncti
onalar ea ofmi dgutandshel ter
sy mbi oti
cbact eri
ai nsomei nsects.
(i
i)Py
i loricv alve:( Pr octodealv al
ve)Mi dgutopensi nt
o hi ndgut
through py l
or icv alve,whi ch r egulatef ood f low.I n cer tain
i
mmat urest agesofi nsectsmi dgutisnotconnect edt ohi ndgut
ti
llpupat ion.e. [Link] ub.
(
iv)Fi
lt
erchamber
:Iti
sacompl
exor
gani
nwhi
cht
woendsof
ventr
icul
usandthebegi
ningofhi ndgutar
eencl
osedi
nasac.
Thisisusef
ult
oshor
tcir
cuitexcesswaterf
oundi
nli
qui
dfoodi
n

37
homopt
eran i
nsect
[Link] process avoids di
lut
ion ofdi
gest
ive
enzy
mesandconcentr
atesfoodf oreffi
cientdi
gesti
[Link]
sohelps
i
nosmoregul
ati
onbypreventi
ngdi l
uti
onofhaemol ymph.
[Link]
ndgut
:Iti
sect
oder
mali
nor
igi
nandpr
oducedbyt
hepost
eri
or
i
nv agination ofect oderm.I nt
er nalcut icul
arl ini
ng is pr
esent,
whichi sper meablet o salts,ions,ami noacidsandwat [Link]
mai nf unct ionsofhi ndgutar etheabsor pt i
onofwat er
,saltand
otherusef ulsubst ancesf rom t hef aecesandur i
[Link]
dif
ferent i
at edintot hreer egionsv i
z.,i
leum,col onandr [Link]
the larva ofscar abids and t ermi t
es,i l
leum i s pouch li
ke f
or
housingsy mbiontsandact sasf erment ati
onchamber .Rect
um
containsr ectalpadshel pingi ndehy drati
onoff aecesanditopens
outthr oughanus.
Gutphy si
ology:Pr
imaryfuncti
ons oft he gutisto di
gestt he
i
ngestedfoodandtoabsorbthemet aboli
[Link]
gest
ionprocessis
enhancedwi t
hthehel
pofenzy mespr oducedbydigest
iveglands
andmi cr
obeshousedinspeci
alcel
ls.
Di
gest
ivegl
ands:

Sal
a. iv
arygl
ands:I
nCockr
oachapai
rofl
abi
algl
andsact
sas
saliv
ar yglandwher ethesal ivaryduct sopeni ntosal ivarium.I n
caterpil
lars mandi bulargl ands ar e modi fied t o secr ete sal i
v a,
wher et he sal i
v ary glands ar e modi fied f orsi l
k pr oduction.
Functionsofsal iva:
[Link] stenandt odi ssol vefood
[Link] i
cat emout hparts
[Link] lav ourtogust at oryrecept ors
4.I
ncockr oacht hesalivacont ainsamy l
asef ort hedi gest ionofst ar
ch.
5.I
nhoneybeesal i
vacont ainsinv ertasef orsucr osedi gest i
on
[Link] Jassi d salivacont ainsl ipaseand pr oteasef orl ipidsand
protein di gest i
[Link] d sal i
v a also cont ains t oxins whi ch
producest issuenecr osisandphy totoxemi aont hepl antpar ts.
[Link] antbug sal i
v acont ai
nspect inasewhi chhel psi nst yl
et
penetrationandext raintestinaldi gestion.
8.I
nmosqui to,sal i
vacont ainsant icoagulinwhi chpr ev entsbl oodcl ott
ing.
9.I
ngal lpr oducingmi dgessal ivacont ainsI ndol eAcet icAci d( I
AA) .
10.I
n di sease t ransmi t
ting ect orst he sal i
va pav es way f ort he ent
ry of
pathogens.
[Link]
iccaecaeandmi
dgutepi
thel
ialcel
ls:I
tsecr
etesmostof
the di
gest
[Link] t
ypes ofcel
ls wer
einv
olv
ed i
nthe
enzymesecret
ion.

38
 Holocr
ine:Epi
thel
ialcel
lsdi
sint
egr
atei
ntheprocessof
enzymesecreti
[Link]
ne:Enzymesecr
eti
onoccurs
wit
houtcellbr
eakdown.

Di
gest
iveenzymes
InsectGroup Enzy me Subst rat
e
Phy t
ophagouslarvae Amy l
ase St ar
ch
Mal t
ase Maltose
Invert
ase Sucrose
Omni vor
ousinsects Protease Pr ot
ein
Lipase Lipi
d
Nectarfeeder
s I
nv ertase Sucrose
Woodbor i
nginsectsand Cellul
ase Cel l
ulose
Termites
Meateat
ingmaggot
s Col
lagenaCollagenand
se el
asti
n
Bi
rdl
i
ce Ker
atinas Ker
atin
e

[Link]
on:Intheinsectbodyf
ewcell
swer ehousi
ng
symbioti
c mi croorgani
sms cal led as my cet
ocyte. These
mycetocytesaggregatetoform anorgancal
ledmycet
ome.

(
i)Fl
agel
lat
epr
otozoa-I
tpr
oducescel
lul
asef
orcel
lul
ose
di
gestionint
ermi
tesandwoodcockr oach.
(
i)Ba
i cteri
a-I
thel
psinwaxdigest
ioninwaxmoth.
(
ii
i)Bedbugandcockr
oachobtai
nv i
taminandami
noaci
dsf
rom mi
crobes.
These mi cr
obes wer e t
ransmit
ted bet ween i ndiv
iduals
through food exchange ( mouth to mout h f eeding) called
trophal
laxi
sandt hrougheggcal l
edast ransovari
altransmission.
I
npl antbugandantl iongrubpart
ialdi
gestionoccursi nthehost
bodypr i
ortofoodingest i
oncall
edasext raint
esti
naldi gest
[Link]
mostoft heinsect
sdi gesti
onoccursinmi dgut.
Absor pt
ion:I n many i nsects absorption of nut rient
s occur s
through mi cr ovil
li of mi dgut epithelial cells by di ffusion.
Absor pt
ionofwat erandi onsoccurt hroughr ect
um.I ncockr oach
l
ipid absor pt i
on occur s t hrough cr op. I n ter mi
tes and
scarabaeids ( Whitegr ubs)absor pt
ionoccur st hr
oughi leum.I n
solidfeeders,r esorpti
onofwat erfrom t hef aecesoccur si nt he
rectum andt hef aecesisexpel l
edaspel [Link] eeders( l
iquid
feeders)thef aecesi sli
[Link] aecesofhomopt er an
39
bugs(aphids,
mealybugs,
Scal
esandpsy
ll
ids)wit
hsolubl
esugars
andami noacidsi
sknownashoneydew,whi chatt
ract
santsfor
feedi
ng.

40
[Link]
omy
:Excr
etor
ysy
stem

Excr
etorysyst
em
Removalof waste pr
oducts of metaboli
sm,especi
all
y
nit
rogenouscompounds f
rom thebodyofi nsect
sisknownas
excret
[Link]
eti
onpr
ocesshelpsthei
nsecttomaint
ainsal
t

waterbalanceandtherebyphy
siol
ogi
calhomeost
asi
[Link]
lowi
ng
ar
et heexcret
oryor
gans.

Nearthejunct
ionofthemi dgutandhi ndgutar el
ong,thin
structur
escal l
edMalpighi
ant ubules. Theser angeinnumber
from afewt ohundreds,butonlyaphi ds(OrderHomopt era)are
currentl
yknownt [Link] pighiantubul
esar ecreamyt o
yellowincolorandwor kinconjunctionwiththeileum t
opr ovide
thepr i
mar ysi
teforosmor egul
ationandexcr eti
on.

[Link]
pighi
ant
ubul
es:Thi
n,bl
ind-
endi
ngt
ubul
es,or
igi
nat
ingnear
the juncti
on of mid and hi
ndgut,predomi
nant
lyinvol
ved i
n
regulati
onofsalt,waterandnitr
ogenouswasteexcr
eti
[Link]
s
structur
ewasdiscover
edbyMar cel
loMalpi
ghi
.
Nephr
2. ocy
tes:Cel
lst
hatsi
evet
hehaemol
mphf
orpr
oduct
s
t
hatt
heymet
abol
ize(
per
icar
dialcel
ls)
.
Fatbodi
3. es:Al
ooseorcompactaggr
egat
ionofcel
ls,
most
ly
tr
ophocy
tes,suspendedi
nthehaemocoel
,responsi
blef
orst
orage
andexcr
eti
on.
Oenocy
4. tes:Thesear
especi
ali
sedcel
lsofhaemocoel
,epi
der
mis
orf
atbodywi
thmanyf
unct
[Link]
hef
unct
ioni
sexcr
eti
on.
I
[Link]
egument
:Theout
ercov
eri
ngoft
hel
iv
ingt
issuesofani
nsect
.
[Link]
achealsy
stem:Thei
nsectgasexchangesy
stem,
compr
isi
ng t
racheaeand t
racheol
es.
Rect
7. um:Thepost
eri
orpar
tofhi
ndgut
.

41
Amongt
heabov
eor
gans,
mal
pighi
ant
ubul
esar
ethemaj
oror
ganofexcr
eti
on.
ExcretionandOsmor egulation:Insectf aeces,ei t
heri nl i
qui df orm
orsol id pell
ets,cont ai
nsbot h undigest ed f ood and met abol i
c
excreti
[Link] icinsect sexcr etedilutewast esf rom t heiranus
dir
ect l
yintowat erbyf l
ushingwi thwat [Link] ,Ter r
est ri
ali nsect s
mustconser vewat [Link] sr equi r
esef ficientwast edi sposali na
concent r
atedorev endr yf or m,si multaneousl yav oidingt het oxic
eff
ect sofni t
[Link] ht err est
r i
alandaquat i
c
+ + -
i
nsect smustconser veions, suchassodi um ( Na) ,pot assium ( K)
andchl ori
de( Cl),t
hatmaybel i
mi t
ingi nt heirf oodorl ostint ot he
waterbydi ffusi
[Link] efor et hepr oduct ion ofi nsectexcr eta
(ur
ineorpel l
ets)isar esultoft wor elatedpr ocesses:excr etion
andosmor egulati
on( maintenanceoff av our ableosmot icpr essur e
andi onicconcentrati
onofbodyf l
uid)
.Thesy stem responsi blef or
excreti
onandosmor egulationi sr efer
redt oasexcr et orysyst em
anditsact i
vi
tiesareper f
ormed

l
argelybyt heMal pighiant ubul
esandhi [Link] eri
nf r
esh
water i nsects, haemol y mph composi t
ion is r egul
ated in
responset olossofi onst othesurroundi
ngwat er
,wi t
hthehelp
ofexcr etorysy st
em and speci alcell
[Link]
ed
Chlori
de cel l
s whi ch ar e presentint he hi
ndgut,capable of
absorbinginor gani
ci onsf rom thedil
utesolut
ions.(e.
[Link]
dragonfli
esanddamsel fl
ies).

Malpighi an Tubul es: The mai n or gan of excr etion and

osmor egul ationini nsect sar ethemal pighiant ubules,act i
ngi n
associ ation wi t
h r ectum or i leum. Mal pi
ghi an t ubul es ar e
outgrowt hs oft he al iment ary canaland consi stofl ong t hin
tubulesf or med ofasi nglel ayerofcel lssur rounding abl i
nd-
ending l umen,t hey ar e absenti n spr ing tailand aphi ds, 2
number si nscal einsect s,4i nbugs,5i nmosqui toes,6i nmot hs
andbut t
er fli
es,60i ncockr oachandmor ethan200i nl ocust s.
Gener allyt heyar ef ree,wav i
ngar oundi nt hehaemol y mphwher e
they f il
teroutsol ut [Link] t ubul ei s ext ernall
y cov ered by
peri
toni alcoat and suppl ied wi th muscl ef i
bres ( aiding i n
peri
st alsis) and t rachel [Link] ionaldi f
ferentiation of t he
tubuleswasseen,wi tht hedi st
alsecr etoryr egionandpr oximal
absor ptiver egion.
Physiol ogy :Themal pighi ant ubulespr oduceaf i
ltrate(t hepr i
mar y
uri
ne) whi ch is i sosmot ic but i onically dissimi lar t o t he
haemol ymphandsel ectivelyr eabsor bswat erandcer tainsol ut
es,
but el imi nates ot her [Link] mal pi
ghi an t ubules pr oduces an

42
 i
osmot i
c
+
fi
ltr
atewhi chishi
ghinK+
andlowi nNawi t
hClasmaj orani
[Link]
ivet
ranspor
tof
i
onsespeci al
lyK i
ntothetubulel
umengeneratesanosmot
icpr
essur
e
gradiantforthe
passiveflowofwater.

Sugar sandmostami noaci dsar eal sopassi vel

yfil
teredfrom the
haemol ymph v i
aj unctions between t he tubule cell
s,whereas
amino aci ds and non- met abolizables and t oxic organic
compoundsar eact i
vel
yt ransportedi ntothet ubul
el [Link]
i
sr esorbedfrom thelumenandr etur nedtot hehaemol [Link]
continuoussecretoryactivi
tyofeachmal pighiantubuleleadstoa
fl
ow ofpr i
mar yurinefrom itslument owardsandi ntot [Link]
therectum,theur i
nei smodi fi
edbyr emovalofsol utesandwat er
tomai ntai
nfl
uidandi onichomeost asisofthebody .

Nit
rogenousexcr et
ion:Terrest
rialinsect
sexcr et
ewast eproducts
asuricacidorcer t
ain ofit
ssal tscall
edurates,whichwer ewater
i
nsolubleandrequireslessamountofwat erfor
waste productr emov al
.Thi st ype ofexcr eti
on is known as
Uri
cotel
ism.I naquaticinsectsammoni aist
heexcr etor
ypr oduct
,
whichisf reel
ysol ubl
ei nwat erandr equi
resmor eamountof
waterforwast eproductremov [Link]
oni sknown
asAmmonot el
ism.
Cryptonephr y
:Thedi st
alendsoft heMalpighi
antubulesarehel d
i
ncont actwi ththerectalwallbyt heperi
nephri
cmembr ane,which
i
sconcer nedei therwi t
hefficientdehydrati
onoff aecesbef ore
thei
rel i
mi nati
onori oni
cregulat i
on.(e.
[Link],lar
v al
Lepidopteraandl arvalsymphy t
a).
Functi
onsofmal phighiant ubule:Excr
etor
yi nfunct
ion,mai
nly
concerned withr emov alofni t
[Link]
accessoryfunctionsar easf ollows:
[Link]
tt
lesecretioni nspi tt
lebug
[Link]
ghtproductioni nBol it
ophila
[Link]
lkproducti
oni nlarvalneuroptera
StorageExcr et
ion:Theexcr et
orywast emat eri
alsareretained
withinthebodyi ndiff
erentsit
es.
.Ur
i i
cacidisstor edasur at
esinthecel l
soff atbodye.g.,Amer i
cancockr
oach.
i
[Link]
cacidi sstoredinthebodywal l,givi
ngwhi [Link]
tonbug.
i
[Link]
i icacidisst oredi
nt hemaleaccessor yglandst o
producet heoutercoatofsper matophore,whi chis
excretedduringcopulation.
i
[Link] oredi
nt hewingscalesgi vi
ngwhi tecolour.e.g.
,Pi
eri
d

43
 but
terf
li
es.
[Link]
sofpupalmet
abol
ism (
Meconi
um)i
sst
ored
andrel
easedduringadul
temer
gence.

[Link]
omy
:Respi
rat
ory

sy
stem Respi
rat
orySy
stem

Theinsectr espirat
orysystem ismadeupofaser iesoft ubest hat
ori
ginat
ef rom spi r
acles(openingsoft heexoskeletont hatal l
ow
forgasexchange)andext endthr
oughoutthebody .Internall
y,the
tubes,ort r achea,appearas t hin whitelines thr
oughoutt he
hemocoeland ar e parti
cular
ly not
iceabl
e surrounding i nt
ernal
[Link] iveroxygentoint
ernalorgansandt issues.

Comparethet r
acheaewiththeMalpi
ghi
[Link]
en
ver
y simil
ari n appearance. Di
dy ou conf
use tracheae wit
h
Malpi
ghiantubulesear
li
er?

Twoway stodi sti

nguisht hestructur
esar ecolorandl ocation.
Tracheaehav ea‘ shini
er’appearanceundert hescopeandmay
evenappear‘sil
very’
.Asf orlocat
ion,Malpi
ghiantubulesaref ound
att hejunct
ionoft hemi dgutandhi ndgut( al
thought heymay
extend outwardi nto the hemocoel ),wher eas tracheae ar e
positi
onedthroughoutthebody .

Respirat
or ysy stem
Simi l
art o aer obic ani
mal s,insects mustobt ain oxygen
from theirenv i
ronmentandel imi natecarbondi oxi
der espir
edby
thei
rcel [Link] si s gas exchange t hrough seriesofgasf i
ll
ed
tubespr ov i
dingsur facear eaforgaseousexchange( Respirati
on
stri
ctl
yref erstooxy gen-consuming, cel
lul
armet aboli
cpr ocesses).
Airissuppl ieddi rectl
ytot hetissueandhaemol ymph( blood)is

44
noti nvol
ved i nt he r
espirat
oryr [Link] exchange occur s by
means ofi nternalair
-fi
ll
ed [Link] t ubes branch and
ramifythrought hebody .The finestbr anches cal
led tracheole
contactalli nternalor
gansandt issuesandar e
numer ousint i
ssueswi t
hhi ghoxy genrequir
ement [Link] l
y
entersthetracheaev iaspir
acularopeni ngspositi
onedlaterall
yon
thebody .Noi nsecthasmor et hant enpairs(twot horacicand
eightabdomi nal).

Based on the number and locat

ion of f
unct
ionalspi
racl
es
respi
rat
orysyst
em i
scl
assif
iedasfoll
ows

Hol
1. opneust
ic:
10pai
rs,
2int
hor
axand8i
nabdomen.e.
[Link]
asshopper
Hemi
2. pneust
ic:Outof10pai
rs,
oneort
wonon-
funct
ional
Per
3. ipneust
ic:9pai
rs-1i
nthor
ax8i
nabdomene.
[Link]
erpi
l
lar
Amphi
4. pneust
ic2pai
rs-Oneant
eri
or,
onepost
eri
or,
[Link]
.
Pr
5. opneust
ic:1pai
r-ant
eri
orpai
re.
[Link]
ium
Met
6. apneust
ic:1pai
r-post
eri
orpai
re.
[Link]
iggl
er
[Link]
popneust
ic:
10pai
rs-7f
unct
ional(
1thor
ax+6abdomi
nal
),
3nonf
unct
ional
.e.
[Link]
ouse
Apneust
8. ic:Al
lspi
racl
escl
osed,
closedt
rachealsy
stem e.
[Link]
adofmayf
ly.

Or
gansofr
espi
rat
ion
Spiracles:Spir
acl eshaveachamberorat r
ium withaopeni ngand
closingmechani sm calledat r
ialv alv
[Link] sregulateairpassage
andmi ni
misewat [Link] racl
ei sseti nascl eroti
zed
cuticularplatecal l
edaper i
[Link] acheaearei nvagi
nat i
onsof
theepi dermisandt hust heirliningi scont i
nuouswi ththebody
[Link] i
ngedappear anceoft hetracheaeisduet othespi ral
ri
dgescal l
edt [Link] l
ow t het r
acheaet obef lexiblebut
resistcompr [Link] icularli
ningsoft hetracheaear eshed
duringmoul ti
ng.

Tracheolesar el esst han1μm i ndiamet erandt heyendbl indly

andclosel ycont actther espir
[Link] ay er
i
sabsent .Cuticuli
nl ayerisper meablet [Link]
ntracel
lular
i
nnat ure,butencl osedonl yi nthecy t
oplasm oftrachealandcel l
call
edtracheobl [Link] sacrosstracheoles.
Therear ef ourt r
achealt runksv i
z.,lateral
,dorsal,ventr
aland
vi
sceral,helpingi nthepassageofai [Link] r
achea,thi
nwal led-
coll
apsabl e sac l i
ke dilati
ons are pr esent,call
ed as airsacs

45
wher
et aenidi
ai s absent
.Airsacs acts as oxygen reservoir
.
Pr
ovi
debuoy ancytofl
yingandaquati
ci nsect
[Link] or
gr
[Link]
sassoundresonatorandheati nsul
ators.

