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PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION

2ND SEMESTER, 2020-2021

Compiled by: Ms. Christine Viola A. Gonzales

MODULE III: FACTORS AFFECTING CROP PRODUCTION

Crop production can be viewed from two perspectives:

1 – at the CROP level

2 – at the SYSTEMS level

Crop production at the crop level:

In the form of an equation:

Y = f [G + E + (G x E)]

where, Y = yield

G = genotype

E = environment

G x E = interaction of genotype and environment

Genotype and Environment

 Genotype - genetic design of a plant which dictates the ceiling of how much a variety/cultivar can
yield.

- genes controlling a character (yield, plant height, taste, color, etc.)

- varies among and even within species

- sets the ultimate limit for plant variation

 Environment - any factor external to the plant that influences its growth and development.

- may be biotic or abiotic

examples are climate, soil, topography, pest and diseases

 G x E interaction

 A high yielding variety grown under poor environment will have low yield.

 A low yielding variety grown in optimum (good) environment will still have low yield.

 An ideal genotype therefore is one that has a wide range of environmental

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 An optimum environment is one that poses a minimum of constraints to crop growth and
development

 Through G x E interaction, some particular elements of the environment may draw varying
responses from different genotypes.

Practical implications:

 Need for continuous development of improved varieties/cultivars.

 Develop management practices that can remove or avoid environmental constraints.

 Continuously assess G x E interactions

 Systems level

 At the production SYSTEM level

environment

inputs systems output

(resources) (yield)

in a production system,

inputs – controllable, manageable resources such as seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, etc.

output – yield

environment – uncontrollable factors external to the system

system – component crops, processes and activities

Practical implications

 Man (management has only partial control of the system.

 Certain factors/conditions are given to which the system has to fit or adjust.

 The design of the system emanates from man (his needs, objectives, knowledge and capabilities)

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
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 includes CLIMATIC or above-ground factors and EDAPHIC or soil factors (abiotic factors)

 also includes pests and beneficial organisms (biotic factors)

ABIOTIC FACTORS

Climatic factors:

Definitions of terms:

Climate - the seasonal pattern of a particular place occuring from year to year.

- a composite of day-to-day weather conditions described in both averages and variability

Weather - a momentary state of the atmosphere brought about by the combination of elements,
e.g., temperature, pressure, moisture content, air movements, radiation, etc.

- day-to-day changes of the state or condition of the atmosphere

Macroclimate vs. Microclimate

Macroclimate - the climatic environment one meter above the plant canopy

Microclimate - generally refers to the climatic environment one meter below the canopy in the case of
tall plants or the climate within the leaf canopy for short (below one meter) plants.

Climatic elements

1. Precipitation– is any form of water particles falling on the ground in liquid or solid form (rainfall, hail,
snow, etc.)

Average rainfall in the Philippines = 2553 mm (Luzon – 2724 mm; Visayas – 2391.7 mm; Mindanao –
2349.8 mm

Role of water in plants

as a reactant in many biological reactions

enters into the structure of biological molecules

serve as medium of transport of nutrients and other substances

helps regulate plant temperature

Categories of plants based on need for moisture

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 xerophytes - desert plants

 hydrophytes - aquatic plants

 mesophytes - land plants; most economically important plants

Precipitation

Factors affecting amount and distribution of rainfall

Topography greatly influences the amount and distribution of rainfall

Mountain ranges present barriers to clouds, causing them to rise to higher elevations and generally
colder temperatures causing vapor to condense and water to fall on the windward sides as the clouds
pass over, leaving the leeward side relatively dry. Example is Los Banos in Laguna and Sto. Tomas in
Batangas. Sto. Tomas is drier than Los Banos due to the presence of Mt. Makiling.

Air circulation patterns affect the seasonal distribution of precipitation.

Precipitation

Rain formation requires

high relative humidity (RH)

sufficiently low temperature (below condensation point)

condensation nuclei

sufficiently low pressure

Drought – insuficiency of rainfall/moisture which seriously affect plant growth.

