SUBA ALLIANCE UNIVERSITY SYNDICATE

RADIOACTIVITY
In 1896, Henri Becquerel accidentally discovered radioactivity when he observed that
uranium salt crystals emitted invisible radiation that could affect a photographic plate, even
when it is coated to prevent light. This spontaneous release of radiation became known as
radioactivity.
Further experiments showed that there were other radioactive substances other than uranium;
the most significant of these experiments were conducted by Marie and Pierre Curie. one of
the first results of the Curies' work was the discovery that thorium was radioactive; this was
important because it showed that radioactivity was not confined to only uranium.
The Curies worked many years on finding and purifying other radioactive elements; they
discovered polonium and radium; the activity of radium, it turns out, is a million times
greater than that of uranium.
Radioactivity can therefore be defined as the spontaneous emission of radiation from an
unstable atomic nucleus.
RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCE
A substance or element that have the ability to undergo radioactivity is known as a
radioactive substance or element.
Examples of radioactive elements are: Uranium(𝑈), Polonium(𝑃0 ), Radium(𝑅𝑎 ),
Thorium(𝑇ℎ), Actinium etc.
TYPES OF RADIATION EMISSION
There are three type of radiation that can be emittted by a radioactive substance:
1. Alpha decay
2. Beta decay
3. Gamma decay
ALPHA DECAY
If a nucleus emits an alpha particle ( 42𝐻𝑒), the mass number is reduced by four (4) and the
atomic number by two (2). The decay can be written symbolically as;
A A−4
ZX ⟶ Z−2Y + 42He
Where X is called the parent nucleus and Y is known as the daughter nucleus.
U-238 and Ra-226, for example, are both alpha emitters that decay according to
the schemes;
238 234 4
92U⟶ 90Th+ 2He

and
226 222
88Ra⟶ 86Th + 42He

1
COMPILED BY ING. UMARR ALIE SESAY (BEENG-FBC)
 SUBA ALLIANCE UNIVERSITY SYNDICATE
PROPETIES OF ALPHA PARTICLES

Alpha particles are energetic nuclei of helium, and they are relatively heavy and carry
a double positive charge.
• Typical alpha particles have a kinetic energy of about 5 MeV. This is due to the nature of
alpha decay.
• Pure alpha decay is very rare. Alpha decay is frequently accompanied by gamma radiation.
• Alpha particles interact with matter primarily through coulomb forces (ionization and
excitation of matter) between their electrons’ positive and negative charge of the electrons
from atomic orbitals.
• Alpha particles heavily ionize matter, and they quickly lose their kinetic energy.
Therefore alpha particles have very short ranges. On the other hand, they deposit all their
energies along their short paths.

BETA DECAY
When a radioactive nucleus undergoes beta decays, the daughter nucleus has the same
number of nucleons as the parent nucleus, but the atomic number is altered by one:
A A
ZX ⟶ Z+1Y + 𝑒−
A A
ZX ⟶ Z−1Y + 𝑒+

The emission of electrons from a nucleus is astonishing because we have

previously mentioned that the nucleus is exclusively made up of protons and
neutrons. This apparent contradiction may be reconciled by remembering that the
expelled electron is produced in the nucleus by a mechanism that converts a
neutron into a proton. This procedure is represented by
1
0n ⟶ 11P + 𝑒 −
A typical beta decay example is
14 14
6C ⟶ 1N + 𝑒−
PROPERTIES OF BETEA PARTICLES
•Beta particles are energetic electrons.
•They are relatively light and carry a single negative charge.
• Their mass is equal to the mass of the orbital electrons with which they are interacting.
•Their velocity ranges from 33% to 99% of the speed of light.
• Their path is not so straightforward, and they can lose a large fraction of their kinetic
energy in a single interaction.

2
COMPILED BY ING. UMARR ALIE SESAY (BEENG-FBC)
 SUBA ALLIANCE UNIVERSITY SYNDICATE
GAMMA DECAY
When gamma decay occurs, the mass number and the atomic number remains constant.
A gamma decay is represented as;
A
ZX ⟶ AZY + 00𝛾
Examples: 125𝐵 → 12
5𝐵 + 00𝛾

PROPERTIES OF GAMMA RAYS

• Gamma particles, also known as gamma rays, are a type of electromagnetic
radiation that have no mass or charge.
• They are high-energy photons that can arise from radioactive decay of atomic
nuclei.
• Gamma rays are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields, and they have very
short wavelengths, less than X-rays.
• Gamma rays travel with the speed of light and have very large penetrating power.
They can pass through several centimeters of iron and lead.
• Gamma rays can produce fluorescence in a substance.
• Gamma rays have got small ionizing power.

THE FIGURE BELOW SHOWS THE NATURE OF RAYS FROM A RADIOACTIVE

SOURCE.