Mechani
sm ofr
espi
rat
ion
Oxy genentersthespi racl
eandpassest hrought helengthoft he
tr
acheae t ot he t r
acheoles and int
ot he tar
get cel l
s by a
combi nati
onofv enti
lati
onanddi f
fusionalongaconcent rat
ion
gradient,f
rom highint heexter
nalairt
ol ow i
nt het i
[Link] e
ast henetmov ementofoxy genmoleculesinthet r
achealsy st
em
i
si nward(Inspi
rati
on),thenetmovementofCO2andwat ervapour
molecul
esisoutwar
d(Expi
rati
on)
.
Respi
rat
ioninaquat
ici
nsects:

[Link] tracheal sy stem: I n some aquat i

c and many
endoparasit
iclar
vaespi raclesareabsentandthetr
acheaedi
vide
peri
pherall
yt oform anet wor
[Link] er
st hebodysurf
ace,
al
lowing cutaneousgasexchange.e. [Link]
ls:Tracheat
ed t
hin
outgrowthofbodywal l.
Lamel l
ategil
ls-may fly
naiadFilament ousgil
ls-
damsel f
lynaiadRect algi
ll
s
-dragonf l
ynaiad

2.
Opent
rachealsy
stem:

i
.Ai
rst
ore:Ai
rbubbl
est
oredbeneat
hwi
ngsact
sasphy
sical
gil
l,
e.
[Link]
erbug.i
i.
Respi
rat
orysi
phon-e.
[Link]
iggl
er
i
ii
.Caudalbr
eat
hingt
ube-
[Link]
erscor
pion
i
[Link]
astron:Cl
osel
ysethy
drof
ugehai
rsofepi
cut
icl
ehol
dat
hinf
il
m ofai
r
i
ndef
ini
tely
.

[Link]
omy
:Ci
rcul
ator
y

sy
stem Ci
rcul
ator
ysy
stem

Unli
ke t he “cl
osed” cir
culatory system of humans, i nsect
cir
culatorysystemsaresaidt o be“open” ,meani
ngt hattheylack
acompl exnetworkofveinsandar t
eriest ohel
pt ransportblood
thr
oughoutt [Link],insectbl ood(call
edhemol y
mph)
fl
owsr elati
vely“f
reel
y”t
hroughoutthehemocoel .

46
 Aort
aport
ion Heartport
ion
ofdor
sal ofdorsal

Fi
gur
e8-
[Link]
rcul
ator
ysy
[Link]
rowsi
ndi
cat
edi
rect
ionoff
lowofhemol
ymph.

Onlyonev esselispr esentint heinsectci r

culat
orysy st
em:the
[Link] erior
ly(intheabdomi nalregion),thedorsal
vesselactsast hehear t,pumpi nghemoly mph forwardi nt
othe
anteri
orregion(intheheadandt hor
ax),whereitactsast heaort
a
anddumpst hehemol ymphi nt
ot hehead.I tfl
owspost eri
orl
yand
i
sr etur
nedt othehear tviaosti
a,whi charesmal lsli
tsintheheart
regionofthedorsalv esseldesi
gnedf orhemol y
mphupt ake.

Tov iewt hedorsalvessel

,examinethe“ back”(ordorsalregi
on)of
the i nsect’
s body cav i
ty for a v ery thi
n l i
ne t hat runs
l
ongi tudinal
lyfrom theheadt othet i
poft [Link] he
grasshopperorspeci menthatwasv ent r
all
ydissected,asdor sal
dissectionswillli
kel
ymut i
lat
ethev [Link] scouraged
i
fy ouhav et
roublefi
ndingitony [Link] salvessel
i
sv er y,verythin. Comparey ourspeci men t othose ofy our
classmat es.

Ci
rcul
ator
ysy
stem i
ninsect
s

Circulati
on ini nsectsis maint ained bya sy stem ofmuscul ar
pumpsmov i
nghaemol ympht hroughcompar t
ment sseparat
edby
fi
br omuscul arsept a ormembr [Link] mai n pump ist he
pulsatil
edor [Link] eriorpartmaybecal l
edaor t
aand
thepost er
iorpartt heheart
.Thedor salvesseli sasi mplet ube,
gener all
ycomposedofonel ayerofmy ocardialcellsandwi th
segment al
lyarrangedopeningscal l
[Link] i
aper mitthe
one- wayf l
owofhaemol ymphi nt othedorsalv esselduet ov alv
es
thatpr [Link] ot hreepai rsofthoracic
ostiaandni nepairsofabdomi [Link] salvesselli
esi n

47
theperi
cardialsi
nus,acompartmentaboveadorsaldi aphr
agm (a
fi
bromuscularsept um -a separ at
ing membr ane)f ormed of
connect
ivetissueandsegmentalpair
sofalarymuscl [Link]
ary
musclessuppor tthedorsalv
esselbuttheircontracti
onsdonot
aff
ectheartbeat.
Haemol ymph enters t he periocardi
al sinus v ia segment al
openingsinthediaphragm andt henmov esintothedor salvessel
vi
at he ostia dur
ing a muscul arr el
axati
on [Link] es of
contr
action st
artatt he poster
iorend oft he body,pump t he
haemol y
mphf orwardi nthedor salvesselandoutv iatheaor t
a
i
ntot [Link] heappendagesoft heheadandt horaxare
suppli
edwi t
hhaemol y mphasi tci r
culat
espost eroventral
lyand
fi
nall
yretur
nst otheper i
car
dialsinusanddor sal
v essel
.
Anot herimpor t
antcomponentoft heinsectci rcul
atorysy stem is
thev entraldiaphragm,af ibromuscul arsept um thatliesi nt he
fl
ooroft hebodycav ityassociatedwi t
ht hev entr
alner vecor d.
Circulati
on oft he haemol y
mph i s aided by active per i
stalti
c
contractions of t he v entral diaphragm whi ch di rect t he
haemol ymph backwar ds and l ater
all
yi nt he peri
neuralsi nus
belowt hedi [Link] ement sar eimportantini nsects
thatuset heci r
culati
onint her
mor [Link] agm
alsof aci
lit
atesrapidexchangeofchemi calsbetweent hev entral
nervecor dandt hehaemol ymph.
Haemol ymphisgeneral
lycir
culatedt oappendagesunidi
rect
ionaly
by various t
ubes, septa,valves and [Link] muscul ar
pumpsar etermedaccessor ypul sati
leorgansandoccuratt he
baseoft [Link] ennalpul
sati
leorgansrel
eases
neurohormones that ar e carr
ied t o the
antennal

l
ument oinfl
uencet hesensor [Link]
ati
onoccur si
nt he
wingsofyoungadul [Link] ngcirculati
onissustainedbyi nf
luxes
ofairi
ntothewingv ei
ns,ratherthananypul sati
[Link]
ofairi
nthefinetrachealtubesoft hev einspushthehaemol ymph
thr
oughtheenclosedspaceoft hev eins.
Theinsectci
rcul
atorysyst
em showshi
ghdegreeofco-
ordi
nat
ion
bet
weendor salvessel
,fi
bro-
muscul
ardi
aphr
agmsandaccessory
pumps.
Haemol
ymphandi
tsf
unct
ions
Haemolymphisawat er
yfl
uidcont
ainingi
ons,
mol eculesandcell
s.
I
tisoft
enclearandcolour
lessbutmaybev ar
iouslypigmentedor
r
arel
yredduet o haemoglobi
nint heimmaturest agesoff ew

48
aquat
ic and endoparasi
ti
c f li
es ( e.
g., Chi r
onomid l ar
va).
Haemolymphperfor
msthefunctionofbothbl oodandl [Link]
not invol
ved in gas t ransporti
ng f unction (respi
rati
on).
Haemolymphcontai
nsaf l
uidpor t
ioncall
edpl asma andcel l
ular
fr
acti
onscall
edhaemocyt
es.

Pl
1. asma:Pl
asmai
sanaqueoussol
uti
onofi
nor
gani
cions,l
ipi
ds,
sugar s(mainlyt r
ehalose),ami no acids,pr oteins,organicaci ds
andot [Link] i susual l
yacidic( 6.7).Densi
tyis1. 01
to1. [Link] ercont entis84-92percent .Inor ganicionspr esent
are` Na'inpr edatorsandpar asit
es,` Mg'and` K'i
nphy tophagous
i
nsect [Link] drateisi nthef orm oft rehalosesugar .Maj or
proteinsar el i
poprotei
ns,gl y
copr otei
nsandenzy [Link] n
form off atpar ti
cles [Link] gherconcent r
ati
on of
ami no acidsl eadst o acondi ti
oncal led ami noacidemiawhi ch
effectst heosmosi spr [Link] ghal t
it
udei nsectsglycerolis
presentwhi chact sasaant ifreezing [Link] t
rogenous
wast eispresentint heform ofuricacid.
[Link]
tes:Thebl
oodcel
lsorhaemocy
tesar
eofsev
eral
typesandal lar
enucl eat [Link] y
pesofhaemocy t
esar eas
foll
ows:
[Link] t
e:Smal lestofal lcellswithlargestnucleus.
[Link] te(Phagocy te)aidsi nphagocy t
ocis
[Link] te:Cont ainsl ar
genumberofcy toplasmicincl
usions
[Link] l
:Cytoplasmi ci
ncl usionsobscur ethenucl eus
[Link] stocyte(Coagulocy te):Rol ei n blood coagul ati
on and pl asma
preci
pit
at i
on.
[Link] t
oids:Largecel lswithecent ri
cnucl eus
[Link] tes:Roundorav oidwithdi sti
nctfatdroplet
s
[Link] t
e:Lar geflattenedcel lswi thnumberofpr otoplasmicproject
ions.
.Ve
i rmiform cell
s:Rar et ype,longt hreadlike.

Funct
ionsofhaemol
ymph
[Link]
icant:Haemol
ymphkeepst
hei
nter
nalcel
lsmoi
standt
he
mov
ementofi
nter
nalor
gansi
sal
somadeeasy
.
[Link]
draul
icmedi
um :Hy
drost
ati
cpr
essur
edev
elopedduet
o
bl
oodpumpi
ngi
susef
uli
nthef
oll
owi
ngpr
ocesses.
Ecdy
a) sis(
moul
ti
ng)
b)Wi
ngexpansi
oni
nadul
ts
c)Ecol
osi
oni
ndi
pter
a(adul
temer
gencef
rom t
hepupar
ium usi
ngpt
il
inum)
d)Ever
sionofpeni
sinmal
einsect
s

49
 Ev
e) er
sionofosmet
eri
ainpapi
li
oni
dlar
vae
)E
f ver
sionofmaski
nnai
adofdr
agonf
ly
g)Mai
ntenanceofbodyshapei
nsof
tbodi
edcat
erpi
l
lar
s.
Tr
3. anspor
tandst
orage:Di
gest
ednut
ri
ent
s,hor
monesandgases
(chi
ronomidlarv
a)weretransportedwitht
hehelpofhaemoly
mph.
Italso r
emov es t
he waste mat er
ialstothe excr
etor
yorgans.
Waterandr aw mat er
ial
sr equi
redf orhi
stogenesi
sisstor
edin
haemolymph.
Pr
4. ot
ect
ion: I
t hel ps in phagocy t
oci
s, encapsul
ati
on,
det
oxi
fi
cati
on,coagulati
on,and wound heal
[Link] cell
uar
componentl
ikel
ysozy
mesalsoki
llt
heinv
adingbact
eri
a.
[Link] t
ransf
er:Haemol
ymph t
hrough i
ts movement inthe
ci
rcul
ator
ysy
stem r
egul
atet
hebodyheat(
Thermor
egulat
ion)
.
[Link]
ntenanceof osmoti
c pressur
e:Ions,amino acids and
organi
cacidspresentint
hehaemol ymphhelpsinmai nt
aini
ng
osmoticpr
essur
erequir
edf
ornormalphysi
ologi
cal
funct
ions.
[Link]
lexbl
eedi
ng:Exudat
ionofheamol
ympht
hroughsl
it
,por
eet
c.
r
epel
snat
uralenemi
es.e.
[Link]
ds.
[Link]
abol
icmedi
um:Haemol
ymphser
vesasamedi
um f
oron
goi
ngmet
abol
icr
eact
ions(
trahal
osei
sconv
ert
edi
ntogl
ucose)
.

[Link]
omy
:Ner
voussy
stem

Ner
vousSy
stem

Tov iew t
hev entr
alner
vecord,exami
net hev entralregionofthe
roach’s body cav it
y(orspecimen y ou performed t he dorsal
dissecti
on on)f orsomethi
ng thatresembles a r ail
road tr
ack
runningfrom t heheadposteri
orl
ytot heabdomi [Link]
“rai
lr
oadt rack”ismadeupoft wonerv ecords( connect i
ves)t
hat
runlongitudinall
ywithaseri
esofnode-li
keganglia.

Theanteriormostr egi
onoft heventr
alnervecordiscal
ledt he
subesophagealgangli
[Link]
saltothatst
ruct
urei
stheinsect
“br
ain”(orsupr
aesophagealgangl
ion)
.

50
Thebasi ccomponenti nthener voussy stem isthener vecellor
neuron,composedofacel lbodywi thtwopr oj
ections( fi
bers)the
dendrites that r eceiv
e stimuliand t he axon t hat transmi t
s
i
nformat ion,eit
hert oanotherneur onort oanef f
ectoror gansuch
asamuscl [Link] elateralbranchescal l
edCol l
ateraland
ter
mi nalar borizati
on and sy napse.I nsectneur ons r el
ease a
vari
etyofchemi calsatsynapsesei thert ost i
mulateort oinhibit
eff
ect orneur onsormuscl [Link] yl
chol i
neandcat echolamines
suchasdopami near etheimpor t
antneur ot r
ansmittersinvolvedin
theimpul seconduct i
[Link] eoff oll
owingt ypesbasedon
str
uct ureandf unction.
[Link] t
ructuralbasis
.Mo
i nopolar
:neuronwithasingleax
on
i
[Link]
:neur onwithaproxi
malaxonandalongdi
staldendrit
e.
i
[Link]
i l
ti
polar:neuronwit
hapr oxi
malaxonandmanydistaldendri
tes.
[Link]
onalbasi
s
[Link]
yneuron:I
tconduct
simpul
sef
rom senseor
ganst
o
cent r
alnervoussy stem (CNS).
[Link]
i torneuron:Itconduct si
mpulsefrom CNSt oeffect
ororgans
i.I
i
i nterneuron( associat
ionneuron)
:Itint er-
li
nkssensoryandmotor
neur ons.
Thecel lbodiesofinterneuronsandmot orneuronsare
aggregat edwi ththef i
bersint
erconnecti
ngal lt y
pesofnervecell
s
toform ner vecent erscall
edgangl i
a.

Mechani
sm ofi
mpul
seconduct
ion:I
mpul
sesar
econduct
edbyt
he

51
neur
onsbyt
womeans.
Axonicconducti
on:Ioni
ccomposi t
ionvari
esbetweeninsideand
outsi
deofaxonr esul
ti
ngi nexci
tablecondi
ti
ons,whi
chl eadsto
i
mpul seconducti
onasel ect
ri
calr
esponse.
Synapti
cconduct i
on:Neur
ochemicaltr
ansmitter
sar einvolv
edin
the i mpulse conduct i
on t hrough t he sy napti
c gap.
Neurotr
ansmi t
ter
sandthetypeofreact
ionshelpi
ngi ntheimpul
se
conducti
onareasf ol
l
ows.
Nervoussystem canbediv
idedi
nt othr
eemaj orsub-sy
stemsas
.Ce
i nt
ralner
voussy
stem (
CNS)
.Vi
i
i scer
alner
voussy
stem (
VNS)
i
i
[Link]
ipher
alner
voussy
stem (
PNS)
.Ce
i nt
ralner
vous sy
stem:I
tcont
ains doubl
e ser
ies ofner
ve
centers(gangli
a).Thesegangli
aar econnect
ed byl ongitudinal
tract
sofner v
ef i
berscal
ledconnecti
vesandtransv
erset ractsof
nervefi
berscall
edcommi ssur
[Link]
alner
voussystem includes
thefoll
owing.
Br
a. ai
n:For
medbyt
hef
usi
onoff
ir
stt
hreecephal
ic
neur
omer
[Link]
otocer
ebr
um:Lar
ge,
inner
vat
e
compoundey
esandocel
li
.Deut
ocer
ebr
um:Found
beneat
hpr
otocer
ebr
um,
inner
vat
eant
ennae.
Tr
it
ocer
ebr
um:Bi
lobed,
inner
vat
elabr
um.
Br
aini
sthemai
nsensor
ycent
recont
rol
li
ngi
nsectbehav
iour
.
Vent
b. ralner
vecor
d:Medi
anchai
nofsegment
algangl
iabeneat
hoesophagus.
[Link] esophagealgangl
ia:For
med byt
he l
astt
hree cephal
ic
neur
omer
eswhi
chi
nner
vat
emandi
ble,
maxi
ll
aeandl
abi
um.
[Link]
aci
cgangl
ia:Thr
eepai
rsf
oundi
nther
espect
ivet
hor
aci
c
segment
s,l
argestgangl
ia,
inner
vat
elegsandmuscl
es.
[Link]
nalgangl
ia:Maxi
mum ei
ghtpairs wi
llpresentand
numberv
ari
esduet
ofusi
onofgangl
ia.I
nner
vat
espir
acles.
.Th
f or
acoabdomi
nalgangl
ia:Thor
aci
candabdomi
nalgangl
ia
ar
efusedtoform asi
ngl
ecompoundgangl
ia.I
nner
vat
egeni
tal
or
gansandcer
ci.
.Vi
i
i scer
alner
voussy
stem:Thev
iscer
al(
sympat
het
ic)ner
vous
syst
em consist
soft hr
eesepar at
esy stemsasf ol
lows:(1)the
stomodeal/
stomatogastr
ic whi
ch includes t
he frontalgangl
ion
and associ
ated wit
ht he brai
n,aorta and foregut
;( 2)Vent
r al
vi
sceral
,associ
atedwi t
ht heventralnervecord;and( 3)Caudal
52
vi
scer
al,associ
atedwitht
hepost
eri
or segment
sofabdomen.
Toget
herthenervesand

Acety
lase
Acet
y lCO-A+Choli
nechl
ori
deAcet y
l
chol
ine
Acety
lChol
ineEster
ase
Acet
y lchol
i
neCholi
ne+Aceti
caci
d

gangli
aoft hesesubsystemsi nnervatet
heant eri
orandpost eri
or
gut,severalendocri
ne organs ( Corpor
a cardiaca and Corpora
all
ata)
,thereproduct
iveorgans,andt hetr
achealsystem i
ncluding
thespir
acles.
i
i
[Link]
ipher
alner
vous sy
stem:The per
ipher
alner
vous sy
stem
consists ofal lthe motorneuron axons thatradiatet ot he
muscl es from t he gangli
a oft he CNS and vi
scer alnervous
system pl us t he sensory neurons of t
he cut
icular sensory
struct
ures( thesenseor gans)thatrecei
vemechanical,chemical
,
thermalorv isualsti
mulifrom anenvir
onment.

[Link]
omy
:Repr
oduct
ive

sy
stem Repr
oduct
iveSy
stem

Itisimpor tanttonot eheret hatv ariati

onamongi nsectr epr
oduct i
ve
systemsi [Link] esar eof teni solatedfr
om one
anotherv ia smallv ari
ati
ons i nt he mor phology ofr epr
oduct i
ve
organst hatpr ohi
bitinterspeciesmat [Link] er,agener al
ized
system can be const r
uct ed thatcl oselyr epr esents allsexual l
y
reproducingi [Link] armedi fyouar eunabl etolocate
thei ndi
cat edst r
ucturesony ourdi ssect edspeci [Link] amili
ar
withdi f
ferencesi nmal eandf emal egeni tal
iaandbeabl etoidentif
y
structureswhengi venadiagr [Link] rectionsar epr ovidedifyouwi sh
toat t
emptseei ngt hereproduct i
vesy stem ofy ourspeci men.

TheFemal eRepr oducti

v eSyst
em Remov ethedigesti
vetractfrom yourfemale
specimenbycut ti
ngi twithascalpelatt he
posterior-andant er
ior-
mostr egi
ons. Place
[Link],r
emov emuscletissue,aswell,
untilt
he
ovaries,lateraloviducts,medianov i
duct,seminalreceptacleandv aginaare
vi
[Link] ey our specimen witht he f
igur
es bel ow. Then observe
cl
assmat es’specimens.

53
TheMal eRepr oductiv
eSy stem Remov ethedigestivetractfr
om your
malespeci menbycut ti
ngi twithascal pelatt he
poster
ior-and ant erior
-mostr egions. Place
di
gestivetracttot hesi de.I fnecessary
,r emov emuscl eti
ssue,aswell,
unti
lthet estes,v asdef erens,semi nalv esi
cle,accessoryglands,and
ej
aculator
yductar ev i
[Link] ey ourspecimenwi t
ht hefigur
es
bel
[Link] v eclassmat es’speci
mens

I
ni nsectsmal eandfemal
[Link]
di
mor phism iscommonwherethemaledi
fferfrom thefemal e
morphological
lyasi
nbees,mosqui
[Link] her
ty
pesar e:

Gynandromor ph: (
Sexual mosai
c) Abnor
mal indi
vi
dual wi
th
secondary sexual char
acter
s ofboth mal
e and f
emale.e.
g.
mutantDrosophila.
Hermaphr
odit
e:Male and femal
e gonads ar
e pr
esenti
n one
or
ganism.e.
[Link]
tonycushi
onscal
e.