Absolute drought – 29 consecutive days without rainfall of at least 0.25 mm.

Partial drought – 15 consecutive days without rainfall of at least 0.25 mm.

Temperature

2. Temperature – the degree of hotness or coldness of a body

- every chemical, physiological and biological process in plants is influenced by

temperature.

Three (3) cardinal temperatures

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minimum temperature – that temperature below which the velocity of the reaction becomes zero, due
to the deactivation of enzymes.

optimum temperature – temperature where the velocity of the reaction is at maximum.

maximum temperature – that temperature above which the velocity of the reaction becomes zero, due
to the denaturation of enzymes.

Temperature

Temperature of the environment depends upon

solar radiation – vertical rays are more energy efficient/unit area than oblique rays (in polar regions).

surrounding land masses or bodies of water.

altitude – for every 100 meter rise in elevation, there is a 0.6 C decrease in temperature.

In the Philippines: high elevation – 13. 2 – 24.6 C

low elevation – 23.3 – 31.5 C

Temperature

Classification of crops according to temperature requirement

cool season crops – e.g., cole crops like cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower

warm season crops – e.g., rice, banana

tropical – e.g., coconut

sub-tropical – e.g., citrus

Temperature

Effect of temperature on crops

vernalization requirement of certain crops for flowering (e.g., celery seed exposed to 4.4-10 C for 10
days under imbibed condition)

effect on crop maturation (crops mature faster in hotter environments than n colder ones)

Wind

3. Wind or air in horizontal motion

normal wind speed in the Philippines = 7.2 km/hr

at 30 km/hr = leaf tearing may already occur especially in banana and abaca
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Wind

Effects of wind on plants

increase transpiration

destructive effects of strong winds, typhoon (e.g., crop lodging, grain shattering)

sterility due to loss of pollens

disease spore dispersal

reduced CO2 levels especially in enclosed spaces

affects plant form

Wind

Air circulation in the atmosphere results from the sun’s radiation falling more directly on the tropical
regions than on the polar regions, the warmer air rises and flow forward the poles, cools and sinks as
cold polar air and then returns toward the equator as ground flow

The interactions cause the establishment of regions, large and small, each with a different climate.

Solar radiation

4. Solar radiation or light – energy given out by the sun through radiation

Three aspects important to plants

light intensity – expressed in foot-candle or lux.

- plants are generally spaced so that maximum leaf area is exposed to sunlight

- some plants do not require high light intensity (shade-loving) because they have low light
saturation point.

- some plants require subdued light to survive. e.g., some ornamentals

Solar radiation

b. duration or daylength – expressed in hours per day

c. wavelength – expressed in Angstrom or nanometers or identified by color

- not all wavelengths of light are equally effective

in Photosynthesis - red and blue wavelength

in Photoperiodism - far red and red wavelength

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Solar radiation

Effect of light on plants

photoenergetic effect – direct effect on photosynthesis (intercepted radiation is important)

photocybernetic effect – effect on plant development (light quality is rather important than quantity of
light)

photoperiodic effect (or response) – plant response as conditioned by daylength

Solar radiation

Classification of plants according to light intensity requirements

a. Heliophytes - sun loving

- light saturated at about 5000 foot candles

- examples: banana, chrysanthemum, corn, cotton, cowpea,cucurbits, eggplant, papaya,

peanut, sugarcane

Solar radiation

b. Sciophytes - shade loving

- light saturated at about 500 foot candles

- examples: ginger, african violet, ferns, philidendron, coffee, begonia,

black pepper

Plants belonging to the intermediate group may be converted through acclimatization into either
heliophytes or sciophytes.