3
COMPILED BY ING. UMARR ALIE SESAY (BEENG-FBC)
 SUBA ALLIANCE UNIVERSITY SYNDICATE
𝐃𝐄𝐆𝐑𝐄𝐄 𝐎𝐅 𝐏𝐄𝐍𝐄𝐓𝐑𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍

𝛽 𝛾

𝛼
paper Aluminium Thick block
𝐍𝐔𝐂𝐋𝐄𝐀𝐑 𝐄𝐐𝐔𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍𝐒
𝑎
If 𝑏𝐴 + 𝑑𝑐𝐵 → 𝑓𝑒𝐶 then

1. 𝑎 + 𝑐 = 𝑒 from law of conservation of mass number.

2. 𝑏 + 𝑑 = 𝑓 from the law of conservation of atomic number.
EXERCISES
1. A nuclide 𝐴𝑍𝑋 emits 𝛽-particle to form a daughter nuclide Y. Write a nuclear equation to
illustrate the charge conservation.
2. Alpha particles emission by 235 92𝑈 produces an element, A. Beta emission by particle A
produces another element B. Element B also undergoes alpha particle emission produce
227
89𝐴𝑐 . Write balanced equations to represent the above statement.
3. When nitrogen (𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 14, 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 7) is bombarded with
neutrons, the collisions result in disintegrations in which alpha particles are produced.
Represent this transmutation in a symbolic equation.
𝑝
4. 23 2
11𝐴 + 1𝐵 → 𝑞𝐶 + 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝑝
𝑞𝐶 → 𝑟𝑠𝐸 + 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑎
A nucleus C, formed artificially from A and B, is radioactive and quickly decays to
another nucleus E as indicated in the nuclear equations above. Determine the values of p,
q, r and s.
5. copy and complete the following nuclear reactions:
7
I. 3𝐿𝑖 + _ → 42𝐻𝑒 + 42𝐻𝑒

27
II. 13𝐴𝑙 + 10𝑛 → _ + 42𝐻𝑒

6. Uranium 23892𝑈 is an alpha emitter and decays to thorium 𝑇ℎ which in turns decay by beta
emission with a small decay constant to an isotope of protactinium 𝑃𝑎. The protactinium
isotope finally decays by beta emission to an element Y. write down the decay equations
for uranium as stated above.

4
COMPILED BY ING. UMARR ALIE SESAY (BEENG-FBC)
 SUBA ALLIANCE UNIVERSITY SYNDICATE
7. A radioactive element 𝑋 with atomic number 88 and mass number 226 emits in
successive
(𝑖) an alpha particle
(𝑖𝑖) a beta particle
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) a gamma particle
Explain, using equations where necessary, the changes that takes place in the atomic
structure of the element at each stage.

8. (𝒊) Two nuclear equations are given below:

222 218 𝑞
𝑝𝑅𝑛 → 84𝑃𝑜 + 2𝐻𝑒 … equation A
𝟐𝟏𝟒 𝟐𝟏𝟒
𝟖𝟑𝐵𝑖 → 𝟖𝟒𝑃𝑜 + 𝒎𝒏𝑋 … equation B
Determine the values of:
(𝛼) p and q in equation A
(𝛽) m and n in equation B and identify X
9. What changes that take place in the atomic structure of an element, X, with atomic
number 88 and mass number 226, if it emits an alpha particle?

10. (𝑎) Define nucleon number.

(𝑏) A radioactive isotope of Americium(𝐴𝑚 − 241) decays into a nucleus of
Neptunium(𝑁𝑝 − 237) and an alpha (𝛼) particle as shown in the nuclear equation
below.
241 237
95𝐴𝑚 → 𝑐 𝑁𝑝 + 𝑎𝑏𝛼
(𝑖) State the number of neutrons in the nucleus of Americium – 241.
(𝑖𝑖) Determine the values of 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐
(𝑐) (𝑖) why are 𝛾 − rays not deflected by electromagnetic fields?
(𝑖𝑖) State two properties of gamma rays that make them suitable for sterilizing medical
equipment.

5
COMPILED BY ING. UMARR ALIE SESAY (BEENG-FBC)
 SUBA ALLIANCE UNIVERSITY SYNDICATE
TYPES OF RADIOACTIVITY
There are two types of radioactivity namely:
(𝑖) Natural Radioactivity and (𝑖𝑖) Artificial Radioactivity

1. Natural Radioactivity:
• Definition: Radioactive nuclei that are naturally present in the environment.
• Origin: Found in nature.
• Example: Unstable nuclei naturally occurring in certain elements.