Femal
erepr
oduct
ivesy
stem
Themai nf
uncti
onsoft hefemalereproducti
vesystem areegg
product
ionandst orageofmale'sspermatozoaunti
ltheeggsar e
readytobefert
il
[Link] hef
emalesy st
em
arepairedovari
es,whichempt ytheirmatureoocytes(eggs)via
54
thecal
yces(Calyx)intot helater
aloviductwhi chuni tetof ormthe
common ( median) ov [Link] gonopor e( opening) of the
commonov iductisusual l
yconcealedi naninflecti
onoft hebody
wallthattypi
callyf orms a cav i
ty,t he genitalchamber .This
chamberservesasacopul ator
ypouchdur i
ngmat i
ngandt hus
i
sof t
enknownast hebur [Link]
sexter nalopeningisthe
vul
[Link] sthev ulv
ai snarrowandt hegeni talchamber
becomesanencl osedpouchort uber eferr
edtoast hev agina.
Twot ypesofect oder malglandsopeni ntot hegeni t
alchamber .
Thef i
rstisthe
spermathecawhi chst or
essper matozaunt i
lt heyareneededf or
eggf ert
il
izati
[Link]
spermathecai ssingleandsac-li
kewi thaslenderduct ,andof t
en
hasadi vert
iculum thatfor
msat ubul
arsper mat [Link]
gland or gl andular cell
s wi t
hin t he storage par t of the
spermathecapr ovi
denour i
shmentt othecontainedsper matozoa.
The second t ype ofect odermalgl and,known col lectively as
accessoryglands, opensmor eposteriorl
yinthegeni talchamber .
Eachov aryiscomposedofacl ust
erofeggorov ari
ant ubes, the
ovari
oles,eachconsi sti
ngofat erminalfil
ament ,ager mar ium ( i
n
which mi t
osisgi vesr i
seto primaryoocy t
es),a v i
tellari
um ( i
n
whichoocy tesgrow bydeposi ti
onofy ol
kinapr ocessknownas
vit
ell
ogenesis)and a pedi cel
.An ov ari
ole contain a ser iesof
developi
ngoocy teseachsur roundedbyal ayeroff ol l
iclecel l
s
forminganepi theli
um (theoocytewi t
hi tsepit
helium ist ermeda
fol
li
cle),t
hey oungestoocy t
eoccurneart heapicalger mar ium and
themostmat ureneart [Link] earedi ffer
entt ypesof
ovari
oless based on t he presence orabsence ofspeci al
ized
nutri
ti
vecellscalledt r
ophocytes/nur secellsfornour ishmentof
oocytes.

Paniost
ic ovar
iol
e:Lacks special
ized nut
riti
ve cel
ls so t
hati t
contai
ns onlya str
ing offoll
icl
es,witht he oocyt
es obtaini
ng
nutr
ientsfrom t
hehaemolymphv i
at hefol
licul
arepit
heli
um.e. g.
Cockroach.
Telot
rophi
c ov ar
iol
e:( Acr
otrophi
c)The t r
ophocyt
ei s present
and itsl ocat
ion is confi
ned tot he ger
mar i
um and remai n
connectedtotheoocy t
esbycy t
oplasmi
cstrandsastheoocy tes
mov edownt heovar
iol
[Link].
Poly
trophicovar
iole:Anumberoft rophocyt
esar econnectedto
eachoocy t
eandt r
ophocyt
esmov esdownal ongwiththeovari
ole,
provi
ding nut
ri
ents unt
ildepl
[Link] indi
v i
dualoocyt
es are
al
ternatedwit
hgroupsofsmallertr
ophocytesintheovar
iol
es.e.
g.

55
mot
hsandf
li
es.
Accessory glands oft he f
emaler eproducti
vet ractare oft
en
call
ed ascol let
eri
alorcementgl ands,becauset heirsecr
eti
ons
surr
oundandpr otecttheeggsorcementt hem tot hesubstr
ate.
[Link] case pr oducti
on in mantis,oot heca f or
mati
on in
cockroach,venom producti
oninbees.

Mal
erepr
oduct
ivesy
stem
The mai nf unctions oft he mal er epr oducti
ve sy st
em ar et he
product i
on andst orageofsper mat ozoaandt heirt r
anspor tina
viable st ate t o t he r eproduct ive t r
act of t he f emal e.
Mor phologically
,t hemal etractconsi stsofpai redt estes,each
containing a ser ies oft esticulart ubes orf ollicles (in whi ch
spermat ozoaar epr oduced)whi chopensepar at elyi ntothesper m
ductorv asdef [Link] sv asdef erensexpandspost er i
orl
yt o
form asper m st or ageor ganorsemi [Link] arpai red
accessor yglandsar eformedasdi v erticulaofthev asadef erentia.
Somet imest hev asadef er
ent i
at hemsel ves ar e gl andul arand
fulf
ilt he f unctions of accessor y gl ands. The pai red v asa
deferentiauni t
ewher et heyleadi ntoej acul
ator yduct( thet ube
that transpor tst he semen or t he sper m t ot he gonopor e).
Accessor ygl andsar e1-3pai rsassoci atedwi t
hv asadef erenti
aor
ejaculatoryduct .I t
sf unct i
on i st o pr oduce semi nalf luid and
spermat ophor es( sper m containingcapsul e).

Phy
siol
ogyofr
epr
oduct
ion

Spermatogenesi
s Oogenesi
s
(occur
sinside (occur
sinsi
deeggt
ube)
spermtube)

56
Spermatogonia Oogonia
Mitosi
s Mitosi
s
Primar
ySper matocy tes
(2n)
Primar
yoocy tes(2n)
Meiosi
s
Meiosi
s
SecondarySpermat ocytes
(n)
Secondaryoocytes( n)
Mitosi
s
Mitosi
s
Spermatids(n) Oocy t
es(n)
Spermiogenesis Vit
ell
ogenesi
s
Sperms( n) Ovum (n)

3.
Sper
mt ransf er:
(
i)Intr agenital
:Commonmet hod,through,
aedeagusv i
av aginalor
if
icei nt
of emale
geni talpassage.
(
i)Ha
i emocoel ous:Sper mst ransfer
edi nt
ot hebodycav
itye.
g.
Bedbug.
(
ii
i)E xt ernal
:Sper matophoresar eejectedout
intoopenpl acebymal ewhi l
efemal ewal k
ov eri tandget [Link]
verfish.
[Link]
li
zati
on:Sperm enterinto egg to produce
mor phogenesi
[Link]
desmeioti
cal
lyinto
female gamete nucl
eus and polarbody
.Then t he
fert
il
izati
onoccur
sbyt he fusi
on of
male and femal
e gametenucl
ei.

Ty
pesofr
epr
oduct
ion
1. Ov
ipar
it
y:Maj
ori
tyoff
emal
einsect
s,ar
eov
ipar
ous,
l
ay eggs. Embry
onic devel
opment occur
s after
ovi
posi
ti
on by ut
il
izi
ng the yol
k,e.
[Link] l
ouse,
moths.

[Link]
vi
par
it
y:Unl
ikeov
ipar
ous,her
eini
ti
ati
onofegg
dev
elopmentt
akespl
acewi
thi
nthemot
her
.Thel
if
e

57
cycl
ei sshortened byretent
ion ofeggsand ev en
devel
[Link]
pes
ofviv
ipari
tyar
eobser v
edindif
ferenti
nsectgr
oups.

.Ov
i ovi
vi
par
it
y:Fer
ti
li
zedeggscont
aini
ngy
olk
areincubatedi nsi
det her epr
oduct
ivet r
actof
thefemal eandhatchingofeggoccurj ustpri
or
toorsoon af t
erov i
posit
[Link]
ps,some
cockroaches, few beet les, and flesh fl
y.
Fecundityofthi
sgroupi sl
ow.
.Ps
i
i eudopl
acent
alv
ivi
par
it
y:Thi
soccur
swhen
ay olkdef ici
enteggdev elopsinthegenitaltract
oft hef emal [Link] herprov i
desaspeci al
pl
acent a- l
iketissue,thr
oughwhi chnut r
ientsar e
tr
ansf erredt odev elopi
ngembr [Link]
oralfeedi ngandl arvaear elai
duponhat ching.
e.
g. aphi ds, some ear wi
gs, psocids and
polytenidbugs.
i
i
[Link] ousv i
vipari
ty:Thisinvolvesembr y os
developi ng free int he female's haemolymph
withnut ri
entst akenupbyosmosi [Link] orm
of i nternal par asi
ti
sm occur s onl y i n
sterpsipteraandsomegal lmidges.
i
[Link]
rophi
c v
ivipari
ty:This occur s when a
poor l
ydev el
opedl arvahatchesandf eedsor all
y
from accessor y gland (milk gland)secr etion
wi t
hintheut er
usoft hemot [Link] ullgrown
l
ar vai s deposited and pupat es immedi ately
(e.g.
)Tset sefl
ies,louse,
ked, batfl
ies.
Par
3. thenogenesi
s:Repr
oduct
ionwi
thoutf
ert
il
izat
ion
i
s par
thenogenesi
s. Di ff
erent t
ypes of
par
thenogenesi
sareasfol
lows:
Basedonoccur
a. rence
.F
i acul
tat
ive(
notcompul
sor
y)e.
[Link].
.Ob
i
i l
igat
oryorconst
ant(
compul
sor
y)e.
[Link]
icki
nsect
i
i
[Link]
cli
c/spor
adi
c:al
ter
nat
ionofgami
candagami
cpopul
ati
on.
e.
[Link]
d.
Basedonsexpr
b. oduced:
i
. Ar
rhenot
oky
: Pr
oduce mal
e e.
g. bee

58
 .Th
i
i el
ytoky
:pr
oducef
emal
ee.
[Link]
ds
i
i
[Link]
toky/deut
erot
oky
:pr
oduce
bot
hmal
eandf
emal
ee.
[Link]
nipi
dwasp.
Basedonmei
c. osi
s:
.Ap
i omicti
c:nomei osi
soccurs
.Au
i
i tomicti
c:meiosisoccur
s,butdi
ploi
dyi
smai
ntai
ned
[Link]
yembr
yony
:Thi
sfor
m ofasexualr eproduction
i
nvolvestheproduct i
onoft woormor eembr yosfrom
oneeggbysubdi visi
[Link] l
yobser vedinpar asiti
c
i
nsects( g. Pl
e. atygast
er). Nutri
ti
on f or a l arge
numberofdev elopingembr yocannotbesuppl iedby
the ori
ginalegg and i s acquir
ed f r
om t he host '
s
haemolymph t hr ough a speci al
ized env eloping
membr anecall
edt rophamnion.
[Link]
s:Some i
nsect
s cutshor
tthei
rli
fe
cycles byl oss ofadul tand pupalst [Link]
precociousst agegonadsdev elopandgi vebirt
ht o
young onebypar [Link]
ion by
i
mmat ureinsects.
[Link]
alpaedogenesi [Link]
lmidges
.Pu
i
i s–[Link]
palpaedogenesi ast
ersp.

Senseor gans
Sensil
laar et heor gansassociat
edwith
sensoryper ceptionanddev el
opf r
om epider
mal
cel
[Link] ff
erentt ypesofsenseorgansare:
[Link] eceptor
s
[Link] or
s
[Link] ecept ors
[Link] eceptorsand
[Link] eceptors.

Mechanor
1. ecept
ors(
det
ectmechani
calf
orces)
.Tr
i ichoi
dsensi
ll
a:Hai
rli
kel
it
tl
esenseor
[Link]
cel
lassoci
atedwi t
[Link]
sare
sensi
ti
vetot ouchandarelocat
edinant ennaand
tr
ophi(mout
hpar t
s).
.Ca
i
i mpani
for
m sensi
ll
a(Dome sensi
ll
a):Ter
minal

59
endoft hesesensil
laisrodli
keandi nser
ted i
nto
domeshapedcut i
[Link]
lsaresensit
iveto
pressur
eandlocatedinl
egjoi
ntsandwingbases.
i
i
[Link]
dot
onal or
gan: The speci ali
zed sensor y
organs that r ecei
ve v ibrati
ons ar e subcut icul
ar
mechano r eceptors call
ed chor dotonalor [Link]
organconsi st
sofonet omanyscol opidia,eachof
whichconsistsofcapcel l,scolopal
ecel landdendr i
te.
These organs ar ei nt
eroceptors attached t o both
endsofbodywal l
.
Functi
ons:
.Pr
i opri
ocept
ion(
posi
ti
oni
ngoft
hei
rbodypar
tsi
nrel
ati
ont
othe
gravi
ty)
.
.Se
i
i nsi
ti
vet
osoundwav
es,v
ibr
ati
onofsubst
rat
um andpr
essur
e
changes.
i
i
[Link]
on'
s or
gan:Al
ladul
tsi
nsect
s and many
l
arvae have a compl ex chordotonalorgan cal
led
Johnston'
sor ganl yi
ng wit
hint hesecond ant
ennal
segment( Pedicel
).Theseorganssensemov ements
ofantennalflagel
[Link]
nhearingin
somei nsectsli
kemal emosquitoesandmidges.
i
[Link]
gan:Chor
dot
onalor
ganl
ocat
edi
nthe
pr
oximalt i
biaofeachleg,usedtodetectsubst
rat
e
vi
brat
[Link] gans arefound in most
i
nsects,exceptt
heCol
eopteraandDi
pter
a
Audi
2. tor
yrecept
ors(
det
ectsoundwav
es)
.De
i l
icat
e t
act
il
e hai
rs:Pr
esenti
n pl
umose ant
enna ofmal
e
mosqui
to.
.Ty
i
i mpanum:Thi
sisamembr
anest
ret
chedacr
oss
tympani
c cav i
tyresponds t
o sounds pr oduced at
some distance,tr
ansmitt
ed by airborne vi
br at
ion.
Tympanalmembr anes arelinked to chor dotonal
organs t
hatenhance sound r [Link] mpanal
organsar
el ocat
ed
*Bet
weent
hemet
athor
aci
clegsofmant
ids.
*Themet
athor
axofmanynect
uidmot
hs.
*Thepr
othor
aci
clegsofmanyor
thopt
erans.

60
 *Theabdomenofshor
thor
nedgr
asshopper
,ci
cada.
*Thewi
ngsofcer
tai
nmot
hsandl
acewi
ngs.
Chemor
3. ecept
ors(
det
ectsmel
landt
ast
e)
Detectchemi calener [Link] eceptorsar e
sensilla wit
h one por e(uniporous)ormor e por es
(multiporous). Unipor ous chemor ceptors most l
y
detectchemi calsofsol idandl i
quidf orm bycont act
andar ecalledasgust at
or [Link]
neurons l ocated in ant enna ar e of t hi
s t ype.
Multiporous chemor eceptors detect chemi calsi n
vapourf orm,atdi stantbysmel landar eacal ledas
olf
act [Link] sensor yneur onsl ocatedi n
tr
ophiandt arsiareoft hi
st [Link] ef ormsa
chamberknownaspor eket tl
ewi t
hmor enumberof
poret ubulesthatruni nwar dstomeetmul ti
branched
dendrites.
Ther
4. mor
ecept
ors(
det
ectheat
)
Presentinpoi
kil
other
micinsect
sandsensiti
ve
t
ot emperatur
[Link] i ti
susefulto
l
ocatethehostutil
izi
ngthetemperat
uregradi
entof
t
hehost.
Phot
5. orecept
ors(
det
ectl
ightener
gy)
[Link]
es:Thecompoundey
eisbasedon
many i ndiv
idual uni t
s cal led ommat idia. Each
ommat i
dium i s mar ked exter nall
ybya hexagonal
areacal l
edf [Link] ei smadeupoft wo
partscal l
edopt i
cpar tandsensor ypar [Link] icpar t
containsacut icularlenscal l
edcor neallenssecr et
ed
bycor neagenouscel lsandcr ystal
lineconecov er
ed
bypr i
mar ypigmentcel [Link] ionoft heopt icpar t
i
st ogat her li
ght. Sensor ypart
containssi x to ten
visual cells cal led r eti
nular cel l
s cov ered by
secondar ypigmentcel l
swhi chcol l
ectivel
ysecr etea
l
ightsensi ti
v er od att he cent re call
ed r habdom.
Rhabdom cont ains lightsensi ti
ve pigment s call
ed
[Link] idi
um i scov eredbyar ingof
l
ightabsor bing pi gment ed cells,whi ch isolatesan
ommat i
dium f rom ot [Link] vecel l
sar ecl ust er
ed

61
ar
oundt
hel
ongi
tudi
nalaxi
sofeachommat
idi
um.
Ty
pesofommat
idi
a
.Ap
i posi
ti
ont
ype(
li
ghtt
ight
):Duet
othepr
esenceof
pri
mar ypigmentcell
slightcannotentertheadjacent
cell
[Link] ci
magef ormedi sverydist
inct
.The
i
magef or
medbyt hecompoundey eisofaser i
esof
opposedpoi ntsofli
ghtofdi f
ferentint
ensit
[Link]
functi
onswel li
ndiur
nalinsect
s.
.Su
i
i perposi
ti
on type:Pri
mary pi
gmentcel l
s are
absent all
owing l i
ght t
o pass between adj
acent
ommat idi
[Link] or
medinthiswayar ei
ndisti
nct
,
[Link]
ypeisseeni
nnocturnaland
crepuscul
arinsects.
[Link]
eral ocel
li( St
emmata): Visual organs of
hol
ometabolous larv
a. St
ructur
e i s simi l
ar to
ommati
dium.I thelps t
o detectform,col ourand
movement,andalsotoscantheenv i
ronment.
Dor
c. salocel
li
:Vi
sualor
gansofny
mphandi
tvar
y
from 0-
3i nnumber s.I
tcontai
nsasinglecor neall
ens
wi t
h many v isualcell
si ndi
vidual
ly secreti
ng the
rhabdomer [Link]
liper
ceiveli
ghtt omai ntai
n
diurnal rhyt
hm and i s not invol
ved i n i mage
percepti
on.

[Link]
[Link]
s:Egg
st
ruct
ureandtypesofeggs

Met
amor
phosi
sandi
mmat
urest
agesi
ninsect
s
Metamorphosisist he change i
n gr
owth and
devel
opmentaninsectundergoesduri
ngitsli
fecycl
e
fr
om bir
thtomat ur
ity
.Therear efourbasi
ctypesof
metamorphosi
sininsect
s.
Amet
1. abol
a:(
No met
amor
phosi
s)e.
[Link]
lv
erf
ish.
Theseinsectshav eonlyt hr
eest ages i
nt hei
rl i
fe
namely egg,y oung ones and adul t
.I tis most
pri
mit
ive type of met [Link] hatching
i
nsectresemblest headultinallr
espectsexceptfor
thesi
zeandcal l
edasj uvenil
[Link]
ngcontinues

62
t
hroughoutt
hel
if
e.
[Link]
met
abol
a:(
Incompl
ete met
amor
phosi
s)e.
g.
Dragonf l
y,damsel fl
yandmayf l
[Link] nsectsalso
havet hreest agesi ntheirl
ifenamel yegg,y oungone
andadul [Link] oungonesar eaquaticandar ecalled
asnai [Link] ediff
erentfrom adultsinhabitand
[Link] eathebymeansoft rachealgill
[Link]
dragonf l
ynaiadt helowerlip(labi
um)i scal l
edmask
which i s hi nged and pr ov i
ded wi th hooks f or
capturing prey .Af terfi
nalmoul t,thei nsectshav e
ful
lydev elopedwi ngssuit
edf oraeri
allif
e.
Paur
3. omet
abol
a: (
Gradual met
amor
phosi
s) e.
g. Cockr
oach,
gr
asshopper
,bugs.
The y oung ones ar e call
ed ny [Link] ar et err
estri
aland
resembl etheadultsingener albodyf orm exceptthewi ngsand
externalgenital
[Link] ey es and mout h part
s are
simil
art othatofadul t
[Link] hnymphsandadul t
ssharet hesame
[Link] ernall
yappeari nlaterinst
[Link] t
ali
a
developmentisgr [Link] osel
yresembl ethe
adultwi t
hsuccessivemoul t
s.
Hol
4. omet
abol
a:(
Compl
etemet
amor
phosi
s)e.
[Link]
ter
fl
y,mot
h,
f
lyandbees.
Thesei nsectshav efourlifestagesnamel yegg, l
arva,
pupaandadul [Link] i
tyofinsectsunder gocompl ete
met amor phosi
[Link] vae of but terf
lies ar e call
ed
caterpil
[Link] differsgreatl
yi nfor mf rom adult.
Compoundey esar eabsenti [Link] eralocell
ior
stemmat aaret hev [Link] rmout hparts
and f ood habi t di ff
er f rom adul ts. Wi ng
developmenti [Link] hel arvalgr owthis
compl eted,ittransformsi [Link] ingt henon-
feedingpupalst age,t helarvaltissuesdi si
ntegr
ate
andadul torgansar ebui l
tup.

