ABSTRACT

Electric measuring instruments and meters are

used to directly indicate the value of current,
voltage, power, or energy. In this chapter, we will
consider an electromechanical meter (input is an
electrical signal which results in mechanical force
or torque as an output) that can be connected
with additional suitable components in order to
act as an ammeter and a voltmeter. The most
common analog instrument or meter is the
permanent magnet moving coil instrument
(PMMC) and it is used for measuring a DC current
or voltage of an electric circuit. On the other

ANALOG METERS hand, the indications of alternating current

ammeters and voltmeters must represent the
rms values of the current, or voltage,
INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROLS
respectively, applied to the instrument.
 Chapter 4

CONTENTS:

 Know what an analog meter is.

 Understand the principle of operation of electro-mechanical instruments.
 Know what a PMMC instrument is.
 Know how to apply a PMMC instrument to measure current, voltage, and resistance.

What is an analog meter?

The analogue instrument is defined as the instrument whose output is the continuous function of time,
and they have a constant relation to the input. The physicals quantity like voltage, current, power and
energy are measured through the analogue instruments. Most of the analogue instrument use pointer or
dial for indicating the magnitude of the measured quantity.

Analogue meters are used in industries because of low cost and simple and are often used instead of
digital instruments. Even though digital instruments have the advantage of greater accuracy and much
higher input impedance, analogue instruments suffer less from noise and isolation problems.

But analogue instruments have advantages of that they are passive instruments that do not need a power
supply, this is often very useful in measurement applications where a suitable mains power supply is not
readily available.

Three general principles of operation are available:

a. Electromagnetic - which utilizes the magnetic effects of electric currents.

b. Electrostatic – which utilizes the forces between electrically charged conductors.
c. Electro-thermal – which utilizes the heating effect.

Principle of Operation

The analogue instruments can be categorized according to the principle of operation. The following are
the effect uses the analogue instrument for their operation.

a. Magnetic effect - means the current flows through the conductor induces the magnetic field
around it.

1
 Chapter 4

b. Thermal effect - The measurand current passes through the heating elements increases their
temperature. The thermocouple attached to the element converts the temperature into an emf.
The conversion of current into an emf with the help of temperature is known as the thermal
effect.
c. Electrostatic effect - The electrostatic force exerted between the two charged plates. This force
is used for displacing one of the plates. The instruments which work on this principle is known as
the electrostatic devices.
d. Induction effect - The non-magnetic conducting disc placed in a magnetic field induces an
electromotive force. This magnetic field is induced by the electromagnet which is excited by the
alternating current. The electromotive force induces the electric current insides the drums. The
interaction produced by the induced current and the emf moves the disc. This effect is mostly
used in the induction effects.
e. Hall effect - The material produces an electric current in the presence of a transverse magnetic
field. The voltage is produced between the two edges of conductors. The magnitude of voltages
depends on the current, flux density and property of the conductor.

The analogue instruments can also be classified by showing the output of measured quantity. The
different type of analogue instruments are:

 Indicating - The indicating instruments indicates the magnitude of the measured quantity. This
instrument uses the dial and pointer as an indicator. The ammeter and voltmeter belong to this
category. The integrating instruments are of two types. They are
o Electromechanical Instruments
o Electronic Instruments
 Recording - Such type of instruments gives a continuous reading over a specified period. The
variations in quantities are recorded on the sheet of papers.
 Integrating Instruments - The instrument which measures the summation of the electrical
quantity over a given period is known as the integrating instruments.

Electromechanical Instruments

These comprises of electrical as well as mechanical system, the electrical system usually depends upon
mechanical meter movements as indicating devices and the mechanical movement has some inertia,
therefore these instruments have a limited time (and hence, frequency) response.

2
 Chapter 4

a. Moving-coil meters - A moving-coil meter is a very

commonly used form of analogue voltmeter because
of its sensitivity, accuracy, and linear scale, although
it only responds to DC signals.

It consists of a rectangular coil wound round a soft

iron core that is suspended in the field of a permanent
magnet. The signal being measured is applied to the
coil and this produces a radial magnetic field.
Interaction between this induced field and the field
produced by the permanent magnet causes a torque,
which results in rotation of the coil.

