HUT200 Professional Ethics Module2___UKE College of Engineering and Technology HUT200 PROFESSIONAL ETHICS Module 2 - Engineering Ethics & Professionalism Senses of Engineering Ethics - Variety of moral issues- Types of inquiry- Moral dilemmas —Moral Autonomy — Kohlberg’s theory- Gilligan’s theory- Consensus and Controversy-Profession and Professionalism- Models of professional roles- ‘Theories about right action Self interest-Customs and Religion- Uses of Ethical ‘Theories. 1. What are the scopes of engineering ethics? (3) 1. Ethics of the workplace which involves the co-workers and employees in an organization, 2. Ethics related to the product or work which involves the transportation, warehousing, and use, besides the safety of the end product and the environment outside the factory. What are the approaches in the study of ethies? (3) 1. Micro-ethies which deals with decisions and problems of individuals, professionals, and companies. 2. Macro-ethies which deals with the societal problems on a regional/national level. For example, global issues, collective responsibilities of groups such as professional societies and consumer groups. Explain Senses of Engineering Ethies. (4) There are two different senses (meanings) of engineering ethics, namely the Norm: Descriptive senses. and the ‘The normative sense include: (a) Knowing moral values, finding accurate solutions to moral problems and justifying moral judgments in engineering practices, (b) Study of decisions, policies, and values that are morally desirable in the engineering practice and research, and (c) Using codes of ethics and standards and applying them in their transactions by engineers ‘The descriptive sense refers to what specific individual or group of engineers believe and act, without justifying their beliefs or actions 4. Explain about VARIETY OF MORAL ISSUES. (7) It would be relevant to know why and how do moral issues (problems) arise in a profession or why do people behave unethically? The reasons for people including the employer and employees, beha unethically may be classified into three categories Electrical and Electronics Engineering Dr. Ben John Stephen § Page 1HUT200 Professional Ethics Module2___UKF College of Engineering and Technology 1, Resource Crunch 2. Opportunity 3. Attitude 1, Resource Crunch Due to pressure, through time limits, availability of money or budgetary constraints, and technology decay or obsolescence. Pressure from the government to complete the project in time (e.g., before the elections), reduction in the budget because of sudden war or natural calamity (e.g.. Tsunami) and obsolescence due technology innovation by the competitor lead to manipulation and unsafe and unethical execution of projects. Involving individuals in the development of goals and values and developing policies that allow for individual diversity. dissent, and input to decision-making will prevent unethical results. 2. Opportunity (a) Double standards or behaviour of the employers towards the employees and the public () Management projecting their own interests more than that of their employees. Some organizations over-emphasize short-term gains and results at the expense of themselves and others, (c) Emphasis on results and gains at the expense of the employees, and (d) Management by objectives, without focus on empowerment and improvement of the infrastructure. 3. Attitude Poor attitude of the employees is due to (a) Low morale of the employees because of dissatisfaction and downsizing (b) Absence of grievance redresses mechanism, (c) Lack of promotion or career development policies or denied promotions, (d) Lack of transparency, (e) Absence of recognition and reward system, and (f) Poor working environments. ‘To get firm and positive effect, ethical standards must be set and adopted by the senior management, with input from all personnel. 5. Explain various TYPES OF INQUIRIES. (10) Factual or Descriptive Inquiries Conceptual Inquiries The three types of ingui solving ethical problems are: normative inquiry, conceptual inquiry, and factual or descriptive inquiry. 1. Normative Inquiry Electrical and Electronics Engineering Dr. Ben John Stephen § Page 2HUT200 Professional Ethics Module2___UKF College of Engineering and Technology It seeks to identify and justify the morally-desirable norms or standards that should guide individuals and groups. It also has the theoretical goal of justifying particular moral judgments. Normative questions are about what ought to be and what is good, based on moral values. For example, (a) How far engineers are obligated to protect public safety in given situations? (b) When should engineers start whistle blowing on dangerous practices of their employers? (c) Whose values are primary in taking a moral decision, employee, public or govt? (d) Why are engineers obligated to protect public safety? (e) When is govt justified in interfering on such issues and why? 2. Conceptual Inquiry It is directed to clarify the meaning of concepts or ideas or principles that are expressed by words or by questions and statements. For example, (a) What is meant by safet (b) How (c) What is a bribe? (d) What is « profession? ‘When moral concepts are discussed, normative and conceptual issues are closely