[Link]:Thef
ir
stst
ageofdev
elopmenti
nal
linsect
s
i
[Link] ori
tyofinsect
sar eov
[Link]
i
nconspi cuous, inexpensiv
e and i nacti
ve. Yolk
contained in the egg suppor t
s t he embr yoni
c
development .Eggsar elai
dundercondi ti
onswher e
the food i s avail
ablef orfeeding oft he futur
e

63
[Link] ar el aid ei
therindi v
iduall
yori n
[Link] outerpr otective shel
loft he egg i
s
call
ed chori
[Link] he anteriorend oft heegg,
thereis a smallopeni ng cal l
ed mi cropyl
e which
all
owst hesperm entryforf er
til
izat
[Link] i
onmay
havea v ar
iet
yoft ext
ur [Link] shapeoft he
i
nsecteggsv arywidely.
TYPESOFEGGS:
SI
a) NGLYLAI
D:
1)Scul
ptur
edegg:Chor
ionwi
thr
eti
cul
atemar
kingsandr
idgese.
g.
Cast
orbut
ter
fl
y.
2)El
ongat
eegg:Eggsar
eci
garshaped.e.
[Link]
ghum shootf
ly.
3)Roundedegg:Eggsar
eei
therspher
icalorgl
obul
ar.e.
[Link]
tr
us
but
ter
fl
y
4)Ni
t:Eggofheadl
ousei
scal
ledni
t.I
tiscement
ed
tothebaseoft hehai
[Link]
posteri
orend,whi [Link]
anteri
orend,therei
sanov all
idwhi
chisli
ftedatt
ime
ofhatching.
5)Egg wit
hfloat :Egg is boat shaped wit
ha
conspicuousf
loatoneit
hersi
[Link]
eralsi
desare
[Link] expansions ser
ve as float
s.e.g.
Anophelesmosquito.
b)EGGSLAI
DINGROUPS:
1)Pedi
cel
lat
eeggs:Eggsar
elai
dinsi
lkenst
alksofabout
1.
25mm l
engt
hinonegr
oupsonpl
ant
s.e.
[Link]
eenl
acewi
ngf
ly.
2)Bar
relshapedeggs:Eggsar
ebar
[Link]
looklikemi niat urebatteri
[Link] edeposi tedin
compact lyar rangedmasses.e. [Link]
nkbug.
3)Oo theca( Pl .Oot hecae):Eggsar edeposi ted by
cockroachi nabr ownbeanl i
kechitinouscapsul e.
Eachoot hecaconsi st
sofadoubl elay eredwr apper
protecti
ngt wo par all
elr owsofeggs. Eachoot heca
has16 eggsar ranged i nt wo [Link] hecae ar e
carri
edf orsev eraldayspr otrudingfr
om t heabdomen
off emal epr iort o ovipositi
on in a secluded spot .
Alongt het op,t hereisacr estwhichhassmal lpores
whichper mi tgaseousexchangewi thoutunduewat er

64
[Link]
nous egg case is produced outoft he
secreti
onsofcollet
eri
alglands.
4)Eggpod:Gr asshopperssecr eteaf r
othymat er
ial
thatencasesaneggmasswhi chisdepositedinthe
[Link] acksadef i
nit
ecov er
[Link]
thet opoftheegg,thefrothysubstancehar densto
form aplugwhi
chpr ev
entst hedryi
ngofeggs.
Eggcass:Mant
5. idsdeposi
tthei
reggsont
wigsi
na
foamysecreti
oncall
edspumali
newhichev entuall
y
[Link]
theeggcase,eggsar
eali
gnedi
nr owsi
nsi
det heegg
chambers.
[Link]:Mot
hsl
ayeggsi
ngr
oupsi
namassof
i
[Link]
uftofhai
rsfoundattheendof
theabdomeni smainlyusedforthispur
pose.e.
g.
Ricest
em borer
.
Femalesil
kwor m mot
hundercapt
ivi
tylayseggson
[Link]
scall
edadfl(diseasesf
ree
l
aying)
.
Ef
7. fr
af nCul
t:I exmosqui
toes,t
heeggsar
elai
dina
compactmassconsi
sti
ngof200-300eggscal
led
eggr
afti
nwater
.

[Link]
amor
phosi
s:Lar
vaandt
ypesofl
arv
ae

LARVAE
Larvalstageist heacti
vegr owi
ng st
[Link]
i
mmat ur
estagebet weent heeggandpupalstageof
an insect having complete metamorphosi
[Link]
stagedif
fersradical
lyf
rom theadul
t.
TYPESOFLARVAE:Therearethreemaintypesof
i
nsectl
arv
aenamel
yol
igopod,
pol
ypodandapodous.

OLI
1. GOPOD :Thor
aci
cl egs ar
e welldev
eloped.
Abdomi
nall
egsar
eabsent
.Therearet
wosubtypes.
[Link]
for
m:They ar
e so cal
led f
rom t
hei
r
r
esembl
ancet
othedi
plur
[Link]

65
i
s el ongate, depressed dorsovent
rall
y and wel l
scler
oti
[Link] [Link]
egsare
l
[Link] rofabdomi nalcer
ciorcaudalprocessesi
s
usuall
ypr [Link]
ypr edat
orsand
areveryactive.e.
[Link]
onorgrubofladybri
d
beetl
e.
Scar
b. abaei
for
m :Body i
s` C'shaped,stoutand
subcy l
indri
cal
.Headiswelldevel
[Link]
clegs
are shor t
.Caudalprocesses ar
e absent
.Lar vais
sluggish,burr
owingintowoodorsoi l.e.
[Link]
rhinocerosbeetl
e.
POLYPOD orERUCI
2. FORM :Thebodyconsi
stsofanel
ongat
e
t
runk
withl argesclerotisedheadcapsul [Link] sa
pairofpower fulmandi bleswhi cht earupv eget ation.
Twogr oupsofsi nglel ensedey es( Stemmat a)f ound
onei t
hersideoft heheadconst itutethev isual or gans.
Theant ennai sshor t
.Thr eepairsoft horacicl egsand
uptof i
vepairsofunj oint edabdomi nallegsorpr olegs
arepr [Link] acicl egsar esegment edandt hey
endi nclawswhi char eusedf orhol dingont othel eaf.
Bottom oft hepr olegi scal l
edpl antawhi cht y pical l
y
bearsr ows orci r
cletofshor thooked spi nes or
crochetswhi char eusef ulinclingingt ot heexposed
surface of v egetation and wal king. Abdomi nal
segment st
hreet osi xandt ent ypicallybearpr ol egs.
[Link]
ll
ar( l
arvaeofmot hsadbut ter
flies).
Hai
a. rycat
erpi
ll
ar:Thebodyhai
rsmaybedense,
spar
seorarrangedi
ntuft
[Link]
smaycausei
rr
it
ati
on,
whentouched.e.
[Link]
ycater
pil
lar
.
[Link]
ug cat
erpi
ll
ar:Lar
vai
sthi
ck,shor
t,st
outand
fl
[Link] ssmallandretract
il
[Link]
c
l
egs ar e mi nut
e. Abdominal l
egs ar e absent.
Abdomi nalsegmentati
on isindi
sti
[Link] v
a has
poisonousspinescal
ledscol
idi
str
ibutedallovert
he
[Link]
v ai
salsocal
ledpl
aty
formlarva.
[Link]
looper:Ei
thert
hreeorf
ourpai
rsofpr
olegs
are present
. Prolegs are eit
her want i
ng or
rudi
mentaryin eit
her thi
rd or thi
rd and four
th

66
abdomi [Link]
ooper.
[Link]:Theyar ealsocal l
edmeasur ingworm or
earthmeasur erori nchwor [Link] hi
st y
pe,onl
yt wo
pairs ofpr olegs are presenti n si
xth and t
enth
abdomi [Link].
APODOUS:Theyar
3. elar
vaewi
thoutappendagesf
or
l
[Link] on t
he degr
ee ofdevel
opment
andsclerot
izat
ionofheadcapsulether
earethree
subt
ypes.
[Link]
ous :Larva wit
h welldev el
oped head
capsul
e wi t
h f uncti
onal mandibles, maxil
lae,
[Link]
blesacttr
ansver
sely.
[Link]
ggl
er(
lar
vaofmosquito)andgrubofredpalm
weevil
.
[Link]
cephal
ous:Headcapsul
eisr
educedandcan
bewi
thdr
awni
ntot
hor
[Link]
blesactv
ert
ical
ly
.
e.
[Link]
vaofhor
sef
lyandr
obberf
ly.
Acephal
c. ous:Headcapsul
eisabsent
.Mout
hpar
ts
consi
stofapai rofprotrusi
blecurv
edmout hhooks
andassoci
atedint
ernalscler
it
[Link]
ealsocall
ed
ver
mifor
ml arv
[Link](lar
vaofhousefl
y).

67
[Link]
amor
phosi
s:Pupaandt
ypesofpupae

PUPA:
Itisther est
ingandinacti
vest ageinallholomet abol
ousinsects.
During this st
age,t
he insecti si ncapable off eedi
ng and i s
[Link]
ngthetransit
ionalstage,thelarvalcharact
ersare
destroyedandnew adultchar acter
sar [Link]
mai ntypesofpupae.
[Link]:Var
iousappendagesoft
hepupav
iz.
,ant
ennae,l
egs
andwingpadsare gl
uedt ot hebodybyasecr et
ionproduced
duri
ngthel
astl
arv
[Link]
aces oftheappendages
aremoreheavi
lyscl
erot
isedt hanthoseadjacenttobody .e.
g.
mothpupa.
[Link]
ysal
is:I
tist
henakedobt
ectpupaofbut
ter
fl
y.I
tisangul
ar
andattr
acti
[Link]
rat
um
byhookspr esentatt heterminalend oft heabdomen cal
led
cremaster
.Themi ddlepartoft hechrysali
sisattachedtothe
subst
ratum bytwost r
ongsilkenthr
eadscall
edgri
dle.
Tumbl
b. er:Pupaofmosqui
toi
scal
ledt
umbl
er.I
tisanobt
ect
typeofpupa.I ti
scommashapedwi t
hr udi
mentaryappendages.
Breat
hing trumpets are pr
esenti
nthe cephali
c end and anal
paddlesar epresentatt heend [Link] i s
capable ofjerkymov ements whi
ch ar
e produced bythe anal
[Link] er
yactiv
e.
[Link]:Var
iousappendagesv
iz.
,ant
ennae,l
egsandwi
ng
padsar enotgl
uedt othebody .[Link]
loli
gopodlarv
ae
willturnint
[Link] ssoftandpalee.
[Link]
rhinocerosbeetl
e.
COARCTATE:Thepupalcasei
3. sbarrelshaped,smoothwithno
appar [Link] astlar
valskinischangedintocase
cont ai
ningtheexarat
[Link] deneddarkbrownpupalcase
iscal l
edpupari
[Link].
PUPALPROTECTI
ON
In generalpupalst age lacks mobi l
it
[Link] i tisthe most
vulnerabl
est [Link] ot
ecti
onagai nstadversecondi
ti
ons
andnat uralenemies,thepupai sencl osedi naprotect
ivecover
called [Link] on t he nature and mat er
ial
s used f
or
preparati
onofcocoons, t
herearesev eralt
y pes.

Typesof Mat
eri
alsused Exampl
e
cocoon
68
si
lken Si
lk Si
lkwor
m
cocoon
Earthen Soil+sal
i
va Gr
am podbor
er
cocoon
HairycocoonBodyhair
s Woollybear
Frassy Frass+sali
va Coconutblackheaded
cocoon cat
erpil
l
ar
Fibr
ous Fi
bres Redpl
am weev
il
cocoon
Pupari
um Har
denedlast Housef
ly
l
arv
alski
n

69
[Link],pr
inci
plesandpr
ocedur
es.
Nomenclat
ureandidenti
fi
cat
ion

Taxonomyi st hescienceofcl assi

fi
cati
[Link] i
nedas
placing biological organi
sms or f orms i n or der
. Simpson
(1961)has def ined taxonomy as t he t heoreti
cal study of
classif
icat
ion includi
ng basis,pri
nci
ples,proceduresand rules.
Taxonomyi ncludesnomenclatureandclassif
icati
on.
Systemat
ics:The sci
ence ofst udy ofki
nd and di
v ersit
y of
or
ganisms and anyoral lrelat
ions among t
[Link] stemat i
cs
i
ncludest
axonomyandev olut
ion.
St
agesoft axonomy
:Thetaxonomyofanygr ouppassest hroughsev
eralst
ages.

(
i)Al
phat
axonomy(
α):I
tisconcer
nedwi
thnami
ngandchar
act
eri
sat
ionof
speci
es.
(
i)Be
i t
ataxonomy(
β):Concer
nedwi
thcl
assi
fi
cat
ion
(
ii
i)Gamat
axonomy(
γ):Concer
nedwi
thev
olut
ionar
yrel
ati
onsandphy
logeny
.

Basisforcl assif
icati
on:Cl assif
icati
oni stheor der i
ngofal arge
group of or ganisms based on cer t
ain charactersi nto smal l
[Link]
cationismai nlybasedonev ol
utionaryrelat
ionship
and notbased on super fi
cialr [Link] nts considered
whileclassi
fyingar e(i)externalstruct
ure,(ii
)internalcharacters,
(i
ii
) dev el
opment al hist
ory,( iv) physiol
ogical dat a and ( v )
cytogeneti
cdat a.
The bi ologicalsy st
em of cl assifi
cati
on i s call
ed hi erarchial
conceptofcl assifi
cati
[Link] s was int r
oduced by Car lVon
Linnaeus ( 1758) .A l ar
ge gr oup ofor ganism i s successi vely
subdividedi ntosmal [Link] oupsar ecalledtaxa( taxon-
singular)
.Eachgr oupisatapar t
icularlevelinthissy [Link] s
l
ev eliscal ledt her [Link] oupsoft hesamer ankar egr ouped
togetherandt hatconst i
tutesthet axonomi ccat [Link].
Cer t
aint axonomi c categories are obl i
gate,whi le other s ar e
[Link] i
bingand cl assifyi
nganyor ganism t hebasi c
taxonomi c cat egor yis speci [Link] l owermostcat egoryf or
classify
inganor ganism issubspeci es.
Sy
stematicposi t
ionofIndi
anhoney
-bee
*[Link]
ngdom:Ani mali
a
*[Link]
um:Ar thropoda
*[Link]
ass:Insecta

70
 [Link]
ass:Pt
ery
got
a
*[Link]:Hymenopt er
a
[Link] der:Apocrita
[Link] amily:Apioidea
*[Link] l
y:Apidae
[Link] ami l
y:Apinae
*1 [Link]:Api s
*1 [Link]:indica
(*-Obl i
gate, whil
eot hersopt i
onal)
Sub speci esi st hegeogr aphicv ar
ietyorr [Link] st he
naturalr eproduct i
v e unit among ani mal [Link] s a group of
indivi
dualshav i
ngsi mi l
arst r
ucture,dev elopmentandbehav iour
whi chinterbreedt opr oducev i
ableoffsprings.(Biologi
calspecies
conceptsay sthataspeci esisanat ural,interbreedi
ngpopulation
whi ch isr eproduct i
velyisolated fr
om t he indivi
dual
s ofot her
species) .
Funct i
onsofspeci es
.Re
i pr
oduct
ivecommuni
ty:Thei
ndi
vi
dual
soft
hespeci
esar
eabl
e
torecogni seeachot heraspot enti
almat eandseekeachot herfor
thepurposeofr eproducti
on.
i
[Link] cologi calunit:I
rr
espectiveofthenumberofi ndi
vi
dualsthey
actasauni tandi nt
eractwiththeindiv
idualsofotherspecieswith
whichtheyshar ethehabitat
.
i
i.A g
i enet ic uni t:it consists of a l ar
ge number of i nter
-
communi cat i
nggenepooli nwhi chthei ndivi
dualisat emporary
reser
voirhol dingapor ti
onofgenesf orashor tperi
od.
Bodytexty oungonebypar t
henogenesis.
i
. Larv [Link].

[Link]
atur
eandi
dent
if
icat
ion
Anamei srequi
redf
orident
if
icat
ionofanyor
[Link]
ly
t
wotypesofnamesareused(i
)commonname( i
i)sci
ent
if
icname.
I
.Commonname

(
i)Theyar
einaccur
atebecausei
tvar
iesf
romregi
ontor egi
on
and count
ryto count
ryandt
her
eisnouni
for
mityfol
lowedin
namingtheor
ganisms.
e.
[Link]
ri
ngcicadai
nEuropeancountri
esand
normall
ylocust
sal
sor
efertoshor
thor
nedgrasshopper
sli
vingi
n
groups.
(
i)Co
i mmonnamei
snotav
ail
abl
eforal
lor
gani
sms

71
e.g. Squash bugs pr
esent in cucur
bit
aceous plants ar e
repr
esentedbymanyspeci
es,butnocommonnamei sav ai
lable
foreachspeci
[Link]
savai
labl
eonlyforalargegr
oupl i
keor der
andfamily.
(
ii
i)Samecommonnamei
susedf
ori
nsect
sofdi
ff
erentor
der
s.
e.
[Link]
[Link]
y2wings,wher
easotheri
nsect
sli
ke
mayf
ly,dr
agonfl
y,etc.
,ar
eal
somenti
onedasfl
ies.
(
iv)Homony
m -Samenamei
susedf
ordescr
ibi
ngt
wodi
ff
erentt
ypeofi
nsect
s.
[Link]
lwor m i
sacommont
erm usedf
ormor
ethanf
ivespeci
esofbol
l
feedi
nginsect
s.
(
v)Sy
nony
m -Mor
ethanonenamedenot
ingasi
ngl
einsect
.
e.
[Link]
am podbor
er,
Amer
icanbol
lwor esHel
m denot icover
paar
miger
a
II
.Sci ent
if
icname:Thesy stem ofnamingor gani
smsusingtwo
wordsi scall
ed Binomialnomencl at
ure(Trinomialnomenclat
ure
i
ft hreewor dsareused) .Thissystem ofnami nggivesaccur
ate
i
nformat i
[Link]
suniversalandisaccept
edi nallpar
tsof
the wor l
[Link] r uler egardi
ng the nami ng of or
ganisms is
containedinInter
nationalcodeforzool
ogicalnomenclatur
e.
Normall
ytherearetwonames,thef i
rstnamei
sthegeneri
cname
andthesecondnamei [Link]
low
thegener
icnamear ecall
edTrivi
[Link]
ivi
alnamesmay
beeit
herspeciesorasubspeci
esname.
e. ouse:Pedi
[Link] cul
ushumanuscapt
is
Bodylouse: Pediculushumanuscor poris
Thef i
rstletteroft hegenericnamei sincapitalandthefir
st
l
etterofspeci esand subspeci es ar ei n smalll et
[Link]
lt he
wordsar eLat inizedandwr i
tt
eni ni t
ali
csori tshoul dbewrit
ten
andunder li
nedsepar ately
.Theaut horit
ynamei swr it
tenaf
terthe
speciesname.I tstartswi t
hcapitallett
[Link] hornamei sput
i
nbr acketifthet axahasbeenr eclassif
iedandpl acedinanother
[Link] ingafruitfyGi
l tonadi st
igma( Meigon)

I
DENTI
FICATI
ON
Allinsects presentint he world ar
e noty eti dent
ifi
ed and
descri
bed(about25%oft heinsectspeci
esareuni denti
fi
ed).An
alr
eady described speci
es produce new race whi ch r
equires
furt
herident
ifi
cation.I
denti
fi
cati
onhelpstounderstandaboutthe
organi
sm andt ot akepropercontr
olmeasure.I nsectscanbe
i
dentif
ied through an exper t, by compari
ng t he avai
lable
72
coll
ections,usi ng phot ographs and pi ctures and by usi ng
taxonomi c key s. Key i s a t abular st atement pr esent i
ng
alt
ernatives,describingaboutt hefeat
ur esofanor [Link]
ofthekey saredichot omousi .
e.,al
way sdi vi
dingi ntot woort hey
arealway sinthef orm ofcoupl etsandgi veacl earcutal ter native.
Keyscanbeconst ruct edbasedonsi ngl echar act er(monot hetic
key)ormanychar act ers(polyt
hetickey).Pol ythetickeyi smor e
[Link] heti
ckeyhast hreedi sadv antages ( i)the
organism maybe an except i
on fora par ti
cul archar act er( i
i)
chancesofer r
ingismor e
(i
ii
)ifthepar ti
cularbodypar tisbrokenonwhi cht hekeyi smade,
[Link] be cl assi fi
ed based on
evolut
ionar ypri
nciplesal soasphy l
ogenet ickeyandar bitrar ykey
(
i)Phyl
ogenet
ic key:The key i
s based on the evol
uti
onar
y
r
elat
ionshi
[Link]
sonl
yonceinthephyl
ogeneti
ckey
.
(
i)Ar
i bit
rar
ykey:Thet
axaorgr
oupappear
satsev
eralpl
acesi
n
t
hekey
.Ithasmor
eadv
ant
ages.