As the basic instrument operates at low current levels of one milliamp or so, it is only suitable for
measuring voltages up to around 2 volts. If there is a requirement to measure higher voltages, the
measuring range of the instrument can be increased by placing a resistance in series with the coil,
such that only a known proportion of the applied voltage is measured by the meter. In this
situation the added resistance is known as a shunting resistor.

b. Moving-iron meter - The

moving-iron meter can
measure AC signals at
frequencies up to 125 Hz. It is
the cheapest form of meter
available and, consequently,
this type of meter is also
commonly used for
measuring voltage signals.
The signal to be measured is
applied to a stationary coil,
and the associated field
produced is often amplified
by the presence of an iron structure associated with the fixed coil. The moving element in the
instrument consists of an iron vane that is suspended within the field of the fixed coil. When the
fixed coil is excited, the iron vane turns in a direction that increases the flux through it.

The majority of moving-iron instruments are either of the attraction type or of the repulsion type.
A few instruments belong to a third combination type. The attraction type, where the iron vane
is drawn into the field of the coil as the current is increased.

The instrument can typically measure voltages in the range of 0 to 30 volts. However, it can be
modified to measure higher voltages by placing a resistance in series with it, as in the case of
moving coil meters.

3
 Chapter 4

c. Electrodynamic meters - Electrodynamic

meters (or dynamometers) can measure both
DC signals and AC signals up to a frequency of
2 kHz. The instrument has a moving circular
coil that is mounted in the magnetic field
produced by two separately wound, series-
connected, circular stator coils. The torque is
dependent upon the mutual inductance
between the coils.

When used as an ammeter, the measured

current is applied to both coils. The torque is
thus proportional to current2. If the measured
current is AC, the meter is unable to follow the
alternating torque values and it displays instead the mean value of current2. By suitable drawing
of the scale, the position of the pointer shows the squared root of this value, i.e., the rms current.

When used for voltage measurement, the instrument can typically measure voltages in the range
of 0 to 30 volts. However, it can be modified to measure higher voltages by placing a resistance
in series with it, as in the case of moving-coil and moving-iron meters.

BASIC METER MOVEMENT (PMMC)

A stationary, permanent-magnet moving-coil (PMMC) meter is

the basic meter movement used in most measuring
instruments used for servicing electrical equipment. When
current flows through the coil, a resulting magnetic field reacts
with the magnetic field of the permanent magnet and causes
the movable coil to rotate. The greater the intensity of current
flow through the coil, the stronger the magnetic field
produced; the stronger the magnetic field produced, the
greater the rotation of the coil. the galvanometer is an example
of one type of stationary, permanent-magnet moving-coil
(PMMC) measuring instrument.

CONSTRUCTION OF PMMC INSTRUMENTS

1. MOVING COIL - The moving coil made up of copper is wound with many turns on the rectangular
Aluminum former. This Aluminum former is pivoted on the jeweled bearing. The coil can move
freely in the magnetic field produced by the Permanent Magnet System. In case of PMMC
voltmeters, coil is generally wound on metallic frame to have the required electromagnetic
damping. But in case of Ammeter, coils are wound on non-magnetic former because coil turns are

4
 Chapter 4

effectively shorted by Ammeter Shunt. Thus we observe that in PMMC instruments, coil itself
provides the electromagnetic damping.
2. MAGNET SYSTEM - Simple U shaped permanent magnet made of Alcomax or Aluminum-Nickel-
Cobalt (Alnico) is widely use in PMMC instruments. Theses magnets have high coercive force and
can produce field of the order of 0.1 to 1 Wb/m2. A soft iron end cylinder is bored in between the
poles to make the field radial and uniform. In addition, this soft iron also reduced the reluctance
of the air path between the poles and hence increases the magnetic field strength.
3. CONTROL SPRING - The controlling torque in PMMC Instruments is provided by two control spring
mounted on the jewel bearing. Theses control springs are phosphor bronze hair spring either
helical or spiral, coiled in opposite direction. Control Spring also serves to lead current in and out
of the moving coil.
4. DAMPING - Damping torque in PMMC instruments are produced by the movement of Aluminum
former in the magnetic field of Permanent Magnet. Due to movement of Aluminum former an
eddy current is developed on the former which produces a damping torque.
5. POINTER AND SCALE - The pointer is carried by the spindle and moves over a graduated scale. The
pointer is of light weight construction and has a section over the scale twisted to form a fine blade.
This helps in reducing the Parallax Error in reading the scale. In many instruments this parallax
error can be further reduced by careful alignment of pointer blade and its reflection in the mirror
adjacent to scale.