Solar radiation

Classification of plants according to photoperiodic response

a. day neutral – will flower over a wide range of daylength

- examples: banana, citrus, coconut, corn, tomato

b. short-day plant – requires a dark period exceeding some critical length to

induce flowering

- examples: coffee, kenaf, lima bean, rice, sesame, soybean, winged bean
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Solar radiation

for cassava, sweet potato, taro and yambean, short-day condition is required for tuber formation

c. long-day plant – inhibited from flowering when the dark period exceeds some critical length

- examples: aster, castor oil, onion, radish

Relative humidity

5. Relative humidity – proportion/amount of moisture in the air

Average RH in the Philippines = 82%

Importance in Crop Production

a. pest and disease incidences e.g., powdery wildew

b. postharvest behavior of commodities

very dry atmosphere wilting

high humidity not conducive to grain drying

enhance mold, aflatoxin buildup

c. supplying water requirement during crop production

low RH, high temperature high evapotranpiration

high RH, high temperature low evapotranspiration

Gases

6. Gaseous environment

Carbon dioxide

hardly limiting in crop production except at no or little air circulation in dense plant populations

critical in enclosed environments like greenhouses

Air pollution

becomes crucial as the world becomes more industrialized

toxic substances: lead, sulfur dioxide, smog, carbon monoxide, hydrofluoric acid (HF)

Cloudiness

7. Cloudiness
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cloud, including smog and fog, affect the amount of radiation received by plants. Most of the solar
radiation is reflected by clouds.

clouds are also believed to be responsive for the GREENHOUSE EFFECT:

- clouds, acting similarly as the glass covering of a greenhouse, stop the transfer of thermal radiant
energy from the earth to the cold sky thereby slowing down the cooling process of the earth.

- on the global scale air and water molecules present on clouds trap long-wave radiation and reduce
their outward flow to the space because the shorter wave lengths reaching the earth’s surface when re-
radiated as longer waves cannot pass through the clouds as readily as the shorter wavelengths.

CLASSIFICATION OF PHILIPPINE CLIMATE (Corona Classification)

Type 1. Pronounced wet and dry season

Example: Ilocos, Occ. Mindoro, Antique, Negros Occ.

November – May = dry

June – October = wet

Type 2. No dry season with pronounced maximum rain period

Example: Most of Bicol, Samar, Leyte, Surigao, Agusan, Davao

November – January = maximum rain period

Philippine Climate

Type 3. No very pronouced maximum rain period with short dry season lasting from one to three
months

Example: Cagayan, N. Viscaya, Capiz, Cebu, Negros Oriental, Masbate, Mt. Province

February – April = dry season

Type 4. No pronounced maximum rain period and no dry season

Example: Isabela, Bohol, Cotabato, Lanao, Zamboanga, Bukidnon

Rainfall is distributed throughout the year

CLIMATIC STRESSES

1. Typhoon

2. Ozone Destruction

3. Global warming
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4. El Niño/La Niña

5. Acid rain

6. Lahar

Typhoon

1. Typhoon and weather variations

Typhoon - strong winds with speed greater than 121 kph.

tropical storm typhoon

depression

- usually originate from the Pacific Ocean; circulation (800 km diameter) with a low
central pressure (-72 cm Hg) with air spirals towards the calm eye (30 km diameter)

Ozone layer

2. Destruction of the ozone layer

reported to be 50% (Antartica)

Ozone – protective shield against the harmful UV rays

- it is 6-30 miles above the earth

Harmful effects:

Depressed photosynthesis

Reduced levels of seed protein, lipids and carbohydrates

Deleterious effects on human (skin cancer, etc.)

Global warming

3. Global Warming

increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

Carbon dioxide concentration might double to around 600ppm in 30-75 years

Methane gas contributes to global warming

Results to high atmospheric temperature which affect the ocean level by a few mm per year

Ingress of saline water to a 15km distance inland

Ocean levels will rise by as much as 30 cm in year 2010 and up to 150 cm by 2050
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El Niño

4. “EL NIÑO”

What is El Niño?

a periodic ocean – warming and atmospheric disturbance characterized by deficient rainfall or

prolonged drought in some areas, while heavy rains, storms or hurricanes occur in other areas of the
globe

for the past 30 years, the Philippines has been hit by some seven (7) El Niño episodes.