[Link]
assi
fi
cat
ionofi
nsect
sanddi
ff
erentgr
oups

Insectsar ethesixleggedfl
yi
ngar thr
opodscomingundert he
phy l
um Ar thr
opoda and cl
ass Insect
[Link] widel
y accepted
classif
icati
on of i
nsects was proposed t
he eminent i
nsect
taxonomi stA.
D.I
mms.

Char
act
ersofcl
assI
nsect
a

Bodyi
1. sdi
vi
dedi
ntot
hreer
egi
ons
I
[Link]
rofant
ennaandapai
rof
compoundey
esar
eusual
lypr
esent
.
Thor
3. axi
sthecent
reofl
ocomot
ionwi
th,
3pai
rsoff
ivej
oint
edl
egsandt
wopai
rs
ofwi
ngs.
Excr
4. eti
oni
smai
nlyt
hroughmal
pighi
ant
ubul
es.
Tr
5. achealsy
stem ofr
espi
rat
ionwel
ldev
eloped.
Br
6. ai
nisdi
vi
dedi
ntopr
otocer
ebr
um,
deut
ocer
ebr
um andt
ri
tocer
ebr
um.

73
Ent
ognat
housHexapods

[Link]
der
:Prot
ura-proturans
[Link]
der
:Coll
embola-springt
ail
s
[Link]
der
:Di
plura-di
plurans

Apt
ery
got
eHexapods

[Link]
yphi
a-bri
stl
etai
l
[Link]
a–si l
ver
fi
sh

Pt
ery
got
eHexapods

[Link] opt er a:May fli

es
[Link] a:Dr agonf li
esandDamsel fl
ies
[Link] er a:Gr asshopper s, Cricket
sandKat ydids
[Link] odea:Wal kingst icksandl eafinsect s
10. Gr y ll
obl at todea:RockCr awlers
11. Mant ophasmat odea:Gl adiator
s
12. Der mapt era:Ear wi gs
13. Pl ecopt er a:St onef li
es
14. Embi idina:Web- spi nner s
15. Zor apt er a:Angeli nsect s
16. I sopt er a:Ter mites
17. Mant odea:Mant ids
18. Bl at todea:Cockr oaches
19. Hemi pt er a:Tr uebugs, cicadas, hoppers, psy ll
ids,
whit
efli
es,aphi
dsand
scaleinsect s
20. Thy sanopt er a:Thr i
ps
21. Psocopt era:Psoci ds
22. Pht hirapt era:Lice
23. Col eopt er a:Beet l
esandweev i
ls
24. Neur opt er a:Alder fli
es,Dobsonf li
es,Fishflies,Snakefl
ies,
Lacewi ngs,ant l
ions,andOwl fl
ies
25. Hy menopt era:Sawf li
es, parasi
ticwasps, ant s,waspsandbees
26. Tr ichopt era:Caddi sfl
ies
27. Lepi dopt er a:Butt erfl
iesandMot hs
28. Si phonopt era:Fleas
29. Mecopt er a:Scor pi onfliesandHangi ngf
lies
30. St repsi pt era:Twi sted- wi ngparasi t
es
31. Di pt era:Fl ies

74
Thecl
assI
nsect
ahast
wosubcl
assesv
iz.
,Apt
ery
got
aandPt
ery
got
a.
─────────────────────────────────────────────
Apt
ery
got
aPt
ery
got
a
─────────────────────────────────────────────
Pr
1. i
mar
il
ywi
ngl
ess-
evol
vedWi
ngedor
secondar
il
ywi
ngl
ess-f
rom wi
ngl
essancest
ors.
ev
olv
edf
rom wi
ngedancest
ors
e.
[Link]
ea,
headl
ouse,
bedbug.
Met
2. amor
phosi
sis
t
otal
lyPr
esent
.absentor
sl
ight
.
Mandi
3. bul
arar
ti
cul
ati
oni
nDi
condy
li
c
i
.e.
,doubl
[Link]
smonocondy
li
ci.
e.
si
ngl
e
Pl
4. eur
alsul
cusi
nthor
axi
sabsent
.Pr
esent
.
Pr
5. egeni
talabdomi
nal
appen-Absent
.dages
pr
esent
.
────────────────────────────────────────────────
Thesubcl
assApt
ery
got
ahas4or
der
snamel
y

Thy
1. sanur
a-Si
lv
erf
ish(
Thy
san-
fri
nged,
Ura-
tai
l
)
Col
2. lembol
a-Spr
ingt
ailorsnowf
lea(
col
l-
glue;
embol
-peg)
Pr
3. ot
ura-Pr
otur
ansorTel
sont
ail(
Pro-
fi
rst
,Ur
a-t
ail
)
Di
4. pl
ura-Di
plur
ansorJapy
gids(
Di-
two;
Ura-
tai
l
)

ThesubclassPterygot
ahastwodi
vi
sions,namel
yexopt
ery
got
aand
endopt
ery
gota
basedonthewingdevel
opment
.
──────────────────────────────────────────────
Char
act
erExopt
ery
got
aEndopt
ery
got
a
─────────────────────────────────────────────

75
1.
Wingdev
elopmentExt
ernalI
nter
nal
2.
Met
amor
phosi
sIncompl
eteCompl
ete
(
Hol
omet
abol
a)(
Hemi
met
abol
a)
orgr
adual
(
Paur
amet
abol
a)
Pupalst
3. ageAbsentPr
esent
I
[Link]
urest
ageNai
adorNy
mphLar
va
[Link]
5. der
s916
────────────────────────────────────────
────── Thecl
assI
nsect
aisdi
vi
dedi
nto29or
der
s(4i
n
Apt
ery
got
aand25i
nPt
ery
got
a).EXOPTERYGOTAGROUPS
Ephemer
01. opt
era-May
fli
esI
.Pal
eopt
eranor
der
s(1,
2)
Odonat
02. a-Dr
agonf
ly,Damsel
fl
y
Pl
03. ecopt
era-St
onef
lyI
[Link]
thopt
eroi
dor
der
s(3-
11)
Gr
04. l
lobl
atodi
a-Rockcr
awl
ers
Or
05. t
hopt
era-
Gr
asshopper
,locust
,
cr
icket
,mol
ecr
icket
Phasmi
06. da-
sti
cki
nsect
,leafi
nsect
Der
07. mapt
era-
Ear
wigs
08.
Embi
opt
era-
Webspi
nner
s/Embi
ds
[Link]
cty
opt
era-
cockr
oach,
prey
ingmant
is
I
[Link]
era-Ter
mit
es
Zor
11. apt
era-Zor
apt
erans
Psocopt
12. era-Bookl
iceI
II
.Hemi
pter
oidor
der
s(12-
16)
Mal
13. lophaga-Bi
rdl
i
ce
Si
14. phoncul
ata-Headandbodyl
ouse
Hemi
15. pter
a-Bugs
Thy
16. sanopt
era-Thr
ips

ENDOPTERYGOTA

76
 Neur
01. opt
era-Ant
il
ions,
aphi
dli
on,
owlf
li
es,
mant
ispi
dfl
i
es.
Mecopt
02. era-Scor
pionf
li
es.
Lepi
03. dopt
era-But
ter
fl
iesandmot
hs.
Tr
04. i
chopt
era-Caddi
sfl
y.
Di
05. pt
era-Tr
uef
[Link]
oupI
[Link]
poi
dcompl
ex(
1-6)
Si
06. phonapt
era-Fl
eas.
Hy
07. menopt
era-Bees,
wasps,
ant
s.
Col
08. eopt
era-Beet
lesandweev
il
s.
St
09. r
epsi
pter
a-St
ylopi
ds.
Paleopt eran i
nsectscannotf l
ext he wingsov ert he abdomen,
i
.e.,wi ngf l
exi
ngmechani sm i
sabsent .Thecharactersofi nsects
belongi ngtoOrthopter
oidgr
oupi ncl udemandibulatemout hparts,
analar eaofhi ndwi ngwelldev eloped,abdomeni salway swith
cerci,manynumber sofmalpighiant ubulesandthegangl i
aoft he
ventralner vecordar [Link] pteroi
di nsectshav et he
haust ell
atemout hpartsandmai nlytheyfeedonl i
quidf oodlike
[Link] poidi
nsect
sar ehol ometabol
ousandt heyhav e
l
ar v
alandpupalst age.

[Link]
udyofi
nsector
der
s:Pr
otur
a,Col
lembol
a,Di
plur
a,
Micr
ocor
yphi
a

[Link]
der
:Pr
otur
a(Pr
otur
ans)

Thepr oturansar emi nutewhi t

ishhexapods,0. 6to1. 5mm i n
l
engt [Link] ssomewhatconi cal
,andt herearenoey esor
[Link] hpar tsdonotbi t
e,butar eapparent l
yused
toscr apeof ffoodpar ticl
est hatar ethenmi xedwi thsal i
vaand
suckedi nt othemout [Link] ir
stpai roflegsi spr i
nci
pall
ysensor y
i
nf unct i
onandi scar ri
edi nanel evatedposi t
ionli
keant ennae.
Thet arsiar eone- segment [Link] yliarepr esentont hef i
rstthree
abdomi nalsegment [Link] hat ching fr
om t heegg,t hepr oturan
abdomenconsi stsof9segment [Link] henextthreemol ts,
segment sar eaddedant er
iortot heapi calpor ti
on(thetelson),so
thatt he adul tabdomen appear st o hav e 12 segment s( 11
met amer icsegment sandt heapi caltel
son) .Thesehexapodsl i
v e
i
nt he moi stsoi lorhumus,i nl eafmol d,underbar k,and i n
decomposi ngl [Link] eedondecomposi ngorganicmat ter
andf ungalspor [Link] efoundwor l
dwi deandappr oximat ely
200speci esareknownatpr esent .

77
I
mpor
tanti
dent
if
icat
ionchar
act
eri
sti
cs

a)Mi
nut einsect
s,wi
thentognathouspier
cingmouthpart
s
b)Antennaeandeyesareabsent
c)Abdomen11segment edwi t
hat erminaltel
son,f
ir
st
3segment swi thapai rofsmallappendagescal
led
sty
li
d)Forelegssensor yandhel dabovethehead,li
keantennae
e)Me tamor phosisslight,chi
efl
yev identasan
i
ncreasei nnumberofabdomi nalsegmentsfol
lowing
eachmoul t(anamor phosi
s)
[Link]
e. omoni ndicus

Or
2. der
:Col
l
embol
a
Sy
nony
ms:Ol
igent
oma,
Ol
igoent
omat
aEt
ymol
ogy:col
l-
gl
ue;
embol-wedgeorpeg.
Commonnames:Spr
ingt
ail
,
Snowf
lea
Characters:Theyareminutei [Link] sgl oboseort ubular.
Compoundey [Link] osev eralpairsofl ater
alocel l
i
for
m aney [Link] oursegment [Link] hpartsare
entognathousbiti
ngtypeandf oundwi [Link] biaisfused
wit
ht arsus tof orm ti
bio-t
[Link] e primaril
ywi ngless.
Abdomeni ssixsegmentedwi t
ht heremedi al
lysituatedpregenital
appendages.
*Vent
ralt
ubeorCol
lophor
eorGl
uepeg:I
tisa bi
lobed
adhesiv
eor ganfound onthefi
rstabdominalst
erni
te.I
tis
bel
eived t
o be associ
ated wi
threspi
rat
ion,adhesi
on and
waterabsorpti
on.

78
 *Hamul
aorTenacul
um orRet
inacul
um:I
tispr
esentont
he
thi
rdabdomi
nalst
erni
te.I
tconsist
sofaf usedbasalpiece,
corpusandf
reedi
stalpar
tcal
ledrami
.Itholdst
hefurcul
a.
*Fur
cul
a or Spr i
nging organ: It consi
sts of a basal
manubri
um,parieddensanddi st
alclawscall
edmucr o.I
tis
hel
d undertension beneat
ht heabdomen byr et
inacul
um
whenatrest
.
Mal
pighi
ant
ubul
es,
trachealsy
stem andmet
amor
phosi
susual
lyabsent
.
Imporance:Smi
t nt
hurusvir
idi
si s a peston al
falf
a.I
tcan be
col
lect
ed from moi stpl
aces in soi
[Link] are al
so f
ound i
n
mushroom housesasapest.

[Link]
der
:Di
plur
a(Di
plur
ans)

Thedi pl
uransappear ssomewhatsi mi l
artot hesi lv
erfi
sh
andbr istlet
ail
s,butt heyl ackamedi ancaudalf il
amentandt hus
have onl yt wo caudalf i
lament s orappendages. The bodyi s
usual
lynotcov eredwi thscal es;compoundey esandocel l
iare
absent;t he tarsiar eonesegment ed;and t hemout hpartsare
mandi bulate and wi thdrawn i ntot [Link] ennaear e
l
ong and mul ti
segment ed;st yli are present on abdomi nal
segment s1-7or2- [Link] esmal l(generall
yless
than7mm i nlength)andusual lypalei [Link] ef oundin
damppl acesint hesoil,underbar k,underst onesorlogs,inrotti
ng
wood, incav es,andinsi milarmoi stsituat
ions.

I
dent
if
icat
ionchar
act
eri
sti
cs

a)Sma llt
olarge,narr
owbodiedentognat
housinsect
s
b)Antennaemoni li
for
m,wit
hi nt
ri
nsicmuscul
ature
c)Compoundey esandocel
liabsent
d)Abdomenwi th10segments,endi
nginapairofcerci
e)Lar
v aldevel
opmentepimorphic

[Link]
e. aphyl
i
nus

79
 [Link]
e. nthur
usvi
ri
dis

Class:I
NSECTA
Subclass:
APTERYGOTA

[Link]
der
:Mi
crocor
yphi
a(=Ar
chaeognat
ha)–Br
ist
let
ail
s

The Mi crocor
y phi
ar esemblet he si l
verf
ish int he or der
Thysanur [Link] er ,t
heyar emor ecy l
indri
cal,witht het horax
somewhatar ched;thecompoundey esar elargeandcont iguous;
ocell
iar eal way spresent;eachmandi blehasasi nglepoi ntof
art
iculati
onwi ththeheadcapsul e;thet arsiaret hr
ee-segment ed;
andt hemi ddl eandhi ndcoxaeusual l
ybearst yl
[Link] yliare
somet imes l acking on the mi ddle coxae,or t hey may be
compl etely absent. The abdomen bear s a pai r of stylion
segment s2- 9,andsegment s2- 7eachbeart hreev entralscleri
tes
(t
hecoxopodi t
esandamedi ansternum;t hesternum is

80
somet
imesmuchreduced). Segment
s1-
7usual
lybearoneor
twopai
rsofev
ersi
blevesi
cles.

Theseinsectslivei
ngrassyorwoodedar easunderl
eaves,under
bark,i
ndeadwood,underst ones,underrocksandcli
ff
s,andi n
si
mi l
arsit
[Link]
nal,
andtheirey
esgl
owatni ght
wheni l
luminatedwithaflashl
ight
.Thel argestmembersoft he
orderar
eabout15mm i nl
ength.

The Mi crocoryphia are quite acti

ve and jump when di sturbed,
somet i
mesasf aras25- [Link] ersibl
ev esi
clesont he
abdomen f unction as wat erabsor bing or [Link] oret hese
i
nsect s mol t
,t hey cementt hemsel ves tot he subst rate( the
cementappear st obef ecalmat er
ial
).Ifthecementf ai
ls, ori
ft he
substrate(suchassand)i snotf i
rm,theyar eunabl etomol t
,and
[Link] esoft hei nsectsar ecov eredwi thscal es,whi ch
somet i
mesf orm di sti
nctivepat t
[Link] esar eof tenl ost
duringthecol l
ect i
ngprocessorwhent heinsect sar epreservedi n
fl
[Link] umpi ngbr i
stlet
ailsfeedchiefl
yonal gae,butf eedal so
onlichens,mosses, decayingfruit
s,andsimi larmat eri
als.

I
dent
if
icat
ionchar
act
eri
sti
cs

a)F usif
orm,subcy li
ndri
cal,apterygoteswi thabili
tytojump
b)Bo dybearingpi gmentedscal es
c)Co mpoundey eslarge,contiguous, ocel
lipresent
d)Ma ndi
bleswithsinglearticulat
ion,maxi l
larypalpi7-9segment
ed
e)Th oraxstronglyarched,tergaext endingov erpleura
f) Styl
ioft
enpr esentonmi dandhi ndcoxae, tarsi3segmented
g)Ab dominalsegment s2-9wi thventralstyli
,1-7wi t
heversi
blev
esi
cles.
[Link]
e. aphi
tar
sussudi
ndi
cus

81
[Link]
udyofi
nsector
der
s:Thy
sanur
a,Ephemer
opt
era,
Odonat
a

Or
8. der
:Thy
sanur
a
Sy
nony
ms:Ect
ognat
ha,
Ect
otr
ophiEt
ymol
ogy:Thy
san-
f
ri
nge;
ura–t
ail
.
Commonnames:Si
lv
erf
ish,
Fir
ebr
at,
Bri
stl
etai
l
Characters:Bodyi selongat eandf [Link] sgli
steni
ngand
cl
othed wi th [Link] ey es ar e presentorabsent .
Antennaei sl ong,fil
if
orm andmul t
isegment [Link] hparts are
ecotognathous,bi t
ingt [Link] epr imarilywinglessinsects.
Abdomeni s11segment [Link] y
ingnumberofbi lat
eralstyliare
presentonabdomi nalst ernit
[Link] yl
iar ebelivedt ober educed
abdominall [Link] ehasel ongat ejointedov i
posit
[Link]
atitsti
pcar r
iesapai rofel ongatemanysegment edcercianda
mediancaudalf i
lament .Insemi nati
oni [Link] phosis
i
sabsent .Moul ti
ngcont inuesev enaf terattai
ningsexualmat uri
ty.
Import
ance:I
tisoftenapestinhomeandl i
[Link]
i enol
episma
[Link] dsil
verfi
[Link] roys
paper
,bookbi ndi
ngsandst ar
[Link]
fr
om amongstoldbooks,behi
ndcalendar,
phot ofr
ames,et
c.

Class:I
NSECTA
Subclass:
PTERYGOTA

Or
9. der
:Ephemer
opt
era
Sy
nony
ms:Ephemer
ida,
Plect
opt
era
Et
ymol
ogy:Ephemer
o-l
iv
ingf
oraday
;
pt
era-
wingCommonnames:May
fli
es,
Shadf
li
es,
Day
fli
es
Char
act
ers: Smallt o medi um sized soft bodied i
nsect
s.
[Link]
ethreeocell
[Link]
ennai
sshort
andset
[Link]
nadult
sar eat
rophi
[Link]
ngsare
l
argeandtri
angul
[Link] ndwingsaresmal landabsentinsome
82
[Link] ouscr ossandi ntercalar
yv einsar epr esent .Wings
areheldv ert
icall
yov ert [Link] ngf lexingmechani sm is
[Link] ssl enderwi thapai rofl ong cer [Link] an
caudalf il
amentmaybe pr esentorabsent .Met amor phosi sis
i
ncompl ete withthreest agesv iz.
,egg,nai adandadul [Link] adis
aquatic with biti
ng mout hparts.I t breaths t hrough bi l
ateral
abdomi nalgil
[Link] heabdomenapai rofl ongcer cianda
mediancaudalf il
amentar eusual l
ypresent .Immedi atelyaf t
erthe
adultemer gencebodyoft hei nsecti scov er edwi thcl oselyset
fi
nehai rscall
edpelli
cleandt hi
sst ageiscal ledassubi mago.I ti
s
dulli
ncol ourwi t
hopaquewi ngsandl egsandcer ciar enotwel l
[Link] magowi ngsar et [Link] ciare
[Link] sshi nyandnotcov eredwi thpel li
[Link] t
s
arefoundnearl akesandpondsandar ealsoat tr
act edbyl i
ght.