Pointer Arrangement

To determine the amount of current flow, we must have a means to indicate the amount of coil rotation.
Either of two methods are used:

1. Pointer arrangement - one end of the pointer is mechanically connected to the rotating coil; as
the coil moves, the pointer also moves. The other end of the pointer moves across a graduated
scale and indicates the amount of current flow. The overall simplicity of this arrangement is its
main advantage.

However, a disadvantage of this arrangement is that it introduces a mechanical coil balancing

problem, especially if the pointer is long.

2. Light and mirror arrangement - the use of a mirror and a beam of light simplify the problem of
coil balance. When this arrangement is used to measure the turning of the coil, a small mirror is
mounted on the supporting ribbon, as shown. An internal light source is directed to the mirror
and then reflected to the scale of the meter. As the movable coil turns, so does the mirror. This
causes the light reflection to move across the graduated scale of the meter. The movement of the
reflection is proportional to the movement of the coil; therefore, the intensity of the current being
measured by the meter is accurately indicated.

5
 Chapter 4

If the beam of light and mirror arrangement is used, the beam of light is swept to the right or left across
a translucent screen (scale). The translucent screen is divided uniformly with the zero-reading located at
center scale. If the pointer arrangement is used, the pointer is moved in a horizontal plane to the right or
left across a scale that is divided uniformly with the zero reading at the center. The direction in which the
beam of light or the pointer moves depends on the direction (polarity) of current through the coil.

Types of Torque Acting in the Meter

1. Deflecting torque - the deflecting or operating torque is produced by utilizing the

electromechanical effect in turns of wire in the meter. This deflecting torque causes the moving
system (and the pointer attached to it) to move from its ‘zero’ position.

2. Controlling torque - the deflection of the moving system would be indefinite if there were no
controlling or restoring torque. This type of torque opposes the deflecting torque and increases
with the deflection of the moving system. The pointer is brought to rest at a position where the
two opposing torques are equal.

The controlling torque ensures that currents of different magnitudes shall produce deflection of
the moving system in proportion to their magnitude. Without such torque, the pointer would
swing over to the maximum deflected position irrespective of the magnitude of the current to be
measured. Moreover, in the absence of a restoring torque, the pointer once deflected, would not
return to its zero position on removing the current.

The controlling torque or balancing torque in instruments is obtained either by:

6
 Chapter 4

1. Spring control - a hair-spring, usually of phosphor-bronze, is attached to the moving

system of the instrument. With the deflection of the pointer, the spring is twisted in
the opposite direction. This twist in the spring produces restoring torque which is
directly proportional to the angle of deflection of the moving system. The pointer
comes to a position of rest (equilibrium) when the deflecting torque and controlling
torque are equal.

To ensure that controlling torque is proportional to the angle of deflection, the spring
should have a fairly large number of turns so that angular deformation per unit length,
on full-scale deflection is small. Moreover, the stress in the spring should be restricted
to such a value that it does not produce a permanent set in it.

Since deflection of the pointer is directly proportional to current, the spring-

controlled instruments have a uniform or equally-spaced scale over the whole of their
range.

Springs are made of such materials, which:

 Are non-magnetic
 Are not subject to much fatigue
 Have low specific resistance especially in cases where they are used for
leading current in or out of the instrument
 Have low temperature-resistance coefficients

2. Gravity control - gravity control is obtained by attaching a small adjustable weight to

some part of the moving system such that the two exert torques in the opposite
directions. The degree of control is adjusted by screwing the weight up or down the
carrying system. Gravity-controlled instruments have scales which are not uniform
but are cramped or crowded at their lower ends.

As compared to spring control, the disadvantages of gravity control are:

 It gives a cramped scale

 The instrument must be kept vertical

However, its advantages are that:

 It is cheap
 It is unaffected by temperature
 It is not subject to fatigue or deterioration with time.