interconnected 3. Factual or Descriptive Inquiry Itis aimed to obtain facts needed for understanding and resolving value issues. Researchers conduct factual inguiries using mathematical or statistical techniques. The inquiry provide important information on business realities, engineering practice, and the effectiveness of professional societies in fostering moral conduct, the procedures used in risk assessment, and psychological profiles of engineers. The facts provide not only the reasons for moral problems but also enable us to develop alterative ways of resolving moral problems. For example, (a) How were the benefits assessed? (b) What are procedures followed in risk assessment? (c) What are short-term and long-term effects of drinking water being polluted? and (d) Who conducted the tests on materials? 8 it related to risk? 6. Explain about MORAL DILEMMA. (10) Dilemmas are situations in which moral reasons come into conflict, or in which the application of moral values are problems, and one is not clear of the immediate choice or solution of the problems. Moral reasons could be rights, duties, goods or obligations. These situations indicate the presence of moral complexity. This makes the decision making complex. For example, a person promised to meet a friend Or to help his uncle who is involved in an accident — one has to fix the priority. There are some difficulties in arriving at the solution to the problems, in dilemma, The three complex lemmas are: situations leading to moral 1. The problem of vagueness: One is unable to distinguish between good and bad (right or wrong) principle. Good means an action that is obligatory. For example, code of ethics specifies that one should obey the laws and follow standards, Refuse bribe or accept the gif, and maintain confidentiality 2. The problem of conflicting reasons: One is unable to choose between two good moral solutions. One has to fix priority, through knowledge or value system. 3. The problem of disagreement: There may be two or more solutions and none of them mandatory. These solutions may be better or worse in some respects but not in all aspects. Electrical and Electronics Engineering Dr. Ben John Stephen § Page 3HUT200 Professional Ethics Module2___UKF College of Engineering and Technology ‘One has to interpret, apply different morally reasons, and analyze and rank the decisions, Select the best suitable, under the existing and the most probable conditions. Steps to Solve Dilemma: The logical steps in confronting moral dilemma are: |. Identification of the moral factors and reasons. The clarity to identify the relevant moral values from among duties, rights, goods and obligations is obtained (conceptual inquiry). Another resource is talking with colleagues 2. Collection of all information, data, and facts (factual inquiry) relevant to the situation 3. Rank the moral options ie., priority in application through value system, and also as obligatory, all right, acceptable, not acceptable, damaging, and most damaging etc. For example, in fulfilling nent, as responsibility, the codes give prime importance to public safety and protection of the environ compared to the individuals or the employers (conceptual inquiry). 4. Generate alternate courses of action to resolve the dilemma. Write down the main options and sub- options as a matrix or decision tree to ensure that all options are included. 5. Discuss with colleagues and obtain their perspectives, priorities, and suggestions on various alternatives. 6. Decide upon a final course of action, based on priority fixed or assumed. If there is no ideal solution, We artive at a partially satisfactory or ‘satisficing’ solution, 7. Explain about MORAL AUTONOMY. (7) Moral autonomy is defined as, decisions and actions exercised on the basis of moral concern for other people and recognition of good moral reasons. ‘© This is viewed as the skill and habit of thinking rationally about ethical issues on the basis of moral concerns independently or by self-determination. * Autonomous individuals think for themselves and do not assume that customs are always right. » They seek to reason and live by general principles. Theis respect, and respect for others. ‘The engineering skills related to moral autonomy are listed as follows: 1. Proficiency in recognizing moral problems in engineering and ability to distinguish as well as relate them to problems in law, economics, and religion, 2. Skill in comprehending, clarifying, and critically-assessing arguments on different aspects of moral motivation is to do what is morally reasonable for its own sake, maintaining integrity, self issues, 3. Ability to form consistent and comprehensive view points based on facts, 4, Awareness of alternate responses (0 the issues and creative solutions for practical difficulties, 5. Sensitivity to genuine difficulties and subtleties, including willingness to undergo and tolerate some uncertainty while making decisions, 6. Using rational dialogue in resolving moral conflicts and developing tolerance of different perspectives among morally reasonable people. and 7. Maintaining moral integrity. Autonomy which is the independence in making decisions and actions, is different from authority. Authority provides freedom for