Import
ance:Naiadsareimpor
tantf
[Link]
tsar
eshor
tli
ved
andhencet henameday fl
[Link] gei
nlar
genumbers
theposenuisancepr
oblem

[Link]
der
:Odonat
a
Et
ymol
ogy:Odon-t
oot
h
Commonnames:Dr
agonf
li
esanddamsel
fl
ies
Charact
ers:Medium tolargesizedinsect [Link]
vel
y
col
[Link]
ctedbehi ndintoapet i
olat
e
[Link] ey es ar el ar
[Link] ee ocell
iar e present.
Mouthpartsar
eadaptedf orbi
ti
[Link] blesarestrongl
ytoothed
Laci
niaandgaleaarefusedtoform malawhi chi
salsotoothed.
Wingsareeit
herequalorsubequal
,membr aneous;
venati
oni
snet
workli
kewi t
hmanycr ossvei
[Link] kpter
ost
igma
t
owardst [Link] ngfl
exi
ng
mechanism i
sabsent.
Legsar e ant
eroventr
all
ypl [Link] e suit
ed forgrasping,
holdi
ngandconv eyingthepreyt ot
hemout [Link]
nousfemor aand
ti
biae ar
e usefulf orholding the prey
.For ward shiftofl eg
att
achment sall
ow easytransferofpreyitemst omout hi
nf li
ght.
Legsareheldinsuchawayt hatabasketisformedintowhichthe
foodisscooped.
Abdomenislongandslender
.Inmal
egonopor eispresenton
ni
nthabdomi
nalsegment
.Butthef
unct
ionalcopul
ator
yorganis
83
pr
esentonthesecondabdomi nalst
erni
[Link]
oremati
ngsperms
ar
etransf
err
edtothefunct
ionalpeni
[Link]
sonesegmented.
Metamorphosisisi
ncompletewit
ht hreelif
[Link]
adis
aquati
[Link]
um isgreat
lyel
ongated,joi
ntedandbear st
wohooks
atapex.I
tiscall
[Link]
susefultocapturetheprey.
Importance:Adultsareaerialpredator
[Link] ch,
holdanddev ourt hepreyinfli
[Link]
cpredators.
Dragonfli
esanddamsel f
li
escanbecol lect
edwit
h anaerialnet
nearstreamsandpondsespeci all
[Link]
coll
ectedfrom shall
owfreshwat erpondsandri
cefi
elds.
Classi
fi
cat
ion:Therear
[Link]
li
esar
ecl
assi
fi
edunderAni
-
sopter
a
anddamselfl
iesaregr
oupedunderZygopter
a.

[Link]
udyofi
nsector
der
s:Or
thopt
era

[Link]
der
:Or
thopt
era
Sy
nony
ms:Sal
tat
ori
a,
Sal
tat
opt
eraEt
ymol
ogy:Or
tno-
st
rai
ght
;pt
era-
wings.
Commonnames:Gr
asshopper
s,Locust
,Kat
ydi
d,Cr
icket
,Mol
ecr
icket
Char acter
s:Theyar emedi um tolargesizedi [Link] s
fil
if
or m. Mout hparts ar e mandi bulat
e. Pr othorax i s l arge.
Pronot um iscur ved,v entrall
ycoveringthe pleuralr egi
[Link] nd
l
egs ar e saltat
orial. Forewings arel eathery,t hickened and
knownast [Link] ecapabl eofbendingwi thoutbr eaki
ng.
Hindwi ngsar emembr anouswi thl
argeanalar [Link] efolded
by longi t
udinalpl eats bet ween veins and keptbeneat ht he
tegmi na.
Cerciar
eshor tandunsegment [Link]
oriswelldev elopedin
[Link] amor phosisi s gradual
.I n manyOr t
hopt erans the
newlyhatchedf ri
stinstarnymphsar ecoveredbyloosecut icleand
arecall
edpr [Link] ngpadsofny mphsunder gor eversal
duri
ng development .Speciali
zed str
idul
atory(sound-producing)
andaudit
or y(hearing)organsar epresent.
Cl
assi
fi
cat
ion
Thi
sor
deri
ssubdi
vi
dedi
ntot
wosubor
der
s,v
iz.
,Cael
if
eraandEnsi
fer
a.
84
──────────────────────────────────────────
────────Cael
if
eraEnsi
fer
a
──────────────────────────────────────────────────
Ant
1. ennai
sshor
twi
thl
esst
hanAnt
ennai
s
l
ongwi
thmor
ethan30segment
s.
Ty
2. mpanum i
sfoundont
hel
ater
al
Ty
mpanum i
sfundont
hesi
deoft
hef
ir
st
abdomi
nalt
hef
oret
ibi
asegment
.
Vi
3. si
onandhear
ingacut
etact
il
eresponsei
swel
ldev
eloped.
Mandi
4. blesar
especi
ali
zedf
orFeedondi
cotpl
ant
sconsumi
ngmonocot
f
oli
age.
Di
5. ur
nalNoct
urnal
Rel
6. yonj
umpi
ngt
oescapef
rom Rel
yoncr
ypsi
spr
edat
ors
Eggsar
7. elai
dingr
oupsi
nsoi
lEggsar
esi
ngl
yinser
tedi
nsi
de
shal
lowbur
rows.i
ntopl
antt
issueorsoi
l
.

.Subor
I der:Cael
i
fer
a
Fami
ly
:Acr
idi
dae:Shor
thor
nedgr
asshopper
sandl
ocust
s.

I
[Link]
der
:Ensi
fer
a
Famili
es:[Link]
ti
goni
dae:Longhor
nedgr
asshopper
s,Kat
ydi
dsandbush
cri
ckets.
[Link]
yll
idae:Cr
icket
[Link]
yll
otal
pidae:Mol
ecr
icket
s.

[Link]
udyofi
nsector
der
s: Phasmi
da,
Gry
ll
obl
att
odea

Or
12. der
:Phasmi
da
Sy
nony
ms:Phasmodea,
Phasmat
odeaEt
ymol
ogy:
Phasma-anappar
it
ion
Commonnames:St
icki
nsect
s,
85
Leafi
nsect
s
Char acters:Bodyi sstick-l i
keorl eaf–l i
[Link] spr ognathous.
Mout hpar t
s ar e chewing t [Link] othorax is [Link] and
met athoraxar el [Link] at
hor axiscl oselyassociatedwi t
ht he
fir
stabdomi nalsegment .Legsar ewi [Link] el ong
and sl enderr esembling t wigsi n sti
cki [Link]
aand f emur
showsl amel l
ateexpansi oninl [Link] s
foundbet weent het ro-chant erandrestoft [Link] egsget
broken easi ly att hi
sr egion and such l egs getr egener at ed
subsequet [Link] ivesegment [Link] ngsmaybepr esentor
absent .For ewings when pr esentar e smal land modi fi
ed i nt o
tegmi [Link] eafinsectst hewi ngv enat i
onmi micsl eafv enat ion.
Cerci ar e shor t and unsegment ed. They show pr otect ive
resembl [Link] eher bi
v [Link]
icat
ion:Ther ear et wo
fami l
[Link] nsectsar egr ouped underPhasmi daeand l eaf
i
nsect sar eclassifi
edunderPhy l
li
dae..

[Link]
der
:Gr
yll
obl
att
odea(
Rockcr
awl
ers)

Thef i
rstmemberoft hi
sgr oupwasnotdi scoveredunt i
l1914,
whenWal kerdescrbedGr
i yll
oblatt
acampodei for
mi sfrom Banff,
Alber
[Link] awlersaresl ender,el
ongate,winglessinsects,
usuall
yabout15- 30mm i nl [Link] spaleincolorand
fi
nelypubescent .Theey esar esmal lorabsent ,andf i
nelyare
noocel l
[Link] ennaearel ongandf i
li
for
m,consi sti
ngof23t o
45segment s;t
hecerciarelong,witheit
her5or8segment s;and
theswor d-shapedov i
poi
sitoroft hefemaleisnear lyaslongas
thecerci
.

Therear eonl
y25speci esandf ourgeneraofl ivi
ngrockcr awlers
i
nt hewor l
[Link] ersli
veincol dpl acessuchast het alus
slopesatt heedgesofgl aci
ersandi ni cecav es,oftenathi gh
elevat
[Link] nlynoctur
anal,andt heirprinci
palf ood
appearst obedeadi nsect sandot herorganicmat terf oundon
thesnow andi cefi
[Link] esof t
-bodied,andpr obablybest
preservedi
nalcohol
.

I
dent
if
icat
ionchar
act
eri
sti
cs

a)Sl
ender
,el
ongat
edwi
ngl
essi
nsect
s(15-
30mm)

86
 b)Bodyispaleandfinel
ypubescent
c)Eyesaresmallorabsentandnoocel
l
i
d)Antennaelongfi
l
iform
e)Cerciar
elongandt hesword-

shapedov
iposi
[Link]
yll
obl
att
asp.

[Link]
udyofi
nsector
der
s:,
Mant
ophasmot
odea,
Der
mapt
era

Or
14. der
:Mant
ophasmat
odea(
Gladi
ator
s)

The Mant opahsmat odeaist henewestaddi t

iont ot hecastof
i
nsector [Link] Rapt ophasma wasf ir
stdescr ibedi n
2001 f or f ossi l specimens pr eserved i n Bal ti
c amber ,
approxi mately30mi ll
ionyearsol [Link] mil
arspeci es
wer elaterdiscov er
edi ncol
lectionsfrom Mami biaandTanzani ain
Afri
ca, and a new or der was pr oposed f or t hem.
Mant ophasmat odea hav e si nce been posed f or t hem.
Mant ophasmat odea hav e since been f ound in a numberof
l
ocat ionsinSout hAfri
cainCapeFaunalZone, anar eawel lknown
forspeci es richness and endemi [Link] or dercont ains only
singlef amily,Mant ophasmat idae,and t hree genera:t he fossi
l
Rapt ophasma ( one described speci es)and t he livi
ng gener a
Mant ophasma( twospecies)andPr aedatophasma( onespeci es)
.
Resear cherst hinkther ear
eatl eastt hr
eenew speci esi nSout h
Afri
ca.

Mant ophasmat odeaar er athersmal l,general

ly2-3cm i nlength,
andbot hsexesar [Link] echewi ngmout hpart
s,the
headi shypognat hous,andt heant ennaear el
ongandf i
lif
[Link]
tarsiaref iv
e-segment [Link] hav e simple metamor phosis.
Accor di
ngt ov anNoor t(2003),Mant ophasmat odeasuper f
ici
ally
resemblei mmat uremant i
ds,butthef orelegsarenotmodi fi
edfor
preycapt [Link] ert
hel ess,thesear [Link] s
arerathershor t
-l
ived,sur v
ivi
ngf oronlyafewweeks.

I
nt he ori
ginaldescri
pti
on ofthe or
der
,i twas unclearwhich
or
der(s) of i nsect
s wer e the cl osest relati
ves of
Mantophasmatodea,butGryll
obl
att
odeaandPhasmat odeawere

87
suggested as possi bi
li
ti
es. Unf ort
unately, no phyl
ogeneti
c
anal
y si
sprecededt hedescripti
[Link]
,atthi
searl
ypoint,
whetherther ecognit
ionoft hisgroupasanor derwil
lmeetwi t
h
generalacceptanceori fitwi l
leventual
lybesubsumedwi thi
n
Gryl
loblat
todeaoranot hergroup.

I
dent
if
icat
ionchar
act
eri
sti
cs

a) Small,general
ly2-3cm inlength
b) Bothsexesar ewingless
c) Havechewi ngandbi ti
ngtypesofmout
hpar
t
d) Headi shypognathous
e) Antennaear elongfi
li
form
f) Tarsiarefi
vesegment ed
g) thenewestor deraddedtot he

cl
assi [Link]
nsect aedat
ophasma

mar
aisi

[Link]
der
:Der
mapt
era

Sy
nony
ms:Eupl
exopt
era,
Eupl
ecopt
eraEt
ymol
ogy:Der
ma
-ski
n;pt
era-wi
ngCommon
names:Ear
wigs
Char acters:Theyar egener allyelongat ei nsect [Link] swi tha
distinct ` Y' shaped epi cranial sut ur e. They hav e chewi ng
mout hpar [Link]
horaxi slarge,welldev elopedandmobi [Link]
and Met athorax aref used wi tht he f ir
stabdomi nalsegment .
For ewi ngsar eshort,leatheryandv ei [Link] ht hewi ngsmeet
alongami ddorsall
[Link] ecal ledt egmi naorel ytr
[Link] e
prot ectivei nfuncti
onandar enotusedf orf [Link] ndwi ngsar e
l
ar ge, membr anous,semi cir
cularandearl i
[Link] eaoft he
wi ngsi slar gewith anumberofbr anchesofanalv einswhi chare
radial l
yar [Link] efoldedfanl ike, l
ongi tudinallyandt wice
transv ersel yandkeptbeneat hthef or ewi ngsatr [Link] ngsdo
notcov ert heabdomenf ul
[Link] ef oundatt heendoft he
[Link] eunsegment edenl arged,hi ghlyscl erotisedand

88
[Link]
geandbowedinmal eandnear
lyst
rai
ght
i
nf [Link] eusefulindef
ence,fol
dingandunfol
dingof
wings,pr eycaptureandcopulati
[Link]
alcareisshownby
femaleear wigs.I
tli
ter
all
y,r
oostontheeggsunti
lhat
chi
ngoccurs
andal socaresforthenymphs.
Impor
tance:Eubor
ell
iaannul
ipesbor
esi
ntogr
oundnutpodsandf
eedsont
he
ker
nel
.

[Link]
udyofi
nsector
der
s:Pl
ecopt
era,
Embi
opt
era

16. Or
der
:Pl
ecopt
era(
Stonef
li
es)

Stonef liesaremost l
ymedi um- sizedorsmal l
, somewhatf latt
ened,
soft-bodi ed,r atherdr ab-col
or edi nsect sf oundnearst reamsor
rockyl akeshor [Link] egener all
ypoorf lier
sandar esel dom
foundf arfrom wat [Link] eshav efourmembr anouswi ngs.
Thef rontwi ngsar eelongat eandr athernar rowandusual l
yhav ea
seri
esofcr ossv einsbet weenM andCu1andbet weenCu1andCu2.
thehi ndwi ngsar esli
ght lyshor t
ert hant hef rontwingsandusual l
y
haveawel l-
dev elopedanall obet hatisf oldedf anwisewhent he
wingsar eatr [Link] ewspeci esofst onef l
ieshav ereducedwi ngs
orl ackwi ngs,usual lyi nthemal [Link] onef liesatr esthol dt he
wingsf latov ert [Link] ennaear elong,slender ,and
many -
segment ed. The t arsiar et hree-segment ed. Cer ciar e
presentandmaybel ongorshor [Link] hpartsar eoft he
chewi ngt ype,al thoughi nmanyadul ts( whi chdonotf eed)t hey
are somewhat r educed. The st oneflies under go si mpl e
met amor phosi s,and t he ny mphalst ages ofdev elopmentar e
aquat ic.

Stonefli
esny mphsar esomewhatel ongat e,fl
att
enedi nsect swith
l
ongant ennae andl ongcer ci
,andof tenwi t
hbr anchedgi ll
son
thet hor
axandaboutt hebasesoft hel [Link] erysi mil
ar
tomay f
lyny mphbutl ackamedi ancaudalf i
lament;thati s,they
hav eonlyt wot ai
ls,wher easmay fl
yny mphsnear l
yal wayshav e
[Link] etwot arsalclawsandmay f
lyny mphs
hav eonl yone,andt hegi l
lsar edi ff
erent:May f
lyny mphshav e
l
eaf l
ikegi l
lsalongt hesi desoft heabdomen,wher easst onefl
y
gil
lsar eal waysfinger l
ike,eit
hersi mpl eorbr anched,andonl y
occurv entral
[Link]
onef lynymphsar eof tenfoundunderst onesi n

89
streamsoral onglakeshor es( hencethecommonnameoft hese
i
nsect s),butmayoccasi onal l
ybef oundany whereinast ream
wher ef oodisav ai
labl
[Link] ewspeci esli
vei nundergroundwat er
,
andt heirnymphssomet imesappeari nwel lsorot herdri
nki ng
wat ersuppl i
[Link] esar eplantf eedersintheny mphal
stage,andot hersarepredaceousoromni [Link] es
ofst onefli
esemer ge,feed,andmat edur ingt hefallandwi nter
mont hs. The ny mphs oft hese species ar e general
ly plant
feeder s,andt headult
sf eedchi ef
lyonbl ue-greenalgaeandar e
diurnali nfeeding habi
[Link] esthatemer gedur i
ng t he
summerv aryi nnymphalf eedi [Link] eedas
adul t
s.

Inmanyspeci esofst onefl

ies,thesexesgett ogetheri
nresponse
toacoust i
c signal
[Link] esdr um bytappingt heti
poft he
abdomen on t he substrate. Vir
ginf emales respond tot hi
s
drummi ng,and answerwi th a drummi ng oft heirown eit
her
duringorimmedi at
elyaf t
ert hemaledrummi [Link] esdrum
throughoutthei
radultli
fe,andt hesi
gnalsarespeciesspeci
fi
c.

Ident
if
icat
ionchateri
sti
cs
a)Softbodiedinsectswithlongset aceousantennae
b)Mo uthpart
sweak, biti
ngt ype,mandiblesnormalorvest
igi
al,
li
gul
a4l
obed.
c)Wingsmembr anous,heldflatoverthebodyatr est
;hi
ndpair
usual
lylar
ger,withwelldevelopedanal lobes
d)Tarsi3segment ed;cercil
ong
e)Na i
adsrespirethr
oughf il
ament oustrachealgi
ll
s

[Link]
e. apunj
abensi
s

[Link]
der
:Embi
opt
era
Sy
nony
ms:Embi
odea,
Embi
idi
naEt
ymol
ogy:Embi
a-
l
iv
ely
;pt
era-
wingsCommon
names:Embi
ids,
Webspi
nner
s
Char
acters:Theyaresmallelongatesof
[Link]
enna
i
sfil
if
[Link] hpart
sarechewi ngty
[Link]
arsusoft hef
orel
eg
i
[Link]
lkglandsandspi nner
etsaref oundinthe

90
basit
[Link] emuri senl argedandhel psinbackwar dr unning.
Malehaswel ldev elopedwi ngs;whi lefemal eisapt [Link] ngs
are elongate,near ly equal,smoky br own withr educed wi ng
venati
[Link] alv ei
ni [Link] ciareasy mmetrical;leftcer cus
i
sonesegment edandi tser v
esascl [Link] eequaland
twosegment edi nfemal [Link] idsar egregari
ousandl i
vei nside
tubul
arsi l
kent unnelsbeneat hst ones,logsand bar koft rees.
Sil
ken t unnels gi ve pr otection agai nst predator s, pr event
excessive wat er loss f r
om t he body and pr ovide a humi d
atmospher [Link] esshow st rongpar entalcareandt heynur se
theeggsandny [Link] eedondecay i
ngplantmat ter
.

[Link]
udyofi
nsector
der
s:I
sopt
era,
Zor
apt
era

Or
18. der
:Isopt
era
Sy
nony
ms:Ter
mit
ina,
Ter
mit
ida,
Soci
ali
aEt
ymol
ogy:
I
so-equal
;pt
era-wi
ng.
Commonnames:Ter
mit
es,
Whi
teant
s
Charact ers:Theyar esmal lgreyish whi te,sof tbodi ed i nsect s.
Thebodyi spal ey ellowi ncol ourbecauseofweakscl er otization.
Compoundey esar epr esenti nalatef or
msandusual l
yabsenti n
apterousf or [Link] ennaear eshor tandmoni lif
[Link] hpar t s
are adapt ed f orbi ting and chewi [Link] pai rs ofwi ngs ar e
presentwhi char ei denticali nsizef orm andv enat [Link] ngsar e
membr anousandsemi transpar [Link] i
oni snotdi stinct .Vei ns
neart hecost alandanalmar ginalonear edist [Link] er i
orv ei ns
aremor escl eroti
[Link] ngsar eflexedov ertheabdomenatr est .
Theyar eext endedbey ondt [Link] ngsar epr esentonl y
i
n sexual ly mat ure f or ms dur ing swar mi ng season. Wi ng
sheddi ngt akespl aceal ongt hebasalorhumer alsut ur e,af ter
swarmi [Link] emanantort hest umpr emai ningbehi ndi scal led
`scal
e’.Abdomen i s br oadlyj oint ed to t he t horax wi thout
[Link] ernalgeni talorgansar elacki
ngi nbot hthesexes.
Cerciar eshor t.
Speci
ali
ti
es:Theyar
eanci
entpol
ymor
phi
c,soci
ali
nsect
sli
vi
ngi
ncol
oni
es.
I
nternalcharact
ers:Sal
ivar
ygl
andsarewelldev
[Link]
um i
s
di
stendedf ormi
ngr ect
alpouchto accommodatel ar
genumber
91
ofi ntest
inalsy mbiont [Link] el
opmenti sext ensivei n
maleandf emaler eproducti
[Link]
ngtermitesconst ruct
earthernmoundscal ledtermit
ar i
[Link] eevolvedcompl ex
rel
ationshipswi t
h ot herorganismsl i
ke bacter
ia,pr ot
ozoa and
fungiwhi chhel pthem i nthedi gesti
onofwood.I ncessantf ood
sharing (trophal
laxis) occurs bet ween the member s of t he
commouni tybymout h-t
o-mouthandanus- to-mouthfoodt ransfer.
Importance:Termit
esarenatur
e'sscavenger
[Link]
ertl
ogs,
stumps,br anchesetc,[Link] einj
uri
oustocrops,
furni
tureandwoodwor ksofbui
ldings.