3. Damping torque - a damping torque is one which acts on the moving system of the instrument only
when it is moving and always opposes its motion. Such stabilizing or damping force is necessary to
bring the pointer to rest quickly, otherwise due to inertia of the moving system; the pointer will
oscillate about its final deflected position for quite some time before coming to rest in the steady

7
 Chapter 4

position. The degree of damping should be adjusted to a value which is sufficient to enable the
pointer to rise quickly to its deflected position without overshooting. In that case, the instrument
is said to be dead-beat. Overdamping will make the instrument slow and lethargic.

The damping torque can be produced by:

1. Air-frictions
2. Eddy-currents
3. Fluid friction

ADVANTAGES OF PMMC

 They have low power consumption

 The sensitivity and accuracy are high.
 Their scales are uniform and can be designed to extend over an arc of 170° or so.
 They possess high (torque/weight) ratio
 Extension of instrument range is possible using shunts and series resistances.
 They have no hysteresis loss
 It consumes low power, of the order of 25 W to 200 mW.
 They have very effective and efficient eddy-current damping
 Not affected by external magnetic fields called stray magnetic fields.

DISADVANTAGES OF PMMC

 PMMC is Suitable for direct current measurement only.

 Due to delicate construction and the necessary accurate machining and assembly of various parts,
such instruments are somewhat costlier as compared to moving-iron instruments.
 Some errors are set in due to the ageing of control springs and the permanent magnets.

The principle of permanent magnet moving coil type instruments has been utilized in the construction of
the following:

 For galvanometer which can be used for detecting extremely small dc currents.
 By eliminating the control springs, the instrument can be used for measuring the quantity of
electricity passing through the coil. This method is used for fluxmeters.
 If the control springs of such an instrument are purposely made of large moment of inertia, then
it can be used as ballistic galvanometer.

8
 Chapter 4

GALVANOMETER

A galvanometer is essentially a PMMC instrument

designed to be sensitive to extremely low current levels. It
is used to measure very low currents, such as those in
bridge circuits. In modified form, the galvanometer has
the highest sensitivity of any of the various types of meters
in use today. A simplified diagram of a galvanometer is
shown in figure. It is different from other instruments used
for the same purpose because its movable coil is
suspended by means of metal ribbons instead of a shaft
and jewel-bearing arrangement often used in other
instruments.

The movable coil is wrapped around the aluminum frame of the galvanometer. The coil is suspended
between the poles of the magnet by means of thin, flat ribbons of phosphor bronze. These ribbons provide
a conduction path for the current between the circuit being tested and the movable coil. The ribbons
allow the coil to twist in response to the interaction of the applied current through the coil and the
magnetic field of the permanent magnet. They also provide the restoring force for the coil. Basically, the
restoring force is that force necessary to return the movable frame to its resting position after a reading.
The ribbons restrain or provide a counterforce to the magnetic force acting on the coil. When the driving
force of the coil current is removed, the restoring force provided by the ribbons returns the coil to its zero
position.

A. PMMC as DC Ammeter

The movable coil of the d'Arsonval meter movement we have been discussing up to now uses small- size
wire in its windings. This small-size wire places limits on the amount of current that can be safely passed
through the coil. Therefore, the basic d'Arsonval movement discussed can be used to indicate or measure
only very small currents. Certain circuit changes must be made to the basic d’Arsonval meter movement
for it to be practical in everyday use. To measure large currents, you must use a shunt resistor with the
meter.

An ammeter shunt is a physically large, low-resistance conductor connected in parallel (shunt) with the
meter terminals. It is used to carry most of the load current. Such a shunt is designed with the correct
amount of resistance so that only a small portion of the total current flows through the meter coil. The
meter current is proportional to the total load current. If the shunt is of such a value that the meter is
calibrated in milliamperes, the instrument is called a milliammeter. If the shunt has such a value that the
meter must be calibrated in terms of amperes, it is called an ammeter.