action, specified its, depending on the situation, Electrical and Electronics Engineering Dr. Ben John Stephen § Page 4HUT200 Professional Ethics Module 2 UKE College of Engineering and Technology Explain various MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORIES (14) 1. Kohlberg Theory + Moral development in human being occurs overage and experience. Kohlberg suggested there are three levels of moral development, namely pre-conventional, conventional, and post- conventional, based on the type of reasoning and motivation of the individuals in response to ‘moral questions + In the pre-conventional level, right conduct for an individual is regarded as whatever directly benefits oneself. At this level, individuals are motivated by obedience or the desire to avoid punishment or to satisfy their own needs.(children) + At the conventional level, of one’s family or group or society is accepted, as the standard of morality. Individuals in this level want to please or satisfy, and get approval by others and to meet the expectations of the society, rather than their self interest (e.g., good boy, good git!) Loyalty is regarded as most important. At the post-conventional level, people are called autonomous. They think originally and want to live by universally good principles and welfare of others. They have no self-interest. They live by principled conscience. They follow the golden rule, ‘Do unto others as you would have them do unto you’, They maintain moral integrity, self-respect and respect for others. Post-Conventional (Adulthood) — Moral Reasoning, based (on Personal Ethics Conventional (8-13 age) ‘Moral Reasoning, based on external ethics Pre-Conventional (3-7 age) | Moral Reasoning, based on reward and punishment 2. Gilligan’s Theory Carol Gilligan found that Kohlberg’s theory had a strong male bias. According to Gilligan's studies, men had a tendeney to solve problems by applying abstract moral principles. Men were found to resolve moral dilemma by choosing the most important moral rule, overriding other rules. Electrical and Electronics Engineering Dr. Ben John Stephen § Page 5HUT200 Professional Ethics Module 2 UKE College of Engineering and Technology In contrast, women gave importance to preserve personal relationships with all the people involved. The context oriented emphasis on maintaining personal relationships was called the ethics af care, in contrast with the ethics of rules and rights adopted by men. Gilligan revised the thee levels of moral development of Kohlberg, as stages of growth towards ethics of caring, The pre-conventional level, which is same as that of Kohlberg’s first one, right conduct, is viewed in a selfish manner solely as what is good for oneself. ‘The conventional level, the importance is on not hurting others, and willing to sacrifice one’s own interest feature of women, Atthe post-conventional level, a reasoned balance is found between caring about others and pursuing the self-interest. The balance one’s own need and the needs of others, is aimed while maintaining, relationship based on mutual caring. This is achieved by context-oriented reasoning, rather than by hierarchy of rules, Differences between the TWO THEORIES [KOHLBERG [GILLIGAN Ethics of rules and righis [Ethics of care Il. Studies based on well educated, [Studies included females and colored lwhite male's only, tending male bias. eoples III. Application of abstract rules ranked Application of coniext-oriented reasoning. lin she order of importance IV. Studies were hypothesized Jor both [Study was conducted on both genders lie genders even though the study was ind it was found, men based their conducted mostly on males Jreasoning on ,,justice” and women based [theirs on ..care™ The difference in these two theories is explained through the well-known example, [Teinz's dilemma, Heinz. being poor and a debtor could not buy the costly medicine for his sick wife, at ten times the ly he begged the Pharmacist to sell at half the price or allow him to pay for it later. Finally he forcibly entered the Pharmacy and stole the normal cost. Init Pharmacist refused to oblige him either way drug. According to Kohlberg study, men observed that the theft was morally ‘wrong’ at the conventional level, because the property right was violated. But men at the post-conventional level, concluded that the theft was ‘right’, as the life of the human being was in danger. But women observed that Heinz, was wrong. They observed that instead of stealing he could have tried other solutions (threatening or payment in installments?) to convince the Pharmacist. Gilligan however attributed the decision by women as context-oriented and not on the basis of rules ranked in the order of priority. 