The 1982-83 episode is rated as the most intense in the past century

The 1997-98 episode, has comparable intensity – bringing immense damage to Philippine crops,
water/electric supply aside from contributing to poisoning of sea foods (red tide)

El Niño

Origin of El Niño

From the Spanish word meaning “Boy child or Little child”

Used to be considered as a local event along the coasts of Peru and Ecuador - describing the appearance
of warm ocean currents flowing the South and Central American coasts around Christmas time -
believing that the temporary heavy harvest of fish was a gift of the Christ child.

El Niño

El Niño Watch

El Niño occurs in the Pacific Basin every 2 to 9 years. It usually starts during the Northern winter
(December to February). Once established, it lasts until the first half of the following year, although at
times, it stays longer. It exhibits phase-locking in annual cycles.

El Niño

Climatic indicators of El Niño in the Philippines include

delayed onset of the rainy season

early termination of the rainy season

weak monsoon activity

weak tropical cyclones activity

El-Niño is said to be triggered when the strong westward-blowing trade winds weaken and reverse
direction.

El Niño
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Effects of El Niño

a. fish kill especially cold water fish

- tuna and milkfish catch declines

b. decrease in yield for most crops

c. human death

Acid rain

5. Acid rain

Sulfur dioxide produces S which is released from natural sources and human activities

Oxides of S and water will produce acid rain

Lahar

6. Lahar

Mt. Pinatubo eruption in the early 1990’s

lead to decreased in agricultural lands resulting to low production

EDAPHIC FACTORS

refers to the soil as a factor in crop production

What is soil?

Soil as a three-phase system

Solid – mineral + organic matter

Liquid – soil solution

Gas – various gases

Soil properties

Soil Properties in relation to Crop Production

Physical properties

Physical Properties

1.1 Soil Texture

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- the relative proportion of primary soil particles, i.e., sand, silt and clay in a particular
soil

particle size

sand > .02 µ

silt .02-.002 µ

clay < .002 µ

- soil texture range:

sand loam clay

<10% ~equal >4.5%

clay proportion of sand clay

S, H and clay

Physical properties

- importance of soil texture to crop production

Heavy soil Light soil

Tillability difficult easy

Aeration less more

Water-holding high low capacity

Nutrient-holding high low

capacity

Implications:

the desirable soil texture for crops is that in between heavy and light, i.e., heavy soil, to allow for easy
workability and sufficient water and nutrient holding capacity.

Physical properties

1.2 Soil Structure:

- the arrangement of soil particles into aggregates.

How soil structure is formed?

ped natural structure

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dod structure formed with the application of external force, e.g., plowing

organic matter - binding agent

Types of soil structure

 blocky

 granular

 columnar

 no structure

Physical properties

Importance of soil structure to crops:

to some extent, soil tillability is related to structure. There are soils that are relatively easier to break up
because of their structure.

soil structure influences the infiltration of water through the soil.

soil structure influences soil aeration which is critical during seed germination and seedling
emergence.1.3 Soil Depth

particularly, the top soil relative to the subsoil.

Physical properties

Top soil - from where crops obtain most of the nutrients. Also, where organic matter is concentrated.

Sub soil - storage of nutrients and water, but often less fertile than top soil.

Physical properties

 1.4 Bulk density Properties related to

 1.5 Soil porosity degree of aeration and

 1.6 Hydraulic water holding capacity

 conductivity

 1.7 Soil organic matter content – composed of dead plant residues and wastes

 for most mineral soils 5%

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 for most Philippine soils 2-4%