9
 Chapter 4

A single, standardized meter movement is normally used in all ammeters, no matter what the range is for
a particular meter. For example, meters with working ranges of 0 to 10 amperes, 0 to 5 amperes, or 0 to 1
ampere all use the same meter movement. The various ranges are achieved with different values of shunt
resistance with the same meter movement. The designer of the ammeter simply calculates the correct
shunt resistance required to extend the range of the meter movement to measure any desired value of
current. This shunt is then connected across the meter terminals. Shunts may be located inside the meter
case (internal shunts) with the proper switching arrangements for changing them. They may also be located
outside the meter case (external shunts) with the necessary leads to connect them to the meter.

Shunt Construction

The shunt strips (view b) are usually made of the alloy manganin.
Manganin has a temperature coefficient of almost zero. The zero-
temperature coefficient property is desirable because of the heavy
currents that often flow through shunts producing heat. A zero-
temperature coefficient material is not affected by this heat;
therefore, it remains stable in temperature. Most other materials
increase their resistance as they are heated. If shunts were made
of these materials, they would carry less current. More and more
current would flow through the meter movement, and the chances
of damage would increase. Using shunts constructed with zero-
temperature coefficient materials eliminates this problem.

The ends of the shunt strips are embedded in heavy copper blocks.
The blocks are attached to the meter coil leads and the line
terminals. To ensure accurate readings, you should not
interchangeably use the meter leads for a particular ammeter with
those for a meter of a different range. Slight changes in lead length
and size may vary the resistance of the meter circuit. If this
happens, current will also change and cause incorrect meter
readings. External shunts are generally used where currents
greater than 50 amperes must be measured.

10
 Chapter 4

Swamping resistance

The moving coil in a PMMC instrument is wound with thin copper wire, and its resistance can change
significantly when its temperature changes. The heating effect of the coil current may be enough to produce
a resistance change. Any such change in coil resistance will introduce an error in ammeter current
measurements. To minimize the effect of coil resistance variation, a swamping resistance made of
manganin or constantan is connected in sries with the coil. Manganin and constantan have resistance
temperature coefficients very close to zero. If the swamping resistance is nine times the coil resistance, a
1% change in coil resistance would result in a total (swamping + coil) resistance change of 0.1%.

The ammeter shunt must also be made of manganin or constantan to avoid shunt ressitance variations with
temperature.

Multiplying Factor

The purpose of designing the shunt circuit is to allow us to measure a current IT that is some n number of
times larger than the meter current Im. (IT = nIm)

As an alternative,

Ammeter Sensitivity

Ammeter sensitivity is the amount of current necessary to cause full scale deflection (maximum reading) of
the ammeter. The instrument current sensitivity (usually stated in μa/mm) is used to determine the current
level that produces a measured deflection. It means that the smaller the amount of current, the more
"sensitive" the ammeter. For example, an ammeter with a maximum current reading of 1 milliampere
would have a sensitivity of 1 milliampere and be more sensitive than an ammeter with a maximum reading
of 1 ampere and a sensitivity of 1 ampere. Sensitivity can be given for a meter movement, but the term
"ammeter sensitivity" usually refers to the entire ammeter and not just the meter movement. An ammeter
consists of more than just the meter movement.

11
 Chapter 4

Ammeter Range

By adding several shunt resistors in the meter case, with a switch to

select the desired resistor, the ammeter will be capable of measuring
several different maximum current readings or ranges. Most meter
movements in use today have sensitivities of from 5 microamperes to 1
milliampere.
As long as the current to be measured does not exceed the range
selected, the meter movement will never have more than 100
microamperes of current through it.

Shunt resistors are made with close tolerances. That means if a shunt
resistor is selected with a resistance of 0.01 ohms, the actual resistance of that shunt resistor will not vary
from that value by more than 1 percent. Since a shunt resistor is used to protect a meter movement and to
allow accurate measurement, it is important that the resistance of the shunt resistor is known very
accurately. Figure above represents an ammeter with internal shunts. The shunt resistors are inside the
meter case and selected by a switch. For limited current ranges (below 50 amperes), internal shunts are
most often employed.

Ayrton Shunt (Universal Shunt)

For a multiple range ammeter, the

ayrton shunt or universal shunt is
frequently a more suitable design.
One advantage of this is that it
eliminates the possibility of the
meter movement being in the circuit
without any shunt resistance.
Another advantage is that it may be
used with a wide range of meter
movements.