9. Explain about Consensus and Controversy. (6) * consensus means agreement’, and controversy means disagreement + When an individual exercise moral autonomy, he may not be able to attain the same results as other people obtain in practicing their moral autonomy. * This kind of controversies ie. disagreements are inevitable. Electrical and Electronics Engineering Dr. Ben John Stephen § Page 6HUT200 Professional Ethics Module2___UKF College of Engineering and Technology + Since exercising moral autonomy is not as precise and clear-cut as arithmetic, therefore the moral disagreements are natural and common. So in order to allow scope for disagreement, the tolerance is required among individuals with autonomous, reasonable and responsible thinking. * According to the principle of tolerance, the objective of teaching and studying engineering ethics is to discover ways of promoting tolerance in the exercise of moral autonomy by engineers. + The harmonious interaction between engineers and public individuals is the crucial factor for the manifestation of the conse us and Controversy. 10, Explain about Profession and professionalism (10) + Profession means a job or an occupation, that helps a person eam his living. The main criteria of a profession involves the following. + Advanced expertise ~ The criteria of a profession is to have sound knowledge in both technical aspects and liberal arts as well. In general, continuing education and updating knowledge are also important. + Self-regulation — An organization that provides a profession, plays a major role in setting standards for the admission to the profession, drafting codes of ethics, enforcing the standards of conduct and representing the profession before the public and the government. + Public good ~ Any occupation serves some public good by maintaining high ethical standards throughout a profession. This is a part of professional ethics where each occupation is intended to serve for the welfare of the public, directly or indirectly to a certain extent. Profession * A person who is paid for getting involved in a particular profession in order to earn a living as well as to satisfy the laws of that profession can be understood as a Profession: of a professional is given differently by different experts in the field. + Professionalism-Status of professional + Professionalism covers comprehensively all areas of practice of a particular profession. It requires skills and responsibilities involved in engineering profession, Professionalism implies a certain set of attitudes. + The art of Professionalism can be understood as the practice of doing the right thing, + Professionals make a profession of the specific kind of activity and conduct to which they commit themselves and to which they can be expected to conform. + According to Aristotle, virtues are the “acquired habits that enable us to engage effectively in rational activities that defines us as human beings.” + Alasdair Chalmers MacIntyre ( a Scottish-American philosopher): Any coherent and complex form of socially established cooperative human activity through which goods internal to that form of activity are realized in the course of trying to achieve those standards of excellence which are appropriate to, and partially definitive of, that form of activity, with the results that human powers to achieve excellence, and human conceptions of the ends and goods involved, are systematically extended. 11, What are the Characteristics of professio Electrical and Electronics Engineering Dr. Ben John Stephen § Page 7HUT200 Professional Ethics Module2___UKF College of Engineering and Technology The characteristics of the ‘profession’ as distinct from ‘non-professional occupation’ are listed as follows: 1. Extensive Training . Entry into the profession requires an extensive period of training of intellectual (competence) and moral (integrity) character. The theoretical base is obtained through formal education, usually in an academic instituti university or an advanced degree conferred by professional schools. n. It may be a Bachelor degree from a college or 2. Knowledge and Skills : Knowledge and skills (competence) are necessary for the well-being of the society. Knowledge of physicians protects us from disease and restores health. The lawyer's knowledge is useful when we are sued of a crime, or if our business is to be merged or closed or when we buy a property. The Chartered Accountant’s knowledge is important for the success of recording financial transactions or when we file the income return. . ‘The knowledge, study, and research of the engineers are required for the safety of the air plane, for the technological advances and for national defence. 3. Monopoly + The monopoly control is achieved in two ways: * (a) the profession convinces the community that only those who have graduated from the + professional school should be allowed to hold the professional title. The profession also + gains control over professional schools by establishing accreditation standards * (b) By persuading the community to have a licensing system for those who want to enter the profession. If practicing without license, they are liable to pay penal 4. Autonomy in Workplace : Professionals engaged in private practice have considerable freedom in choosing their clients or patients. Even the professionals working in large organizations exercise a large degree of impartiality, creativity and discretion (care with decision and communication) in carrying their responsibilities. Besides this professionals are empowered with certain rights to establish their autonomy. + Accordingly physicians must determine the most appropriate medical treatments for their patients and lawyers must decide on the most successful defense for their clients 5. Ethical Standards Electrical and Electronics Engineering Dr. Ben John Stephen § Page 8HUT200 Professional Ethics Module2___UKF College of Engineering and Technology . Professional societies promulgate the codes of conduct to regulate the professionals against their abuse or any unethical decisions and actions (impartiality, responsibility) affecting the individuals or groups or the society. Eg:-IMA,WHO 12. Explain about MODELS OF PROFESSIONAL ROLES. (10) + Promotion of public good is the primary concern of the professional engineers. There are several role models to whom the engineers are attracted. These models provoke their thinking, attitudes and actions. 