[Link]
der
:Zor
apt
era(
Zor
apt
erans,
Angel
i
nsect
s)

Thezor apteransar emi nuteinsect

s,3mm orlessi nlength,and
maybewi ngedorwi [Link] all
ydark,
andt hewi nglessf or
msar eusuall
[Link]
l
itt
leliketermitesingener alappearanceandar
egr [Link]
orderwasnotdi scoveredunti
l1913.

Wi nged and wi ngless f orms occuri n both sexes. The f our

wingsar emembr anous, wi t
hmuchr educedv enationandwi tht he
hindwi ngssmal lerthant hefrontwi [Link] ngsoft headul t
are ev ent ual
ly shed,as i n ant s and t ermites,l eaving stubs
attachedt othet hor [Link] ennaear emoni l
iform andni ne-
segment edasadul [Link] nglessf ormsl ackbot hcompound
eyesand t hr
eeocel li
.Thet arsiaret wo-segment ed,and each
tarsusbear stwocl [Link] ciar eshor tandunsegment ed
andt ermi nateina
l
ongbr istl
[Link] sshor t,ov alandt erminat esinal ong
bristl
[Link] abdomen i s shor t,ovaland 10 segment [Link]
mout hpar tsaresimpl [Link] entlyther earef ourjuv eni
leinstarts
i
nt hecommonspeci esi nNor t
hAmer ica.

I
dent
if
icat
ionchar
act
eri
sti
cs

a)areminutei
nects(
3mm orlessi
nlengt
h)
b)wingedorwingl
ess
c)Fourwingsaremembranouswit
hreducedv
enat
ion
d)Antennaear
emonili
for
m
e)Cerciar
eunsegmentedwit
h

92
t
ermi
nalbr
ist
[Link]
us
hubbar
di

[Link]
udyofi
nsector
der
s:,
Mant
odea,
Blat
todea

Or
19. der
:Mant
odea–mant
ids

Mant idsarelar ge,el ongate,r atherslow- mov ingi nsectst hatar e

stri
kinginappear ancebecauseoft heirpecul i
arlymodi fiedf ront
l
[Link] othor axisgr eatl
yl engthenedandmov ablyat t
achedt o
thept er
othorax;t hef rontcoxaear everyl ongandmobi l
e;andt he
frontfemoraandt i
biaear earmedwi thst rongspi nesandf itt
edf or
graspingprey .Theheadi sfreel ymov [Link] idsar et heonl y
i
nsect sthatcan“ l
ookov ert heirshoul ders”.Thesei nsectsar e
highlypredaceous and f eed on a v arietyofi nsects( i
ncludi ng
othermant i
ds) .Theyusual l
yliei nwaitfort heirpreywi ththef ront
l
egsi nanupr ai sedposi t
[Link] spositionhasf rontlegsi nan
upraisedposi t
[Link] sposition has f rontl egs i n an upr ai
sed
positi
[Link] s posi tion has gi v en r
ise t ot hecommonnames
“prayingmant i
s”and“ soothsay er”thatar eof tenappl iedt othese
i
nsect s.

Mant i
dsov erwint
erint heeggstage,andtheeggsar edeposited
ont wigsorgrassstemsi naSt yr
ofoam-l
ikeeggcaseofoot heca
secretedbyt hefemal [Link] ain200ormor e
eggs.I fbroughti
ntothehouseandkeptwar m,theeggswillhatch
i
nl atewinterorearl
yspr i
ng,andt
heny mphs,unl
esssuppli
edwi th
food,willeateachotherunti
lone,l
argenymphremains.

Ther
earemoret
han1500speci
esinei
ghtf
ami
li
esofmant
idsi
n
thewor
ld,
mostofwhi
char
etropi
cal
.

I
dent
if
icat
ionchar
act
eri
sti
cs

a)Antennaeset aceousfil
if
orm
b)Mo uthpar t
sbiti
ngtype
c)Pr
ot horaxisgreatl
ylengthened
d)Fr
ontcoxaear everylongandmobile
e)Fr
ontl egisraptori
altype
f)Headi sdisti
nctandfreelymovabl
e

93
g)Cercimanysegmented
h)Eggscontai
nedinootheca

[Link]
e. lusgongyl
oides

[Link]
der
:Bl
att
odea-
cockr
oaches

Cockr oachesar e cur sor i

alinsects wi th 5- segmentedt arsiand
noneoft hel egsmodi fiedfordi ggingorgr [Link] unv ery
fast,asany onewhoat temptst ost epononesoondi [Link]
bodyi sov alandf lattened,andt heheadi sconceal edfrom abov e
byt hepr onot [Link] mpanaandst ridul
atingor gansusual l
yar e
absent .Wi ngsar egener all
ypr esent ,al
thoughi nsomespeci es
they ar e much r [Link] f emal es ofmany speci es hav e
shorterwi ngs t han t he mal [Link] cer ciar e one-t o many -
segment edandusual l
yf air
lylong;t he ant ennae arel ong and
fi
li
form. Thesei nsectsar er at
hergener alized
[Link] eenclosedi ncapsul esoroot hecae,which
maybe deposi ted i mmedi atel
yaf tertheyar ef or
med,car ri
ed
aboutont heendoft heabdomenoft hef emal eunti
ltheeggs
hatch,orcar r
iedi nternall
yinut erusorbr oodpouchf ort hef ul
l
gestationper iod.

Cockroaches are primari

lyt r
opi cali nsects,and mostNor th
Americanspeciesoccuri nthesout hernpar toftheUni tedSt at
es.
Somet ropi
calspeciesareoccasi onal l
ybr oughtintotheNor thin
shi
pment s of bananas or ot her t r
opical f r
uits. The most
commonl yencounteredcockroachesi nt heNor tharet hoset hat
i
nvade houses,wher etheyar e of ten serious pests. None i s
knownt obeaspeci f
icvectorofdisease, butt hyfeeonal lsortsof
thi
[Link] aminatef ood,theyhav eanunpl easant
odor,
andt hei
rpresenceisoftenv eryannoy i
ng.

I
dent
if
icat
ionchat
eri
sti
cs

a)Hadcoveredfrom abovebythepronotalshi
eld
b)Bodydorsoventr
allyf
lat
tened
c)Ocell
i2
d)Al
llegsaremodifiedascursori
al(
running)t
ype

e)[Link]
ipl
anat
aAmer
icana,Bl
att
aor
ient
ali
s

94
[Link]
udyofi
nsector
der
s:Hemi
pter
a,Thy
sanopt
era

[Link]
der
:Hemi
pter
a
Sy
nony
m :Rhy
nchot
a
Et
ymol
ogy:Hemi
-hal
f;pt
era-
wi
ngCommonname:Tr
uebugs
Gener alchar act er
s:Head i s opi st
hognat [Link] hpart
s ar e
piercingandsucki [Link] r
sofbr i
stl
el ikest yl
etswhi ch
aret hemodi fiedmandi blesandmaxi ll
aear e present .Sty
let
sr est
i
nt hegr oovedl abium orr ostr
[Link] hl abialpalpsandmaxi l
lar y
palps ar e atr [Link] hor ax isr epresent ed dorsall
y by
[Link] ewings ar eeitheruni forml ythickenedt hr
oughout
orbasal l
ycoriaceousanddi stall
ymembr [Link] ciarealway s
absent . Met amor phosis usual ly gradual ;r arel
y compl et e.
Aliment arycanali ssuitablymodi fi
ed( fil
terchamber )tohandl e
l
iquidf [Link] ivary glands ar e universally present .Extr
a-or al
digest i
oni sappar entl
ywi despr [Link] nalgangl iafusedwi th
thoracicgangl ia.
Cl
assi
fi
cat
ion:Ther
ear
et sv
wosuboder i
z.,
Het
eropt
eraandHomopt
era.

Het
eropter
aHomoptera
(
Hetero-
dif
fer
ent
;pt
era-wi
ng)(
Homo-
uni
for
m;pt
era-
wing)

Headi
1. spr
ojectorhor
izont
alHeadi
sdef
lexed
Basesoft
2. hef
orel
egsdonotBasesoft
hef
orel
egst
oucht
oucht
heheadt
he
head
Beakar
3. isesf
rom t
heant
eri
orBeakar
isesf
rom t
hepost
eri
orpar
t
oft
heheadpar
toft
hehead
Gul
4. arr
egi
onoft
heheadGul
arr
egi
onnotcl
ear
ly(
midv
ent
ral
scl
erot
iseddef
inedpar
tbet
weenl
abi
um andf
oramen
magnum)wel
ldef
ined.
Pr
5. onot
um usual
lygr
eat
lyPr
onot
um i
sal
mostal
waysmal
lenl
[Link]
lar
-
li
ke.
[Link]
ell
um
(
tri
angul
arplat
eScut el
lum notwel
ldev
eloped,f
ound
bet
weent
hewingbases)welldev
eloped
95
[Link]
ewi
ngsheav
il
yscl
erot
izedFor
ewi
ngsar
eofuni
for
m att
he
baseandtheapi
calt
[Link]
efr
equentl
yhal
fis
membranous(
Hemely
tra)hardert
hanhi
ndpair
.
[Link]
ngsar
ehel
dfl
atov
ert
heWi
ngsar
ehel
droof
-l
ikeov
ert
he
backatr
estandthel
eftt
hebackandwi
ngsdonotov
erandr
ight
si
deover
laponl
aptheabdomen.
Honeydewsecr
9. eti
onuncommonHoneydewsecr
eti
oncommon
Repungnat
10. ori
alorodor
i-Waxgl
andsusual
lypr
esentf
erousorscentgl
ands
present
.
Bot
11. hterr
est
ri
alandaquat
icTer
rest
ri
al.
Her
12. biv
orous,
predaceousorHer
biv
orous
I
mpor
tantf
ami
li
esofhet
eropt
era
Ger
1. ri
dae:(
Jesusbugs,
Wat
erst
ri
der
s,orPondskat
er)
Reduv
2. ii
dae:(
Assassi
nbugs,
Kissi
ngbugsorconenosebugs)
Ci
3. mi
cidae:(
Bedbugs)
Ti
4. ngi
dae:(
Lacewi
ngbugs)
Mi
5. r
idae:(
PlantbugsorLeafbugs)
Ly
6. gaei
dae:(
SeedbugsorChi
nchbugs)
Py
7. r
rhocor
idae:(
RedbugsorSt
ainer
s)
Cor
8. eidae:(
Squashbugsorl
eaff
oot
edbugs)
Pent
9. atomi
dae:(
Sti
nkbugsorShi
eldbugs)
Nepi
10. dae:(
Wat
erscor
pions)
Bel
11. ost
omat
idae:(
Giantwat
erbugsorel
ect
ri
cli
ghtbugs)

I
mpor
tantf
ami
li
esofhomopt
era
Ci
1. cadi
dae:(
Cicadas)
Membr
2. aci
dae:(
Treehopper
sorCowbugs)
Ci
3. cadel
li
dae:(
Leafhopper
sorJassi
ds)
Cer
4. copi
dae:(
Spi
tt
lebugorCuckoo-
spi
ltorFr
oghopper
)
Del
5. phaci
dae:(
Planthopper
s)
Lophopi
6. dae:(
Aer
opl
anebugs)
Psy
7. ll
idae:(
Jumpi
ngpl
antl
i
ce)
96
 Al
8. ey
rodi
dae:(
Whi
tef
li
es)
Aphi
9. didae:(
Aphi
dsorPl
antl
iceorGr
eenf
li
es)
Cocci
10. dae:(
Scal
einsect
sorSof
tscal
es)
Di
11. aspi
didae:(
Armour
edscal
e)
Ker
12. ri
dae:(
Laci
nsect
)

Pseudococci
13. dae:(
Meal
ybug)

Thy
sanopt
era

Synonyms:
Physopoda
15.

97
Et
ymol
ogy :Thy
sano -f
ri
nge;
pt
era-wi
ngsCommonname:
Thr
ips.
Charact ers:They ar e mi nute,sl ender
,sof t bodi ed insect s.
Mout hpar tsar er aspi
ngandsucki [Link] sfor medbyt he
l
abrum and l abium t ogetherwi th basalsegment sofmaxi l
lae.
There ar et hree st yl
ets der i
ved f r
om t wo maxi l
lae and l ef t
mandi [Link] ghtmandi blei s [Link] mout hparts ar e
asymmet [Link] ngsareei therabsentorlong,narrowandf ringed
withhai rswhi chi ncr
easet hesur [Link] eweakf l
ier s
andpassi vef l
ighti nwindi [Link] susiswi t
honeort wo
segment [Link] he apex ofeacht ar
susapr ot
rusiblev esiclei s
present .Abdomeni softenpoi [Link] cularov i
posi tor
maybepr esentorabsent .Nymphalst ageisfoll
owedbypr epupal
and pupal st ages whi ch ar e analogous t o the pupae of
endopt erygotei nsects.
Thi
sor
deri
ssubdi
vi
dedi
ntot
wosubor
der
s.
Ter
1. ebr
ant
ia:Femal
ewi
thanappendi
cul
arov
iposi
tor
.Abdomen
endi
snott
ubel
[Link]
ngv
enat
ioni
spr
esent
.Impor
tantf
ami
lyi
s
Thr
ipi
dae
Tubul
2. if
era:Ov
iposi
tori
sabsent
.Theabdomen
endi
stubul
[Link]
ngv
enat
ioni
sabsent
.
Importance:Mostoft he thri
ps speci
es belong tot he famil
y
Thri
pidaeandar [Link] hepl [Link]
arev ectorsofpl [Link] arepr edator
s. e. g. Rice
thr
ips:St enchaetothr
ips bif
ormisi s a pestinr i
ce nursery
.

[Link]
udyofi
nsector
der
s:Psocopt
era,
Pht
hir
apt
era

Or
22. der
:Psocopt
era
Sy
nony
ms:Cor
rodent
ia,
Copeognat
ha
Et
ymol
ogy:Psoco-
rubsmal
l;
pter
a–wi
ngs
;
Psochos-
dustl
[Link]:Bookl
ice,
Bar
kli
ce,
Dustl
ice.
Char
act
ers:Theyar
emi
nut
eandsof
tbodi
edi
nsect
[Link]

98
di
stinct `Y' shaped epi cranial suture. Clypeus i
s swol l
en.
Mout hpar
tsarebi ti
ngandchewi ngt [Link] bl
esarewi t
hwel l
developedmol arandinci sorar [Link]
ke(`
pick'
)whi ch
i
spar ti
all
ysunkeni ntot heheadcapsul [Link] esl
[Link]
maybepr esentorabsent .Forewingsar elargerthanhindwi ngs.
Wingsar ehel dr ooflikeov [Link] ciareabsent .
Psocidsaref r
equent l
ygr egar i
[Link] dshavet heabilit
y
tospi nsil
[Link] salpai rofl abialglandsar emodi fi
edi nt
osi l
k
gl
ands.
I
mpor ance:Thecommonbookl ouseisLiposcel
[Link]
eed
on paperpast e ofbook binding,fr
agment s ofanimaland
vegetablemat t
erandst
oredpr oduct
[Link] eal
sodamagedry
preserveinsect
sandherbar
ium speci
mens.

Or
23. der
:Pht
hir
apt
era-Li
ce

Thel i
cear esmal l
,wi nglessect oparasit
esofbi rdsandmammal s.
Thesei nsectsformer lywer edividedintot wosepar ateor ders,the
Mal lophaga ( chewi ng lice)and Anopl ura( sucking lice). The
subor derAnopl uracont ainssev eralspeci esthatar e par asit
esof
domest icanimal sandt wospeci est hatat t
[Link]
i
nsect sar ei r
rit
atingpest s,andsomear ei mpor tantv ectorsof
disease. Many chewi ng l i
ce ar e pest s ofdomest i
c ani mal s,
particularl
ypoul tr
y .Thesel icecauseconsi derablei r
rit
at i
on,and
heav il
yi nf
estedani malsappearr un-downandemaci ated.I fnot
actual l
yki l
ledbyt hel i
ce,t heyar est illeasypr eyf ordi sease.
Differentspeci esofl ice at tackdi fferentt ypesofpoul tr
yand
domest icmammal s,andeachspeci esusual l
yi nf
estsapar ti
cular
partoft hehost ’
sbody :Noneofchewi ngl icei sknownt oat tack
peopl [Link] ebirdsorot heri nfestedani mal smay
occasi onall
ygett hel i
ceont hemsel ves,butt helicedonotst ay
l
ong.

TheAnopl ur
af eedont hebl oodoft hei [Link] hpartsofa
suckinglouseconsi stoft hreepi er
ci ngst yl
etsthatar enor mally
withdrawnint
oast yletsaci nt [Link] hpar t
sar ehighly
speciali
zedanddi f
ficul ttohomol ogizewi ththoseofot herinsects.
Therei sashortrostrum ( probablythel abrum)att heant er
iorend
ofthehead, f
rom whi cht het hreepi ercingst y
letsarepr otruded.
The r ost
rum i s ever sible and i sar med i nt
ernall
ywi th smal l
,
recurvedteet
[Link] yletsar eaboutasl ongast heheadand
whennoti nuse, arewi thdr awni ntoal ong, sacl
ikestructurebelow

99
theal i
ment [Link] salstyl
etprobablyrepresentsthe
fusedmaxi llae.I t
sedgesar ecurvedupwar dandinwardt ofor
m
at ubet hatser vesasaf [Link] nter
mediatestyl
etis
verysl enderand cont ai
ns the sali
varychannel;this styl
etis
probablyt hehy [Link]
ventralstyletist hepri
ncipalpier
cingorgan;
itistr
ough-shaped
structureandi [Link].

Thet ar
siofsuckingl i
ceareone-segmentedandhav easi ngle,
l
argeclaw thatusuall
yf i
tsagai
nstat humblikeprocessatt he
endoft hetibi
[Link] ormsaneffi
cientmechani
sm forhanging
tothehair
soft hehost.

ThePhthi
rapter
aundergosimplemetamorphosi
[Link]
mostspecieslayfr
om 50t o150eggs,nearl
yalwaysattachi
ng
them t
othehai r
sorfeathersofinmostspeciesthedevelopi
ng
l
ousegoest hr
ought
hreeny mphali
nstar
s.

I
dent
if
icat
ionchar
act
eri
sti
cs

a) smal landwinglessect oparasi

tes
b) Eyesar eusuall
yr educedorabsent
c) Antennaeshor tandhav e3-5segment s
d) Apterous,dorsoventrall
yf l
at
e) Antenane3t o5segment ed
f) Prothoraxfr
ee, mesoandmet athoraxoft
enimper
fect
lysepar
ated
g) Thoracicspir
aclesv entral
h) Tarsi1or2segment ed,withsingleorpai
redcl
aws

[Link]
e. li
dum (
Poul
trylouse)
Pedi
cul
ushumanuscapi
ti
s( Famil
y:Pedi
cul
idae)(
Headl
ouse)
Pt
hir
uspubi
s(Fami
ly:Pt
hir
idae)(
Crabl
ouseorbodyl
ouse)

[Link]
udyofi
nsector
der
s:Col
eopt
era

[Link]
der
:Col
eopt
era
Sy
nony
m :El
ytr
opt
era
Et
ymol
ogy:Col
eo-Sheat
h;pt
era
-
wingCommonnames:Beet
les,

100
Weev
il
s
Charact
ers:Theyar emi nutetol argesi [Link] ennai s
usualy11segment [Link] hpartsar echewi ngt [Link] bles
areshor twi t
hbl untt eethatt hemesalf acei nphy tophagous
group.I
npr edat
orst hemandi blesar elong,sharplypointedwi th
bl
adel i
kei nnerri
dge.I npol l
enf eeder steethareabsentandt he
mandiblesar ecover edwi t
hstif
fhai [Link],dist
inct
andmobi [Link] hor axandmet at
hor axar efusedwi ththef i
rst
abdominalsegment .
Forewi ngsar eheavi
lyscleroti
sed,veinl
essandhar [Link] e
calledel y
tr [Link] erl
apandmeetmi d- dor
sall
yt o
form ami d-dorsall
[Link] orfl
[Link] veasapai r
ofconv exshi el
dst ocov erthehindwi ngsanddel i
cat et er
git
esof
[Link] ndwingsar emembr anouswi thf ew v einsandar e
usef ulinf li
[Link] estt heyaref olded transverselyand kept
beneat ht he el yt
[Link] some weev i
ls and gr ound beet les the
forewingsar efusedandhi ndwingsar [Link] lpartof
themesot horaxknownasscut ell
um remai nsexposedasal ittl
e
tri
angle bet ween t he bases of el ytr
[Link] ciand a di st
inct
ovipositorar eabsent .Met amorphosisi scompl et
[Link] vaear e
oftencal l
edgr [Link] eusuallyexarateandr arelyfoundi n
cocoons.
I
mpor
tance:
I
tisthelar
gestorder
.Iti
ncl
udespr
edat
ors,scavenger
sand
[Link]
sodamagest
oredproducts.
Cl
assi
fi
cat
ion:
Thisor deri
sdivi
dedi nt
otwosuborders,vi
z.,Adephaga(devour
ers)
and Pol yphaga (eater
s of many things)
.Adephaga i ncl
udes
Cicindeli
dae,CarabidaeandDy t
isci
[Link] herfamil
iesli
stedout
belowcomeunderPol y
phaga.