12
 Chapter 4

Range Selection

 It is important to always start with the highest range when you use an ammeter.
 If the current can be measured on several ranges, use the range that results in a reading near the
middle of the scale.

Ammeter Insertion Effect

Inserting an ammeter in a circuit always increases the resistance of the circuit and therefore, always reduces
the current in the circuit. The error caused by the meter depends on the relationship between the value of
resistance in the original circuit and the value of resistance in the ammeter.

Safety Precautions

When you use an ammeter, certain precautions must be observed to prevent injury to yourself or others
and to prevent damage to the ammeter or the equipment on which you are working.
 Ammeters must always be connected in series with the circuit under test.
 always start with the highest range of an ammeter.
 De-energize and discharge the circuit completely before you connect or disconnect the
ammeter. In dc ammeters, observe the proper circuit polarity to prevent the meter from
being damaged.
 Never use a dc ammeter to measure ac.
 Observe the general safety precautions of electrical and electronic devices.

Example:

1. Calculate the value of the shunt resistance required to convert a 1 mA meter movement, with a 100 ohms internal
resistance, into a 0- to 10-mA ammeter. [11.11 ohms]
2. A 100-uA meter movement with an internal resistance of 800 ohm was used in a 0- to 100-mA ammeter. Find the
value of the required shunt resistance. [0.80 ohm]
3. Compute the value of the shunt resistors for an ayrton shunt circuit whose circuit parameters are Rm = 1 k, Im =
100 μA, I3 = 1 A, I2 = 100 mA, and I1 = 10 mA. [9.09, 0.909, 0.101 ohms]
4. An ammeter has a PMMC instrument with a coil resistance of Rm = 99 ohms and FSD current of 0.1 mA. Shunt
resistance Rsh = 1 . Determine the total current passing through the ammeter at (a) FSD, (b) 0.5 FSD, and (c) 0.25
FSD. [10-mA, 5-mA, 2.475-mA]

13
 Chapter 4

5. A PMMC instrument has FSD of 100-μa and a coil resistance of 1 k. Calculate the
required shunt resistance value to convert the instrument into an ammeter with
(a) FSD = 100-mA and (b) FSD = 1-A. [1.001, 0.10001 ohm]
6. A current meter that has an internal resistance of 78  is used to measure the current
through resistor Rc as shown. Determine the percentage error of the reading due to
ammeter insertion. [5%]

B. PMMC as DC Voltmeter

Voltage measurement is accomplished with a voltmeter. The basic

d’Arsonval meter movement can be converted to a dc voltmeter by
connecting a multiplier Rs in series with the meter movement.

The purpose of the multiplier is to extend the voltage range of the meter
and to limit current through the d’Arsonval meter movement to a
maximum full-scale deflection current.

The deflection of a PMMC instrument is proportional to the current flowing through the moving coil. The
coil current is directly proportional to the voltage across the coil. Therefore, the scale of the PMMC meter
could be calibrated to indicate voltage. The col resistance is normally quite small, and thus the coil voltage
is also usually very small. Without any additional series resistance, the PMMC instrument would only be
able to measure very low voltage levels. The voltmeter range is easily increased by connecting a resistance
in series with the instrument. Because it increases the range of the voltmeter, the series resistance is
termed a multiplier resistance. A multiplier resistance that is nine times the coil resistance will increase
the voltmeter range by a factor 10.

Example:

A PMMC instrument with FSD of 100 uA and a coil resistance of 1 k is to be converted into a voltmeter. Determine
the required multiplier resistance if the voltmeter is to measure 50 V at full-scale. Also, calculate the applied voltage
when the instrument indicates 0.8, 0.5, and 0.2 of FSD.

Voltmeter Sensitivity

Voltmeter sensitivity is found by taking the reciprocal of the full-scale deflection current.

Since different meter movements are used in various voltmeters and since the value of the multiplier
resistor is different for each range, total resistance is a difficult instrument rating to express. More
meaningful information can be conveyed to the user via the sensitivity rating of the instrument. This

14
 Chapter 4

rating, generally printed on the meter face, tells the resistance of the instrument for a one-volt range. To
determine the total resistance that a voltmeter presents to a circuit we use the following formula:

Rs = S x Range – Rm

Note:

If the sensitivity is known, the total voltmeter resistance is easily calculated as (sensitivity x range). Note
that the total resistance is not (sensitivity x meter reading). If the full-scale meter current is known, the
sensitivity can be determined as the reciprocal of full-scale current.