1. Sw © + The engineer as a savior, save the society from poverty, illiteracy, wastage, inefficiency. ill health, human (labor) dignity and lead it to prosperity, through technological development and social planning. Eg:- R.L. Stevenson. 2. Guardian + He guards the interests of the poor and general public. As one who is conversant with technology development, is given the authority befitting his expertise to determine what is best suited to the society. Eg:-Lawrence of Arabia (an engineer). 3. Bureaucratic Servant + He serves the organization and the employers. The management of an enterprise fixes its goals and assigns the job of problem solving to the engineer, who accepts the challenge and shapes them into concrete achievements. Eg:-, Jamshedji Tata, 4. Social Servant + tis one who exhibits social responsibility. The engineer translates the interest and aspirations of the society into a reality, remembering that his true master is the society at large. Eg: Sir M. Viswesvarayya. 5. Social Enabler and Catalyst + One who changes the society through technology. The engineer must assist the management and the society to understand their needs and make informed decisions on the desirable technological development and minimize the negative effects of technology on people and their living environment. Thus, he shines as a social enabler and a catalyst for further growth. Eg:Sri Sundarlal Bahuguna. 6. Game Player He is neither a servant nor master. An engincer is an assertive player, not a passive player who may curry out his master’s voice. He plays @ unique role successfully within the organization, Electrical and Electronics Engineering Dr. Ben John Stephen § Page 9HUT200 Professional Ethics Module2___UKE College of Engineering and Technology enjoying the excitement of the profession and having the satisfaction of surging ahead in a competitive world. For example, Narayanamurthy, Infosys and Dr. Kasthurirangan, ISRO. 13. Explain various Uses and Criteria for ETHICAL THEORIES. (3) Uses and Criteria :The ethical theories are useful in many respects. 1. In understanding moral dilemma. They provide clarity, consistency, systematic and comprehensive understanding. 2. It provides helpful practical guidance in moral issues towards the solution. Justifying professional obligations and decisions, and 4. In relating ordinary and professional morality. Different criteria may be applied for evaluating various ethical theories and deciding upon the best. 1. The theory must be clear and (coherent) formulated logically connected. nb It must be internally consistent, ie., none of its principles conflicts with any other ‘The theory and its defense must depend, only upon facts, 4. It must organize basic moral values in systematic and comprehensive manner priority of values and provide guidance in all situat Itis to fix ms. 5. It must provide guidance compatible with our moral convictions (judgments) about conerete situations. Fg:-engineers to make explosive. 14, Explain various THEORIES ABOUT RIGHT ACTION (ETHICAL THEORIES).(14) Ethical Theories/A pproaches Several ethical theories have been developed, stressing certain ethical principles or features, converge and reinforce the ethics. 1. Utilitarian Theory ‘The term Utilitarianism was conceived in the 19th century by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill to help legislators determine which laws were morally best. They suggested that the standard of right conduct is maximization of good consequences. Good consequences mean either ‘utilities’ or the ‘balance of good over evil’. This approach weighs the costs and benefits, Right actions are the ones that produce the greatest satisfaction of the preferences of the affected persons. In analyzing an issue in this approach, we have to: (a) Identify the various courses of action available to us. (b) Ask who will be affected by each action and what benefits or harms will be derived from each. (©) Choose the action that will produce the greatest benefits and the least harm. The ethical action is the one that provides the greatest good for the greatest number. Electri and Electronics Engineering Dr. Ben John Stephen § Page 10HUT200 Professional Ethics Module2___UKE College of Engineering and Technology ‘The ACT UTILITARIAN theory proposed by J.S. Mill (1806-73) focuses on actions, rather than on general rules. An action is right, if it generates the most overall good for the most people involved. The RULE UTILITARIAN theory, developed by Richard Brandt (1910-97), stressed on the tules, such as ‘do not steal’, ‘do no harm others’, ‘do not bribe’, as of primary importance. He suggested that individual actions which maximizes the public good, ‘The act utilitarian theory permitted a few immoral actions, Hence, there was need to develop rule utilitarian theory to establish morality and justice, in the transactions. For example, stealing an old computer from the employer will benefit the employee more than the loss to the employer. As per Act, utilitarian this action is right. But rule utilitarian observes this as wrong, because the employee should act as “faithful agent or trustee of the employees’. 