 Physical properties

 Importance:

 prevents loss of nutrients by forming complexes with nutrient elements

 facilties absorption and percolation of water into and through the soil

 increases water holding capacity

 source of nutrients

 improves penetration of roots

 influences soil structure formation

 influences soil chemical properties may contain N, P, S, B, Zn

 determines the biotic composition

 Physical properties

 Humus – amorphous, collidad substance which is resistant to further decomposition

 improves soil structure

 increases CEC and water holding capacity of soil

 gives dark color to soil

Chemical Properties

2. Chemical Properties

2.1 Soil pH or soil-reaction

degree of acidity or alkalinity

influences nutrient availability

negative logarithm of H+ activity

7.0 – neutral pH (H+ = OH-)

decrease in soil pH acidity

increase in soil pH alkalinity

Chemical Properties
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pH Effects

pH below 5.0 – Al, Fe & Mn become toxic

Ca & Mo deficiency

pH below 5.5 – Mo, Za, K & S deficiency

pH 6-7 (neutral) – most nutrients are in available form

pH above 7.5 – Al toxicity, salinity, Zn & Fe toxicity

pH above 8.0 – formation of Ca phosphates

pH above 8.5 – salinity, Zn & Fe deficiency

Chemical Properties

2.2. Cation Exchange Capacity

- ability of soil to absorb and release cations through the soil solution

how? - soil particles can be colloidal (e.g., clay) and can contain excess (net) negative charges

how measured? - sum of exchangeable cations in a given wt. of soil expresses in me/100 g. soil

Chemical Properties

Nutrient Holding Capacity – CEC

Particular me/100g

Humus 600

Good clay (Montmorillonite) 80 to 150

Not good clay (Kaolinite) 3 to 15

Sand 0

Good soil 20 above

Bad soil 5 and below

By M. Maeda and Y. Mastuo (Basic Knowledge of Soil)

Biological Properties

3. Biological Properties
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3.1 Macroscopic organisms

3.2 Microscopic organisms

a. Fungi

b. Actinomycetes and protozoa = decomposers (aerobic)

c. Bacteria (billion/g topsoil)

- Thiobacillus oxidizes S sulfate form

- Auxotrophic bacteria – oxidizes Mn & Fe to less available form

- Nitrifying bacteria

- N fixing bacteria

d. Blue-green algae – Nitrogen fixation

Biological Properties

3.3 Root – microoganism association found in the nuts of legumes – Nitrogen fixation

a, bacteria – rhizobia in nodules

b. fungi mycorrhizal fungi

- converts phosphorous to biological forms

3.4 Organic matter and humus

OM 5% N,

Only 2% available to plant

Philippine soils

2.4% OM

high fertility >3.5%

medium 2-3.5%

low <2%

Soil Organisms

Fauna

Soil organisms
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Flora

Benefits from Earthworms

Burrowing – channels for drainage and aeration, entry of other animals, entry of water, nutrients, roots

Mix the soil, “plows” the soil

Incorporates crop residues

Contribute to OM

Humus enrichment

Improves soil structure

Control pests (e.g., leaf miner pupa, scub pathogen)

Nutrient recycling

Topography

- whether the land is flat or sloping

- a major parameter in delineating lowlands and uplands

in the Philippines, the slope of the land is used as the major determinant.

i.e., uplands - > 18% slope

- in crop production, topography is critical in:

 irrigation and drainage

 soil conservation

Topography

in flat lands, the problem can be in drainage.

in sloping lands, the problem can be in how to bring water up for irrigation.

poor drainage can result into soil fertility problems.

in sloping lands, soil erosion can be a major problem especially if crop production practices do not
consider soil and water conservation strategies.

to a great extent, CEC is an indicator of soil fertility because most nutrients are taken up by plants in
cation form.
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the soil can also exchange anions

roots of plant also have their own CEC – the exchange thereforedepends on the interaction of soil and
root CEC.

BIOTIC FACTORS

- all living elements in the environment that can affect crop production

- includes: beneficial organisms pests

1. Beneficial organisms

provide beneficial effects on crop production

includes:

Pollinators

important role in the preservation of species and in biodiversity conservation

Biotic factors

Decomposers

an important part in the food chain which is related to energy flow in a crop production system.

a trophic level, usually consisting soil microorganisms (soil biotic factors)

specifically important in the maintenance of soil organic matter.