Example:
Calculate the value of the multiplier resistance on the 50-V range of a DC voltmeter that used 500-uA meter
movement with an internal resistance of 1 kΩ. [99 kΩ]

Voltmeter Loading Effect

Ideally, a voltmeter should have an extremely high resistance. A voltmeter is always connected across, or
in parallel with, the points in a circuit at which the voltage is to be measured. If its resistance is too low, it
can alter the circuit voltage. This is known as voltmeter loading effect.

When a voltmeter is used to measure the voltage across a circuit component, the voltmeter circuit itself
is in parallel with the circuit component. Since the parallel combination of two resistors is less than either
resistor alone, the resistance seen by the source is less with the voltmeter connected than without.
Therefore, the voltage across the component is less whenever the voltmeter is connected. The decrease
in voltage may be negligible or it may be appreciable, depending on the sensitivity of the voltmeter being
used. This effect is called voltmeter loading and the resulting error is called a loading error.

Example:
Two different voltmeters are used to measure the voltage across resistor R B in the circuit shown. The meters are as
follows:

15
 Chapter 4

Meter A: S = 1kΩ/V, Rm = 0.2kΩ, range = 10V

Meter B: S = 20kΩ/V, Rm = 1.5kΩ, range = 10V

Calculate:

a. Voltage across RB w/out any meter connected across it [5V]

b. Voltage across RB when meter A is used [3.53V]
c. Voltage across RB when meter B is used [4.9V]
d. Error in voltmeter readings [29.4%, 2%]

Multi-Range Voltmeter

a. Ordinary type - a multirange voltmeter consists of a deflection

instrument, several multiplier resistors, and a rotary switch.

Example:
Calculate the value of the multiplier resistances for the multiple-range dc voltmeter
circuit shown. [59 kΩ, 199 kΩ, 599 kΩ]

b. Commercial type - in this type of voltmeter, the

multiplier resistors are connected in series, and the
range selector switches the appropriate amount of
resistance into the circuit in series with the meter
movement. The advantage of this circuit is that all
multiplier resistors except the first Ra have standard
resistance values and can be obtained commercially
in precision tolerance.

Example:
1. Calculate the value of the multiplier resistors for the multiple-range dc voltmeter
circuit of the commercial-type voltmeter shown previously. [59 kΩ, 140 kΩ, 400 kΩ]

2. A PMMC instrument with FSD = 50 uA and Rm = 1700 Ω is to be employed as a

voltmeter with ranges of 10 V, 50 V, and 100 V. calculate the required values of
multiplier resistors for both type of voltmeter circuit arrangement.

16
 Chapter 4

C. PMMC as an Ohmmeter

The basic d’Arsonval meter movement may also be used in conjunction with a battery and a resistor to
construct a simple ohmmeter circuit such as the one shown. The amplitude of the current is limited by
the resistors Rz and Rm.

The meter current indicated by the instrument is the ratio of the battery voltage and the total series
resistance.

When the terminals AB are open-circuited, the effective value of

resistance Rx is infinity. No meter current flows, and the pointer
indicates zero current. This point (zero current) is marked as
infinity () on the resistance scale. If a resistance Rx with a value
between zero and infinity is connected across terminals AB, the
meter current is greater than zero but less than FSD. The pointer
position on the scale now depends on the relationship between
Rx and R1+Rm.

Example:

The series ohmmeter is made up of a 1.5 V battery, a 100 uA meter and a resistance R 1 which makes
(R1+Rm) = 15 k.

a. Determine the instrument indication when Rx = 0.

b. Determine how the resistance scale should be marked at 0.5 FSD, 0.25 FSD and 0.75 FSD.

17
 Chapter 4

Series type Ohmmeter (with zero adjust)

When there is no resistance to be measured, the current

drawn by the circuit will be maximum and the meter will
show a deflection.