2. The duty ethics theory The duty ethics theory proposed by Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) states, that actions are consequences of performance of one’s duties such as, ‘being honest’, ‘not cause suffering of others’, “being fair to others including the meek and week’, ‘being grateful’, ‘keeping promises’ etc We have a duty not to commit suicide; a duty to develop our talents and a duty to avoid harmful drugs. Kant insisted that moral duties are categorical imperatives. They are commands that we impose on ourselves as well as other rational beings. For honesty is required by duty. A businessman is to be honest because honesty pays — in terms of profits from customers ‘The duty ethics theory, as enunciated by John Raw, gave importance to the actions that would be voluntarily agreed upon by all persons concerned, assuming impartiality. Rawl proposed two basic moral principles; (1) each person is entitled to the most extensive amount of liberty compatible with an equal amount for others, and (2) differences in social power and economic benefits are justified only when they are likely to benefit every one, including members of the most disadvantaged groups. C.W.D, Ross, the British philosopher introduced the term prima facie duties, which means duties might have justified exceptions. Some may be having obligatory or permissible exceptions. Ross assumed that the prima facie duties are intuitively obvious (self-evident), while fixing priorities among duties, He noted that the principles such as ‘Do not kill’ and ‘protect innocent life’ involve high respect for persons than other principles such as, ‘Do not lie’ (less harmful). This theory is criticized on the fact, that the intuitions do not provide sufficient guideline for moral duty. He has listed various aspects of Duty Ethics that reflect our moral convictions, namely: 1. Fidelity : duty to keep promises. 2. Reparation : duty to compensate others when we harm them. 3. Gratitude : duty to thank those who help us. 4 Ju 5. Beneficence : duty to recognize inequality and improve the condition of others. 6. Self-improvement : duty to improve virtue Electrical and Electronics Engineering Dr. Ben John Stephen § Page 11 .e: duty to recognize merit.HUT200 Professional Ethics Module2___UKF College of Engineering and Technology and intelligence. 7. Non-malfeasance : duty not to injure others, 3. Rights Theory Rights are entitlement to act or to have another individual act in a certain way. Minimally, rights serve as a protective barrier, shielding individuals from unjustified infringement of their moral ageney by others. A. The RIGHTS approach to ethies has its roots in the 18th century philosopher Immanuel Kant, who focused on the individual's right to choose for oneself, According him, what makes human beings different from mere things is, that people have dignity based on their ability to choose freely what they will do with their lives, and they have a fundamental moral right to have these choices respected - Other rights he advocated are: 1, The right to access the truth: We have a right to be told the iruth and to be informed about matters that significantly affect our choices. 2. The right of privacy: We have the right to do, believe, and say whatever we choose in our personal lives so long as we do not violate the rights of others. 3. The right not to be injured: We have the right not to be harmed or injured unless we freely and knowingly do something to deserve punishment or we freely and knowingly choose to risk such injuries. 4. The right to what is agreed: We have a right to what has been promised by those with whom we have freely entered into a contract or agreement. B. In deciding whether an action is moral or immoral, The RIGHTS theory as promoted by John Locke states that the actions are right, if they respect human rights of every one affected. He proposed the three basic human rights, namely life, liberty, and property. His views were reflected in the modern American soviety, when Jefferson declared the basic rights as life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness C. As per A.1. Melden’s theory based on rights, nature mandates that we should not harm others’ life, health, liberty or property. Melden allowed welfare rights also for living a decent human life. He highlighted that the rights should be based on the social welfare system, D. Human righis: Human rights are explained in two forms, namely liberty rights and welfare rights. Liberty rights are rights to exercise one’s liberty and stresses duties on other people not to interfere with one’s freedom. The four features of liberty rights (also called moral rights), which lay the base for Government Administration, are: 1. Rights are natural in so far as they are not invented or created by government, 2. They are universal, as they do not change from country to country. 