2. Artificial Radioactivity:
• Definition: Radioactive nuclei that are created artificially in a laboratory setting through
nuclear reactions.
• Origin: Produced in the laboratory.
• Example: Nuclei generated through human-made processes like nuclear reactions.
OR
❖ Natural Radioactivity occurs when the nucleus disintegrates on its own without an
external source with the emission of radiation and energy.
➢ For an unstable nuclide to undergo a natural radioactivity it needs no involvement of the
bombardment of any of the high-speed particles but it occurs naturally. Examples of
natural radioactive nuclide are: 146𝐶 , 238 90 210
92𝑈, 38𝑆𝑟 , 84𝑃0 etc.

The general nuclear reaction representing natural radioactivity is written as:

X→ Y+a

Where, 𝑋 − parent nucleus

𝑌 − daughter nucleus
𝑎 − the particle emitted
Examples of natural radioactivity are as follows:
90 90
1. 38𝑆𝑟 → 39𝑌 + −10𝛽
238 234
2. 92𝑈 → 90𝑇ℎ + 42𝛼
210 206
4. 84𝑃0 → 82𝑃𝑏 + 42𝛼

❖ Artificial Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration of an atomic nucleus by bombarding it

with high-speed particle to form a new element.

6
COMPILED BY ING. UMARR ALIE SESAY (BEENG-FBC)
 SUBA ALLIANCE UNIVERSITY SYNDICATE
The high-speed particles include:
✓ Proton → 11𝐻
✓ Beta particle → −10𝑒
✓ Alpha particle → 42𝐻𝑒
✓ Neutron → 10𝑛
✓ Deuterium → 21𝐻
✓ Tritium → 31𝐻
Generally, the nuclear reaction of artificial radioactivity is written as:

X+a→Y+b

Where, 𝑋 = is the stable parent nucleus

𝑌 = is the daughter nucleus
𝑎 = is the bombarding particle 𝑏 = is the particle emitted after the decay.

Examples of artificial radioactivity reactions are as follows:

1. . 56 1 57
27𝐶0 + 0𝑛 → 27𝐶0
2. 147𝑁 + 42𝐻𝑒 → 178𝑂 + 11𝐻
3. 27 1 24
13𝐴𝑙 + 0𝑛 → 11𝑁𝑎 + 2𝐻𝑒
4

7
COMPILED BY ING. UMARR ALIE SESAY (BEENG-FBC)
 SUBA ALLIANCE UNIVERSITY SYNDICATE
LAW OF RADIOACTIVITY (DECAY LAW)
This law states that the rate of disintegration of a radioactive element is directly proportional
to the number of nuclei present in the sample at any time.
Suppose N is the number of samples present at any time, ∆𝑁 is the decay in small time ∆𝑡.
∆𝑁
Then the rate of decay is .
∆𝑡

∆𝑁 ∆𝑁
∝𝑁 ⟹ = 𝜆𝑁
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
Where 𝜆 is the radioactive decay constant.
∆𝑁 𝑑𝑁
If ∆𝑡 is ⟶ 0, then =
∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑁
= −𝜆𝑁 ⟹ This is known as the decay law
𝑑𝑡
The negative sign indicates the number of atoms presently initially is gradually decreasing
with time.
Recall
𝑑𝑁
= −𝜆𝑁
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁 = −𝜆𝑁𝑑𝑡
Divide by N
𝑑𝑁
= −𝜆𝑑𝑡
𝑁
Integrating both sides
1
∫ 𝑑𝑁 = ∫ −𝜆𝑑𝑡
𝑁
suppose the substance disintegrate from 𝑁0 to 𝑁 at 𝑡 = 0 and 𝑡 = 𝑡,
𝑁 𝑡
1
∫ 𝑑𝑁 = ∫ −𝜆𝑑𝑡
𝑁0 𝑁 0

[ln 𝑁]𝑁𝑁0 = −𝜆[𝑡]𝑡0

ln 𝑁 − ln 𝑁0 = −𝜆(𝑡 − 0)
𝑁
ln( ) = −𝜆𝑡
𝑁0
𝑁
= 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑁0

N = N0 e−λt

8
COMPILED BY ING. UMARR ALIE SESAY (BEENG-FBC)
 SUBA ALLIANCE UNIVERSITY SYNDICATE
Where, N = amount left after decay
N0 = original number of atoms
𝜆 = decay constant
t = time taken is hours, years, seconds etc.
Decay constant (𝜆) is defined as the ratio of the number of atoms disintegrating per second to the
number of atoms present.

That is,
no. of atoms decayin𝗀 per second dN/dt
λ= =
no. of atoms present N

RATE OF ACTIVITY, R
A sample's decay rate, or activity R, is defined as the number of decays per second. It is given
as;
𝑑𝑁
𝑅 = | | = 𝜆𝑁 = R 0 e−λt
𝑑𝑡

Where Ro = Noλ is the decay rate at t = 0.