By adjusting R2 the meter is adjusted to a full-scale current

value since the resistance will be zero at that time. The co-
responding pointer indication is marked as zero. Again, when
the terminal AB is opened it provides very high resistance and
hence almost zero current will flow through the circuit. In that
case, the pointer deflection is zero which is marked at a very
high value for resistance measurement.

So, a resistance between zeros to a very high value is marked

and hence can be measured. So, when resistance is to be measured, the current value will be somewhat
less than the maximum and the deflection is recorded and accordingly, resistance is measured.

This method is good but it possesses certain limitations such as the decrease in the potential of the battery
with its use so adjustment must be made for every use. The meter may not read zero when terminals are
shorted, these types of problems may arise which is counteracted by the adjustable resistance connected
in series with the battery.

The simple ohmmeter will operate satisfactorily as long as the battery voltage remains exactly at 1.5 V.
when the battery voltage falls (and the output voltage of all batteries fall with use), the instrument scale
is no longer correct. Even if R1 were adjusted to give FSD when terminals AB are short-circuited, the scale
would still be in error because now midscale would represent a resistance equal to the new value of R1+
Rm. Falling battery voltage can be taken care of by an adjustable resistor connected in parallel with the
meter.

Each time the ohmmeter is used, terminals AB are first short-circuited, and R2 is adjusted for zero-ohm
indication on the scale. If this procedure is followed, then even when the battery voltage falls below its
initial level, the scale remains correct.

Example:

The ohmmeter circuit with zero adjust has E b = 1.5 V, R1 = 15 k, Rm = 50 , R2 = 50 , and meter FSD = 50 uA.
Determine the ohmmeter scale reading at 0.5 FSD, and determine the new resistance value that R 2 must be adjusted
when Eb falls to 1.3 V. Also, re-calculate the value of Rx at 0.5 FSD when E b = 1.3 V.

18
 Chapter 4

Shunt Type Ohmmeter

In this type of meters, we have a battery source, and an

adjustable resistor is connected in series with the source. We
have connected the meter in parallel to the resistance which
is to be measured. There is a switch where we can ON or OFF
the circuit.

The switch is opened when it is not in use. When the

resistance to be measured is zero, the terminals A and F are
shorted so the current through the meter will be zero. The
zero position of the meter denotes the resistance to be zero.

When the resistance connected is very high, then a small current will flow the terminal AF and hence full-
scale current is allowed to flow through the meter by adjusting the series resistance connected with the
battery.

So, full-scale deflection measures very high resistance. When the resistance to be measured is connected
between A and F, the pointer shows a deflection by which we can measure the resistance values.

In this case, the battery problem may arise which can be counteracted by adjusting the resistance. The
meter may have some error due to its repeated use also.

Multi-range Ohmmeter

This instrument provides the reading up to a very wide range. In this

case, we must select the range switch according to our
requirements. An adjuster is provided so that we can adjust the
initial reading to be zero.

The series ohmmeter circuit could be converted to a multirange

ohmmeter by employing several values of standard resistor and a
rotary switch. The major inconvenience of such circuit is the fact
that a large adjustment of the zero control would have to be made
every time the resistance range is changed. In the shunt

19
 Chapter 4

ohmmeter circuit, this adjustment is not necessary; once

zeroed, the instrument can be switched between ranges
with only minor zero adjustments.

The resistance to be measured is connected in parallel to

the meter. The meter is adjusted so that it shows full-scale
deflection when the terminals in which the resistance
connected is full-scale range through the range switch.

When the resistance is zero or short circuit, there is no current flow through the meter and hence no
deflection. Suppose we must measure a resistance under 1 ohm, then the range switch is selected at the
1-ohm range at first.

Then that resistance is connected in parallel, and the corresponding meter deflection is noted. For 1 ohm
resistance, it shows full-scale deflection but for the resistance other than 1 ohm it shows a deflection
which is less than the full load value, and hence resistance can be measured.

This is the most suitable method of all the ohmmeters as we can get an accurate reading in this type of
meter. So, this meter is most widely used nowadays.

Example:

a. Determine the current through the meter l m, when a 20- resistor between terminals X and Y is measured
on the R x 1 range.
b. Show that this same current flows through the meter movement when a 200- resistor is measured on the
R x 10 range.
c. Show that the same current flows when a 2 k resistor is measured on the R x 100 range.

20