3. They are equal since the rights are the same for all people, irrespective of easte, race, creed or sex. 4, They are inalienable i.e., one cannot hand over his rights (o another person such as selling oneself to slavery. ‘The Welfare Rights are the rights to benefit the needy for a decent human life, when one can not earn those benefits and when those benefits are available in the society Electrical and Electronics Engineering Dr. Ben John Stephen § Page 12HUT200 Professional Ethics Module2___UKF College of Engineering and Technology E. Economic rights: In the free-market economy, the very purpose of the existence of the manufacturer, the sellers and the service providers is to serve the consumer. The consumer is eligible to exercise some rights9. The consumers’ six basic rights are: Right to Information, Right to Safety, Right to Choice, Right to be Heard, Right to Redressal, and Right to Consumer Education, 4. The Virtue Theory ‘This emphasizes on the character rather than the rights or duties. ‘The character is the pattern of virtues (morally-desirable features). The theory advocated hy Aristotle, stressed on the tendency to act, at proper balance between extremes of conduct, emotion, desire, attitudes to find the golden mean between the extremes of ‘excess’ or “deficiency” On the other hand, the Virtue Theory proposed by Maclntyre, highlighted on the actions aimed at achieving common good and social (internal) good such as social justice, promotion of health, creation of useful and safe technological products and services. Five types of virtues that constitute responsible professionalism, namely public-spirited virtues, proficiency virtues, team-work virtues, self-governance virtues, and cardinal virtues, Virtue Ethics + Focuses on the type of person we should strive to be + Actions which reflect good character traits (virtues) are inherently right + Actions which reflect bad character traits (vices) are inherently wrong inte ethics are tied more to individual behavior than to that of an organization (e.g. business, government) Some of the virtues are defined using examples here: Virtue, [foo much [Foo less (Golden mean between extremes) [Courage [Foothardiness “owardice (Traehal ‘evealing all in violation of _ [Being secretive or jact and confidentiality Jacking in candor (Generosity fasting One s resources Being miserly [Friendliness [Being annoyingly effusive sulky or surly 5. Self-realisation Ethies Right action consists in seeking self-fulfillment. In one version of this theory, the self to be realized is defined by caring relationships with other individuals and society. In another version called ethical egoism, the right action consists in always promoting what is good for oneself. No caring and society relationships are assumed. 6. Justice (Fairness) Theory The justice or fairness approach to ethics has its roots in the teachings of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, who said that “equals should be treated equally and unequals unequally.” The basic moral Electrical and Electronics Engineering Dr. Ben John Stephen § Page 13HUT200 Professional Ethics Module2___UKF College of Engineering and Technology question in this approach is: How fair is an action? Does it treat everyone in the same way, or does it show favoritism and discrimination? 15. What is meant by SEL! #8 ‘© As per utilitarian theory, this interest should provide for the respect of others also. # Duty ethics recognizes this aspect as duties to ourselves. Then only one can help others. © Right ethicist stresses our rights to pursue our own good. te ‘interest is being good and acceptable to oneself. It is very ethical to possess sel ‘* Virtue ethics also accepts the importance of self-respect as link to social practices. 16, Explain about Ethical Egoism. (6) In Ethical Egoism, the self is conceived in a highly individualistic manner. It says that every one should promote one’s own interest, The ethical egoists do not accept the well being of the community or caring for others. However this self interest should not degenerate into egoism or selfishness, i.e., maximizing only own good in the pursuit of self-interest. ‘The ethical egoists hold that the society benefits to maximum when (a) the individuals pursue their personal good and (b) the individual organizations pursue maximum profit in a competitive enterprise.. Self-respect includes recognition of our vulnerabilities and interdependencies. compatible with caring for ourselves as well as others, * Self-interest is necessary initially to begin with. + prime motives for action; how concern for others, in the family as well as society. * One’s self-interest should not harm others. + The principles of “Live and let (others) live’, and + “reasonably fair competition’ are recommended to professionals by the ethicists. 