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Barc RT Book

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Ram Kumar
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1 8. A CONTENTS Non-Destructive Testing Methods . Properties of Materials . Defects in Materials D. B. c A B. A B. ‘Material Defects and Failures in Service Xray Technology Radiation Sources Gamma Radiography Equipment Photographic and Non-Photographic Recording Lead and Fluorescent Screens ‘Work Parameters and Conditions Evaluation of Radiographic Quality Defectology Selection of Radiography Techniques Radiographic Standards and Selection of Test Methods Advances in Radiography 1A, NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS INTRODUCTION ‘Non-destructve testing (NDT’-is testing materils without destroying them, The materials after inspection do not change in their size, shape, physical or chemical properties, There are six major NDT methods viz., visual and optical aids, radiography testing, ultrasonic ‘esting, eddy current testing, magnetic particle testing and dye peneirant testing. These are regularly used by industry, Each of these methods, has its own flaw detection capability and therefore no method can lace other methods. ‘These methods are discussed in brief, 21 TYPES OF NDT METHODS ‘Commonly employed NDT methods can be broadly divided into two groups ‘ |) Methods for destotion of internal defeess i) Methods for inspection of surface/sub-surface dees 3: METHODS FOR INTERNAL FLAWS. 3.1 : Radiographic Method Basie principle of radiographic testing is showa in figure 1.1. The radiation transmitted ‘through a material, i recorded on an X-ray ll. In this method, diferent types of radiations and films are used, depending upon the type of information required Source 7M TAN JANN ry + Object Defect } FE wccimtin ot HHT reromtted ineonstey IEbrough the shee Fig. 1.1 : Principle of Radiography Testing, 3.1.1 : X and Gamma Radiography Radiography testing is most widely used in industry for inspection of welds, castings and assemblies, ‘The image of a material produoed on an X-ray film shows optical density (degree of blackening) variation depending on the internal structure of the object. Industrial X-ray machines in the range of 50-400 kV are used for inspection of metal thicknesses upto 7.5 em stel equivalents. Betatrons and linear accelerators upto 30 MeV are zed for higher thicknesses. Antficially produced radioisotopes, emitting gamma radiations, such as irdium-192 and cobalt-60 have many advantages over X-ray machines. Equipment used for gamma radiography is compact, rugged and ideal for field work. - Iridium-192 and eobalt-60 sources combined together can cover inspection range of 10-200 mm of ste equivalents 3.2 : Ultrasonic Method Ultrasound waves are genersted by piezo electric transducers which convert electrical energy two mechanical vibrations and vice-versa, These waves are made to fll on the material 0 be tested, As the wave travels through the material, it may get reflected, refracted, scattered or transmitied depending upon the structure ofthe materia Longitudinal "waves Shear 1, Pusecho Method ». Transmission Method Fig. 1.2: Urasonie Methods Most commonly used frequeney range for industrial inspection is 0.5 - 25 mega hertz. Three important methods of ultrasonic testing ae pulse-echo, transmission and resonance techniques. 3.2.1 + Pulse-Heho Method In this method, evenly timed pulse waves are transmitted ino the material to be wsted. In @ homogeneous material, the wave travels through the material and gets reflected from the back surface. In case of a defect, the original pulse reflects back from the defect location and Tetuins to the transducer before the retun of back surface echo pulse as shown in figure 1.2 {A single teanaducer can serve both as transmiter and receiver. |, {Wo separate transducers are used on either side of the material, one as ‘ansmitter and the other as receiver (Fig. 1.26) Variation in intensity across the transmitted ‘beam indicates the soundness ofthe material. Attenuation ofthe sound beam i indicative of coarse grin structure ofthe material. When the wave length is comparable to the grain size fof the medium, seatring process predominates, Transmission method is less sensitive, 3. ‘Resonance Method ‘This metiod is mainly useful for measurement of thickness of plates or sheets and also in case of bonded materials. In this method, ultrasonic wave of contiuously varying frequency is fed into the material. The frequency is varied tila standing wave is set up within the material, causing it to resonate atthe fundamental frequency or multiples of it ata greater amplitude as shown in figare 1.3. The resonance is sensed by an instrument, Change in resonant frequency isan indication of dizcontinuty Fig. 1.3 : Principle of Resonance method. 4: METHODS FOR SURTACE/SUB-SURFACE INSPECTIONS 4.1 : Visual and Dye Penetrant Testing Methods Examination of cracks and other iregulaities on th surface under visible light the chespest, simplest and quickest NDT method. However, all defects cannot be seen, by unaided eyes. ‘Therefore, techniques to increase the contrast ofthe discontinuity to make i visible, are used. Coloured and fluorescent dyes are made to soap into the surface cracks to provide contrast against the background, 4.2 : Rayleigh Wave Testing Rayleigh waves are uluasonie shear waves propagated nea the surface of material. Waves of frequencies inthe range of 1-10 MHz. are used for detection of surface cracks and other defects. The technique is used, where acces is limited. 