UNITS OF ACTIVITY
1. The S.I. unit of activity is Becquerel (𝐵𝑞).
1 Becquerel = 1 decay/s or 1 disintegration per second

2. The older or practical unit is the Curie, (Ci)

1 Curie = 3.7 × 1010 decay/s or 3.7 × 1010 Becquerel
The most commonly used units of activity are the millicurie and the microcurie.

HALF LIFE, 𝑻𝟏
𝟐

1. The half-life of a radioactive substance is the time it takes for half of a given number of
radioactive nuclei to decay.

2. The half-life of a radioactive element can also be defined as the time taken for an atom of
a radioactive element to decay to half its original value.

From the decay law,

N = N0 e−λt
At half-life,

9
COMPILED BY ING. UMARR ALIE SESAY (BEENG-FBC)
 SUBA ALLIANCE UNIVERSITY SYNDICATE
𝑁0
𝑁= , 𝑡 = 𝑡1
2 2
𝑁0
= 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
2
2−1 = e−λt
2 = 𝑒 𝜆𝑡
ln 2 = ln 𝑒 𝜆𝑡
ln 2 = 𝜆𝑡
Divide by 𝜆
ln 2 𝜆𝑡
=
𝜆 𝜆
ln 2
𝑡=
𝜆
ln 2
𝑡1 =
2 𝜆
𝑙𝑛2 0.693
Hence the half-life and decay constant are related by: 𝑡1 = OR 𝑡1 =
2 𝜆 2 𝜆

DECAY CURVE AND HALF-LIFE

A plot of the exponential decay law for radioactive nuclei is called decay curve. The vertical
axis represents the number of radioactive nuclei present at any time t, and the horizontal axis
is time. During the first half-life, ½ of the original material will decay and during the second
half-life, ½ of the remaining material will decay, leaving ¼ of the original material
remaining. Summarizing, the number of undecayed radioactive nuclei remaining after n half-
lives is

1 𝑛
𝑁 = 𝑁0 ( )
2
Where, n can be an integer or a non-integer, n can solve by:
𝑡 𝑡
𝑛= ⟹ 𝑡1 =
𝑡1 2 𝑛
2

10
COMPILED BY ING. UMARR ALIE SESAY (BEENG-FBC)
 SUBA ALLIANCE UNIVERSITY SYNDICATE
Example 1.0
At time 𝑡 = 0, a radioactive sample contains 3.50 𝜇g of pure 11C, which has a half life of 20.4
min.
(i) Determine the number 𝑁0 of nuclei in the sample at t = 0.
(ii) What is the activity of the sample initially and after 8.0 hrs?
Solution
(i) No. of nuclei present initially, N0 = moles × Avogadro’s No. (NA)
Molar mass of 11C = 11.0g/mol
3.50×10−6
Moles = = 3.18 × 10−7 mols
11
N0 = 3.18 × 10−7 × 6.02 × 1023 = 1.92 × 1017 nuclei

(ii) Activity R0 = 𝜆N0

0.693 0.693
𝜆=
= = 5.66 × 10−4 𝑠 −1
𝑡1/2 20.4 × 60𝑠
R0 = 𝜆N0 = 5.66 × 10−4 × 1.92 × 1017 = 1.08 × 1014 𝐵𝑞
−4
𝑅 = R 0 e−λt = 1.08 × 1014 × 𝑒 −(5.66×10 ×8.0×3600𝑠)
𝑅 = 8.96 × 106 𝐵𝑞

Example2.0
A 50 g sample of carbon taken from the pelvic bone of a skeleton is found to have a carbon-
14 decay rate of 200.0 decays/min. It is known that carbon from a living organism has a
decay rate of 15.0 decays/(min.g) and that C-14 has a half - life of 5730 years = 3.0 x109
min. Find the age of the skeleton.
Solution
Mass of sample = 50g
Original decay rate of the sample should be = 50 × 15 = 750 decay/mins
The decay rate of the sample = 200 decays/min
0.693
Decay constant 𝜆 = 𝑡1/2

Half life = 5730 years

0.693 0.693
𝜆= = = 2.30 × 10−10 𝑚𝑖𝑛−1
𝑡1/2 3.01 × 109 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠

Age of skeleton, t = ?
𝑅 = R 0 e−λt
𝑅 200
ln (𝑅 ) ln (
)
𝑡=− 0
= 750 = 5.74 × 109 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠 = 1.09 × 104 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
𝜆 2.30 × 10−10 𝑚𝑖𝑛−1
11
COMPILED BY ING. UMARR ALIE SESAY (BEENG-FBC)
SUBA ALLIANCE UNIVERSITY SYNDICATE
EXERCISES

12
COMPILED BY ING. UMARR ALIE SESAY (BEENG-FBC)