17. Explain about CUSTOMS and ETHICAL RELATIVISM (7) Ethical Pluralism: Various cultures in our pluralistic society lead to tolerance for various customs, beliefs, and outlooks. + moral attitudes appear to be reasonable, the rational and morally concerned people can not fully accept any one of the moral perspectives, + varied moral values, which allow variati individuals or groups in their everyday transactions, Ethical Relativism: According to this principle, actions are considered morally right when approved by law or custom, and wrong when they violate the laws or customs. The deciding factor is the law or the customs of the society. |.Laws appear to be objective ways for judging values. * The laws and customs tend to be definite, clear and real, but not always. in the understanding and application of values by the low objective criticism of laws, as being morally lackin; + Eg:-Apartheid laws of South Africa violated the human rights of the native Africans. No legal protection was available for native citizens for a long time. Now, of course, these laws have been repealed. Electrical and Electronics Engineering Dr. Ben John Stephen § Page 14HUT200 Professional Ethics Module2___UKF College of Engineering and Technology 2. Ethical relativism assumes that the values are subjective at the cultural level. + Moral standards also vary from culture to culture, + The objectivity is supported by the existing laws of that society. * The relative morality accepted, supports the virtue of tolerance of differences among Societies. 3. Moral relationalism or moral contextualism: According to this, the moral judgments must be made in relation to certain factors, which may vary from case to case. + factors for making judgments include the customs and laws the virtue ethicists hold that the practical wisdom should prevail upon assessing the facts and in the judgment + The human sacrifices and cannibalism were accepted. But the modern anthropologists insist that es shall exhibit the virtue of social welfare and safety against needless death or physical or mental harm. + Moral differences were based on the circumstances and facts and not on the difference in moral attitudes. + For example, the pharaohs buried the live attendants along with their dead king with the belief that they would continue to serve the king in his afterlife. all cult 18. Explain about RELIGION and DIVINE COMMAND ETHICS. (10) Religions have played major roles in shaping moral views and moral values, over geographical regions. * Christianity has influenced the Westem countries, + Islam in the Middle-East countrie: + Buddhism and Hinduism in Asia, + and Confucianism in China. t G GB # CHRISTIANITY ISLAM. WNDUISM = SUDO HOM OT = shir suoaisie shenisa + There is a strong psychological link between the moral and religious beliefs of people following various religions and faiths. * Religions support moral responsibility/moral standards. + Faith in the religions provides trust and this trast inspi * The religions insist on tolerance and moral concern for others. + Many professionals who possess religious beliefs are motivated to be morally responsible, + Hinduism holds polytheistic (many gods) view, and virtues of devotion and surrender to high order. + Christianity believes in one deity and emphasizes on virtues of Love, Faith, and Hope. Electrical and Electronics Engineering Dr. Ben John Stephen § Page 15 s people to be moral.HUT200 Professional Ethics Module2___UKF College of Engineering and Technology + But many religious sects have adopted poor moral standards, e.g., many religious sects do not recognize equal rights for women. The right to worship is denied for some people. People are killed in the name of or to promote religion. Divine Command Ethies The right action is defined by the commands by God. It implies that to be moral, a person should believe in God and an action is right only if it is commanded by God. There are some difficulties in this approach, namely, a) whether God exists or not is not clear. b) How to know what are the God's commands? And ¢) How to verify the genuineness of the commands: Further, religions such as Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity accept the existence of God. But Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism adopt only faith in a right path and do not believe in God. We can view that moral reasons are not reducible to religious matters, although religious beli provide an added inspiration for responding to them. may 19, What are the uses of ethical theories? (7) 1. Ethical theories aid in identifying the moral considerations or reasons that constitute a dilemma. 2. They provide a precise sense of what kinds of information are relevant to solving moral development. 3. They sometimes, offer ways to rank the relevant moral considerations in order of importance and provide a rough guidance in solving moral problems 4. The theories help us identify the full moral ramifications of alternative courses of action, urging a wide perspective on the moral implications of the options and providing a systematic framework of comparing alternatives. 5. The theories augment the precision with which we use moral terms and they provide frame works for moral reasoning when discussing moral issues with colleagues. 6. By providing frame works for development of moral arguments, the theori ability to reach balanced and insightful judgments. trengthen our wanaannens Electrical and Electronics Engineering Dr. Ben John Stephen § Page 16