Fami
li
esofpr
edat
ors
Ci
1. ci
ndel
idae:(
Tigerbeet
les)
Car
2. abi
dae:(Gr
oundbeetles)
Dy
3. t
isci
dae:(
Truewat
erbeet
les,
Predaceousdi
vi
ngbeet
les)
Gy
4. r
ini
dae:(
Whi
rl
igi
gbeet
les)
Cocci
5. nel
li
dae:(
Ladybi
rdbeet
les)
Lampy
6. ridae:(
Fir
efl
ies,
Glowwor
ms)
Fami
li
esofscav
enger
s
101
 Scar
1. abaei
dae:(
Scar
abs,
Dungbeet
les)
Hy
2. dr
ophi
li
dae:(
Wat
erscav
engerbeet
les)
Fami
li
esofst
oredpr
oductpest
s
[Link]
idae:(
Woodwor
ms,
Woodbor
ers)
Bost
2. rychi
dae:(
Grai
nbor
ers)
3)Br
uchi
dae:(
Pul
sebeet
les,
Seedbeet
les)
[Link]
ioni
dae:(
Mealwor
ms)
Fami
li
esofcr
oppest
s
Api
1. oni
dae:(
Antl
ikeweev
il
s)
Bupr
2. est
idae:(
Jewelbeet
les,
Met
all
icwoodbor
ers)
Cassi
3. didae:(
Tor
toi
sebeet
les)
Cer
4. amby
cidae:(
Longi
cor
nbeet
les)
Cur
5. cul
ioni
dae:(
Weev
il
s,snoutbeet
les)
Dy
6. nast
idae:(
Uni
cor
nbeet
les,
Rhi
nocer
osbeet
les)
El
7. at
eri
dae:(
Cli
ckbeet
les,
Wir
ewor
ms)
Gal
8. eruci
dae:(
Pumpki
nbeet
les)
Mel
9. oidae:(
Bli
sterbeet
les,
Oilbeet
les)
Mel
10. olont
hidae:(
Chaf
erbeet
les,
Junebeet
les,
Whi
tegr
ubs)

[Link]
udyofinsector
der
s:Neur
opt
era,
Hymenopt
ea,
Tri
chopt
era

[Link]
der
:Neur
opt
era
Et
ymol
ogy:Neur
o-ner
ve;
pter
a-wi
ngs.
Commonnames:Lacewi
ngs,
Antl
ions,
Mant
ispi
dfl
ies,
Owl
fl
ies.
Char acters:Theyar esoftbodiedi [Link] sfi
li
form,wi th
orwi thoutat [Link] hpartsarechewi ngt y
pei nadul t
s.
Wi ngsar eequal ,membr anouswi thmanycr ossv [Link] e
heldi nar oof-
likemannerov [Link] eweakf l
iers
Lar v
ai scampodei form withmandi bulosuctor
ialmout [Link]
i
sexar [Link] i
ont akespl acei nasi l
[Link] xoutof
eightMal pi
ghiant ubul
esar emodi fi
edassi lkgl [Link] n
thecocoonst hroughanalspi nnerets.
Cl
assi
fi
cati
on:Thi
sorderissubdi
vi
dedi
ntot
wosubor
der
svi
z.,
Megal
opter
aandPlani
penni
a.

102
Subor
der:Pl
ani
penni
a:
Chr
1. ysopi
dae:(
Greenl
acewi
ngs,
Gol
deney
es,
Sti
nkf
li
es,
Aphi
dli
ons)
Mant
2. ispi
dae:(
Mant
ispi
dfl
i
es)
.
My
3. r
mel
eont
idae:(
Antl
i
ons)
Ascal
4. aphi
dae:(
Owl
fl
ies)

[Link]
der
:Hy
menopt
era
Et
ymol
ogy:Hy
men-membr
ane;
pter
a
-wi
[Link]
meno-godofmar
ri
age;
pt
era-wi
ngs,
(
Mar
ri
age/uni
onoff
oreandhi
ndwi
ngsbyhamul
i
)
Commonnames:I
chneumonf
li
es,
Ant
s,Bees,
Wasps,
Par
asi
toi
ds.
Characters :Mout hpar t
s ar e primari
ly adapt ed forchewi ng.
Mandibles arev erywel ldev [Link] bees bot hlabium and
maxill
aear eintegr ated tof orm t helapping [Link] axis
modifiedforeffi
ci entf l
[Link] iscol l
arli
[Link] horaxis
enlar
[Link] athor axi ssmal l
.Bot hprothoraxandmet athoraxare
fused wi t
h mesot [Link] ngs ar e st i
ff and membr anous.
Forewingsar elar gert hanhi [Link] ngvenationisr educed.
Bothf orwingsandhi ndwingsar ecoupl edbyar ow ofhooklets
(hamuli)presentont heleadingedgeoft hehindwi ng.
Abdomeni sbasal lyconst [Link] i
rstabdomi nalsegmenti s
cal
ledpropodeum.I tisf usedwi thmet [Link] ir
stpai rof
abdominalspiraclesi sl ocat ed int hepr [Link]
segmenti sknown aspedi celwhi ch connect st he thor axand
[Link] bey ond t he pediceli s cal l
ed gast eror
[Link] i
posi torisal way spr esentinfemal [Link] ari
ousl y
modifi
edf orov i
posi t
ionorst i
ngingorsawi ngorpi ercingpl ant
ti
ssue.
Metamorphoisi s compl [Link] t
en the gr ub is apodous and
eucephal
[Link] v ai sr arel y erucif
[Link] i s exar at e and
fr
equentl
yenclosedi nasi l
kencocoonsecr etedfrom l abial glands.
Sexisdeterminedbyt hefer til
izat
ionoft [Link] t
il
izedeggs
devel
opintofemal esandmal esar eproducedf rom unf erti
-li
zed
[Link] oidandf emalesdiploi
d.
Cl
assi
fi
cat
ion:Thi
sor
deri
ssubdi
vi
dedi
ntot
wosubor
der
s.

103
Sy
mphy
taApocr
it
a
Abdomeni
1. sbr
oadl
yjoi
nedt
othet
hor
[Link]
spet
iol
ated.
Lar
2. vai
sacat
erpi
ll
arandLar
vai
sagr
ub
andi
tbel
ongsbel
ongst
oer
uci
for
mty
pe
t
oapodouseucephal
oust
ype
St
3. emmat
aar
epr
esentSt
emmat
aar
eabsent
.
Bot
4. hthor
aci
candabdomi
nalLegsar
eabsent
Ov
5. i
posi
tori
ssawl
ikeandOv
iposi
tori
snotsawl
ikeandsui
ted
forpier
cingt
heplanti
ssui
tedforpier
cingi
npar
a-t
issuesi
ti
c
groupsorforst
ingi
nginot
hergroups.
Behav
6. iour
alsophi
sti
cat
ioni
sBehav
iour
alsophi
sti
cat
ioni
slessmor
e.
Theyar
7. ephy
tophagousTheyar
egener
all
ypar
asi
ti
c
Subor
der:Sy
mphy
ta
1.
Tent
hredi
nidae:(
Sawf
li
es)
I
[Link]
der
:Apocr
it
a
I
[Link]
dae:(
Ichneumonf
li
es)
Br
2. aconi
dae:(
Braconi
dwasps)
Bet
4. hyl
idae:(
Bet
hyl
idwasps)
Chal
5. cidi
dae:(
Chal
cidwasps)
Eul
6. ophi
dae:(
Pupalpar
asi
toi
ds)
Tr
7. i
chogr
ammat
idae:(
Eggpar
asi
toi
ds)
Ev
8. ani
idae:(
Ensi
gnwasps)
Agaoni
9. dae:(
Figwasps)
Vespi
10. dae:(
Yel
lowj
acket
s,Hor
net
s)
Spheci
11. dae:(Thr
eadwai
stedwasp,
Diggerwasp,
Muddauber
)
For
12. mici
dae:(
Ant
s)
Api
13. dae:(
Honeybees)
14)Megachi
li
dae:(
Leafcut
terbees)
[Link]
locopi
dae:(
Car
pent
erbees)

Or
27. der
:Tr
ichopt
era(
Caddi
sfl
i
es)

a) Sl
ender
,el
ongat
emot
hli
kei
nsect
s

104
 b) Antennaelongandt hreadlikeusuallyaslongaslongert
hanthebody
c) Twop airsofwingshel droofli
keatr epose
d) Ma ndi
blesvestigi
alorabsent
e) Legslong,slender,t
arsisegment ed
f)L arvaeerucifor
m,aquat i
c–r espir
et hr
oughtrachealgi
ll
s,
l
iv
ei ncasesmadeofleaves,
shoot
,sandgr
ains,
debr
isand
si
[Link]
ate.

[Link]
e. lanavi
cul
ata

[Link]
udyofi
nsector
der
s:Lepi
dopt
era,
Siphonopt
era

[Link]
der
:Lepi
dopt
era
Sy
nony
m :Gl
ossat
a
Et
ymol
ogy:Lepi
do-scal
e;pt
era-
wi
[Link]:Mot
hs,
But
ter
fl
ies,
Ski
pper
s
Charact ers:Body,wings,appendages,ar edensel yclothedwi t
h
overlappingscales,whichgivecolour ,ri
gidi
tyandst r
[Link]
i
nsul atet he body and smoot hen ai rf l
ow ov er the body .
Mout hpart sinadul
tsareofsiphoningt y
[Link] bl
esar eabsent.
Thegal eaeofmaxi ll
aearegreatl
yel ongatedandar eheldtoget
her
byint er
[Link] or
ialpr
oboscisiscoil
ed
uplikeawat chspri
ngandkeptbeneat htheheadwhennoti nuse.
Wi ngs ar
e membr anous and are cov
ered wit
h over
lapping
[Link]
ewings ar
elar
gerthanhindwi
[Link] oss
[Link]
edbyeit
herfr
enat
eoramplexif
orm
typeofwingcoupli
ng.
Larv
aear epolypod-er
uciformt [Link] hpartsareadapt edf or
chewingwi thstrongmandi [Link] oupofl at er
alocell
iisf ound
on eitherside oft he [Link] ant enna is shortand t hree
segment [Link] rsoffivesegment edthoraciclegs
endi
ngi [Link] of ivepairsoff leshyunsegment edpr olegs
arefoundi [Link] hebot tom oft heproleg,crochets
[Link]
hernakedorencl osed
i
nacocoonmadeoutofsoi l,fr
ass,sil
korl arvalhair
s.
Classi
fi
cati
on:Majori
tyofLepi
dopter
aninsect
s(97%)aregrouped
underthesuborderDitr
ysi
ainwhichthefemaleinsect
shavet wo
[Link]
oryporeisl
ocatedinei
ghthabdominalst
ernit
e

105
andtheeggpor einnint
habdomi
nalst
erni
[Link]
ningi
nsect
s
aregroupedunderthesubor
derMonot
rysi
ainwhichthefemal
e
i
nsectshaveonepore.
But
ter
fl
yfami
l
ies
Ny
1. mphal
idae:(
Brushf
oot
edorf
ourf
oot
edbut
ter
fl
ies)
Ly
2. caeni
dae:(
Blues,
Copper
s,Hai
rst
reaks)
Papi
3. li
oni
dae:(
Swal
lowt
ail
s)
Pi
4. er
idae:(
whi
tesandSul
phur
s)
Sat
5. yri
dae:(
Browns,
Meadow-br
owns)
MOTHFAMI
LIES
Ar
6. ct
ii
da:(
Tigermot
hs)
Bomby
7. cidae:(
Sil
kwor
m mot
hs)
Cochl
8. idi
dae:(
Slugcat
erpi
l
lar
)
9)Cr
ambi
dae:(
Grassmot
hs)
[Link]
echi
idae:(
Paddy
mot
h)
11)Geometr
idae:(
Loopers)
Ly
12. mant
ri
dae:(Tussockmoths)
Noct
13. uidae:(
Noct
uamot
hs)
Py
15. r
aust
idae:(
Grassbor
ers)
Sat
16. urni
idae:(
Moonmont
hs,
giantsi
lkwor
m mot
hs)
Sphi
17. ngi
dae:(
Hawkmot
hs,
Sphi
nxmot
hs,
Hor
nwor
ms)
Ski
pperf
ami
l
y
Hesper
18. ii
dae(
Ski
pper
)

[Link]
der
:Si
phonopt
era(
Fleas)

Fleas ar e smal l,wi ngless,hol omet abolous i nsect

[Link] t
hr ar e
exception,t headul tsdependf ornour i
shmentont hebl oodof
war m-bloodedv [Link] er,thel arvaearerelati
velyfree-
l
iving and f eed on or gani c materialint he l
arvalhabi t
[Link]
bodiesofadul tfl
east endt obel aterall
ycompr essedandusual l
y
hav ecaudal lydi rectedset aeandspi nest hatexpedi t
ef orwar d
progresst hr ough t hev esti
tureoft hehostwhi leresisti
ng t he
backwar dmov ement sf requentl
yassoci atedwi t
hthegr oomi ng
activi
ti
esoft hehost .Adul tshaveshi ny ,hairybodiesandr ange
fr
om l i
ght,yel l
owishbr ownt oalmostbl ack.

106
I
dent
if
icat
ionchar
act
eri
sti
cs

a) Smal
l,wi
ngl
ess,l
ater
all
yfl
att
enedi
nsect
swi
thbackwar
dly
dir
ectedspinelikesetae
b) Mo ut
hpartsadopt edf orpiercingandsucking,laci
niaeof
maxill
aeformingt hesuct ori
alapparat
us
c) Legslongwithcoxaegr eatl
yenlarged,
havetremendouscapaci
tyt
ojump
d) Antennaeshort,
lieingroov esinthehead
e) Bothsexessuckbl oodf rom mammal sandbirds,some
arevector
sofdeadl ypathogens

[Link]
e. exi
rr
it
ans–Humanf
l Xenopsyl
ea; lacheopsi–Ratf
lea

[Link]
era,
Str
epsi
pter
a,Di
pter
a

Or
30. der
:Mecopt
era(
Scor
pionf
li
es)

Scorpi
onfli
esandhangi ngf i
esar emedium-sized( about9-25mm
l
ong),slender-bodied insects wit
ht he head pr olonged bel
ow
theeyesasabeak,orr ostr
[Link] ostr
um i sf
or medpr i
maril
y
byelongati
onoft heclypeus.I t
sposteriorsurfaceconsi st
spartl
y
ofthelengthenedmaxi l
laeandl abi
um,butt hemandi blesarenot
unusuall
y elongateandar eatthelowerendoft her ost
[Link]
Mecopterahav efourlong,nar r
ow membr anouswi [Link] r
ont
andhindwi ngsaresimi larinsizeandshapeandhav esimil
ar
venati
on.

I
dent
if
icat
ionchar
act
eri
sti
cs

a) Sl
ender
,moder
atesi
zed,car
niv
orousi
nsect
s,usual
lywi
th
twopair
sofsubequalwi ngs
b) Headproducedi ntoaverti
cal
lydef
lectedrostr
um wi
thbit
ingmouthpar
ts
c) Abdominaltergum 1fusedwiththethorax
d) Malegenit
aliaheldli
keascorpionsti
ngatt heendoftheabdomen
e) Larvaeeruci
form wi t
hcompoundey es
f) Pupaeexarate

[Link]
e. paf
urct
a

107
[Link]
der
:St
repsi
pter
a–Twi
stedwi
ngpar
asi
tes

Thest repsipter
aar eminut
ei nect
s,al
lofwhi chareparasit
icon
otherinsect [Link] wosexesar equi
tediffer
ent;t
hemal esare
fr
ee-li
vingandwi nged,whereast hefemales arewingl
essand
oftenlegless,andinmostspeciesdonotleavethehost
.

I
dent
if
icat
ionchar
act
eri
sti
cs

a) Mi
nuteinsectsandar
eparasi
ticonotherinsect
s
b) Mal
es-f
reeliv
ing&winged,whereast
hef emalesar
ewi
ngl
essandof
ten
l
egless
c) Fr
ontwi ngsarer
educedandhindwi
ngsar
elar
geandmembr
anous,
f
anlike.
d) Havechewi ngmout
hpartsand
[Link]
compoundey ylops
shannoni
Or
32. der
:Di
pter
a
Et
ymol
ogy:Di
-t
wo;
pter
a-wi
ng
Commonnames:Tr
uef
li
es,
Mosqui
toes,
Gnat
s,Mi
dges,
Char acters:Theyar esmal ltomedi um sized,softbodi edinsect s.
Thebodyr egionsar edi [Link] sof tenhemi sphericaland
attached t ot he t hor axbya sl [Link] hpart
s ar e of
sucking t ype,butmaybemodi fi
[Link] lthoracicsegment sar e
fused t oget her .The t hor acic mass i sl ar
gely made up of
mesot horax. A smal ll obe of t he mesonot um ( scutell
um)
overhangst hebaseoft [Link] easi nglepai rof
[Link] ewi ngsar el arger ,membr anousand used f orf l
ight.
Hindwi ngsar ehi ghl yreduced,knobbedatt heendandar ecal l
ed
[Link] er apidlyv ibrat
eddur ing fl
[Link] unctionas
organsofequi li
[Link] i
esar etheswi ft
estamongal linsect s.
Met amor phosi si scompl et [Link] ecommonf ormsar e
known as maggot s. They ar e apodous and acephal ous.
Mout hpar tsar er epresent edasmout hhookswhi char eat t
ached
toi nternalscl eri
[Link] i s generall
ywi thfree appendages,
oftenencl osedi nt hehar denedl astlar
valski ncalledpupar ium.
Pupabel ongst ot hecoar ctatetype.
Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionThi
sor
deri
ssubdi
vi
dedi
ntot
hreesubor
der
s.
Nematocer
a(Thr
ead-
hor
n)Ant
ennaislongandmanysegmented
i
n adult
.Larv
alhead i
swelldev
[Link]
valmandi
blesact
108
hori
zontal
ly
.Pupaisweakl
yobtect
.Adul
temer
gencei
sthr
ougha
str
aightspl
iti
nthet
hor
acicregi
on.
Brachycera( Short
-horn)Antennai sshortandfew segmentedin
adult
.Lar valheadi sr et
ract
il
ei nt
othet hor
[Link]
es
actv er
ticall
[Link] i [Link] emergenceisthrough a
str
aightsplitinthethoraci
cregion.
Cyclorrhapha:(Cir
cular-
crack)Antennaisaristat
[Link]
head isv est
igi
al wi t
h mout h [Link]
valmout h hooks act
vert
[Link] [Link]
e pupahasaci r
cul
ar
l
ineofweaknessal ongwhi chthepupalcasespl i
tsduringthe
emer genceofadul [Link] i
tresul
tsduetot hepressur
eappl i
ed
byanev ersi
blebl
adderpt i
li
num inthehead.
.Ne
i mat
ocer
a
1)Cul
ici
dae:(
Mosqui
toes)
2.
Ceci
domy
ii
dae:(
Gal
lmi
dges)
i
[Link]
achy
cer
a
3.
Asi
li
dae:(
Robberf
li
es)
4.
Tabani
dae:(
Hor
sef
li
es)
i
i.C
i ycl
orr
hapha
5.
Syr
phi
dae:(
Hov
erf
li
es,
Flowerf
li
es)
6.
Tephr
it
idae:(
Frui
tfl
i
es)
7.
Drosophi
li
dae:(
Vinegargnat
s,Pomacef
li
es)
8.
Tachi
nidae:(
Tachi
nidf
li
es)
9.
Musci
dae:(
Housef
ly)
10. Hi
ppobosci
dae:(
Dogf
ly)

109