Natural pest enemies

provide balance in a crop production system particularly in the control of pests

as bio-control agents against pests

Biotic factors

1.1 Pests

a collective term that includes insect pests, diseases, weeds, invertebrates and vertibrates

has always been a major limiting factor in crop production!

Damage can go as high as 100%!

Genetic Factors

GENETIC FACTORS

Include all factors internal to the plant.

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Genotype – the genetic design of a plant which dictates the ceiling of how much a variety/cultivar can
yield.

Genome – sets the ultimate limit for plant variation

Genetic factors

2. Selection indices of major Philippine crops:

 The choice of variety is one of the most critical decisions in crop production.

Technologies required in growing a certain crops are dependent on the characteristics of a particular
variety especially:

 growth characteristics

 quality of the product

 market acceptability

Genetic factors

EXAMPLES OF SELECTION INDICES:

1. corn:  early maturing (90-95 days) to medium maturing (102-105 days)

 yield – 5-7 tons/ha

 yellow or white flint

 moderate or highly resistant/ tolerant to: rust, corn borer earworm, downy mildew, etc.

 drought tolerant

Genetic factors

2. rice:  growth duration:

early - 100-110 days

medium - 110-120 days

late - >120 days

 yield: 5000-6000 kg/ha

 plant height: 80-105 cm.

 amylose content: intermediate to high

 gelatimization temperature: low

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intermediate

high

 grain size and appearance: medium to long slender

Genetic factors

3. mungbean: maturity: 60 days

 yield: 1.2-1.5 tons/ha

plant height: 30-75 cm.

 tolerant to cercospora leaf spot, downy mildew, water logging

 shiny, yellow-green seeds

Genetic factors

4. coconut:  1200-1500 nuts/harvest: 8x/yr or every 45 days

 tree or plant should have a rounded crown

 at least 60-80 nuts/tree/yr.

 at least 30-36 opened leaves

 closer leaf scar

 presence of inflorescence in every leaf

 medium-sized, round shaped nuts

 free form pest and diseases

Genetic factors

5. mango:  dwarf

 fruit large with thin/small seeds

 regular bearer

 resistant to major pests and diseases

6. banana:  early maturity

 high yielding

 drought tolerant

 resistant to pest and disease

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 good fruit quality

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)

the latest development in biotechnology in relation to crop improvement.

in countries like the USA, Argentina, Canada and China, transgenic crops have been commercialized.

global area of transgenic crops in 1999 is about 39.9 million hectares

transgenic crops: corn, tomato, soybean, cotton, potato

GMO’s

The issue: (Kuyek D, 2000)

Genetic engineering is vastly different from other methods used by breeders. While all other processes
for breeding rely on natural functions of organisms, GE moves genes from one organism to another in
ways that could never be possible in nature. The science is not precise and the interactions between the
GMO and the surrounding environment are unpredictable

GMO’s

Concerns:

possible transfer of trans gene to other microorganisms like soil microorganisms

possible effects of products on non target organisms

possible faster pest adaptation

possible production of allergenic and/or toxic substances

possible effects of transgenic products themselves

Human factors

often overlooked but probably the most critical of all factors

from a system perspective, it is not only a factor, rather it is the core of the system itself (it is the reason
for crop production, for farming)

1. Farmer’s preference re: crop type, variety

ideally based on farmer’s objectives and aspirations

however, in the Philippines, this is often dictated by external factors, i.e., market government
 COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY AND FOOD SCIENCE
E-mail: caffs@[Link]

PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION

2ND SEMESTER, 2020-2021

Compiled by: Ms. Christine Viola A. Gonzales

policies

Human factors

2. Farmer’s capability

depends on: resources knowledge

most Filipino farmers are resource-poor

our culture is very rich in indigenous knowledge particularly about farming

3. Management

a result of 1 and 2

goes along with eco-social-political realities