4,3 : Magnetic Particle Testing This method is applicable only to materials which can be magnetised. The object is magnetised by applying high alternate or direct currents (A.C or D.C) and flow of magnetic powders is observed elther in dry or wet process. Surface discontinuity, such as grinding racks, forging laps and seams, etc. can be easly detected, In some cases, sub-surface defees about one centimeter deep, can also be revealed, Fig, 1.4: Principe of Eddy Current Testing 4.4: Eddy Current Testing The method employs alternating currents inthe range (50-5000 kHz), and is useful for detection of surface and near surface defects in electrically conducting materials. When 2 coll carrying alternating curent is placed in the proximity of metal specimen, as shown in igure 1.4, eddy currents are induced on the surface layer. Strength of these eddy currents depends on a large rurmber of surface variables. Depth of inspection depends upon type of material and frequency of the alternating current and it Js about I-10 mm. 5; LEAK TESTING Leak testing method is used to check fabricated components and systems, for nuclear reactors, pressure vessels, electronic valves, vacuum equipment, gas containers, et. A lak is passage of «gas from one sie ofthe wal ofthe container to the ether side, under pressure or concentration ‘iffeence. It is measured as else. Depending upon the range of leak detection capability, a numberof est methods are avaiable, Some examples are; pressure drop/rise, ultrasonic leak detectors, bubble tests and ammonia sensitised paper, with detection capabilites upto 104 eelsee. Halogen diode sniffer, Helium ‘mass spectrometer and Argon mass spectrometer have detection sensitivities inthe range. 107-10" cofsee. 1B, PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 1: INTRODUCTION Selection of a material fora given job depends upon its physical and mechanical properties. “Most structural materials are subject to external forces, which generate internal mechanical stresies. The reaction of the part to these stresses can be critical to its continued functioning Hence, itis important forthe NDT personnel to know the normal material properties, 25 well ss effet of discontinuity upon the material serviceability. 2: TYPES OF PROPERTIES The application for which a material is used, detecmines which property is most important, 2.1 : Chemical Properties (Chemical properties (reaction wth other materials) are of interest, mainly because ofthe need for 2.2 : Physical Properties Physical properties of materials are associated with their atomic structures -eg., density, crystalline type, atomic spacing, specific heat, melting pont, ete. 2.3 : Mechanical Properties “Mechanical properties of materials lke strength, hardnes, ae most im tin manufacturing procestes and for determining sizes and shapes necessary for carrying loads. 23. ‘Tensile Strength [A sires strain diagram is used to describe many ofthe mechanical properties important in the strength of a material, It shows the stress-strain behaviour of the material under gradually applied and increasing tensile stress. It indicates theee regions fa, Blastic Region at Low Stresses - indicates thatthe longitudinal stain produced by streses is quite small and is proportional to the applied stress », Plastic Region at Medium Stresses: indicates that ata certain sess level an abrupt ‘norease in strain occurs ad the materal is said (0 yield, ©, Necking Region at High Stresses : wherein, when the ultimate strength is reached, the material stars to neck into larger strains, until the material ruptures And reeks int two pars. Serains beyond the elastic limit, which result in residual strains on unloading are called inelastic or plastic strains. Materials which undergo relatively large plastic strain to rupcure ae refered to as “ductile”. ‘Those which undergo litle or no plastic strain, prior to rupaure, are referred to as "brite". 2.3.2: Toughness and Notch-Toughness ‘The toughness of 2 material is defined as the ability of an unnotched member (e.g. a smooth round bes) to absorb energy, when loaded slowly. Notch toughness ofa material is defined as the ability of a material so absorb energy in the presence of a sharp notch, when loaded very rapidly with an impact los 2.3.3: Creep, ‘Creep isthe flow of material over period of time, when under a load too smal. produce any ‘measurable plastic deformation atthe time of application. ‘The simplest type of creep test is ‘mace by just hanging a weight onthe test specimen end observing its elongation, ata function of time by using a microscope or other sensitive detector of stain. 2.3.4: Fatigue Fatigue testing determines the ability of a material wo withstand repeated applications of stress hich in itself sto small to produce appreciable plastic deformation. Fatigue, usually is a more critical design erterion than any other, forthe structural safety and reliability of machinery of structural component. 2.3.5: Hardness “The hardness of a material is measured by hardness tester, ‘Three types of hardness test are the scratch, rebound and penetration tests. Hardness measurements are extremely useful as a quick and rough indication ofthe mechanical properties ofa metal. 1C, DEFECTS IN MATERIALS 1: INTRODUCTION ‘A discontinuity ean cecur any time inthe history ofa piece of metal If iis introduced during the initial produetion from the molten state, ii termed as inherent discontinuity. If caused uring fucther processing, fabrication or finishing, itis ealled processing discontinuity Finally iit arses during the use of the end product either due to environment, load or both, it is called service discontinuity. 2: CASTING DEFECTS Casting isthe proces of causing liquid metal wo fill a cavity and solidify into a useful shape. “The discontinuity that can oocur during casting process are given below ; 4. Non-metallic inclusions : Non-metallic inclusions within the molten metal, ae caused by the impurities in the starting material and most of the non-metallic matter being lighter, rise to the top of the ingot, but some are trapped within, because the molten metal above them hardens before it could reach the surface. These inclusions are irregular in shape, ». Porosity: Its spherical or neatly spherical shaped and is caused by the entrapped gas inthe ‘molten material ¢. Pipe : The molten metal, after being poured into a mold, stars to cool and it solidifies. The Solidification process starts from the surface and travels towards the centre of the ingot. On Solidification, the molten metal contracts. Sine the cone ofthe ingot is the last to col and Soliify, most of the shrinkage is observed in the contre. This results ina cavity called “PIPE®, Tt may extend from the top towards te interior of the ingot along the axis 4. Cold-sut : Cold shut is formed when molten metal is poured over solidified metal. When the metal is poured, i its the mold too hard and spattes small drops of metal. When these Arops of metal hit higher up on mold, they stick and solidify. When the rising molten metal ‘aches and covers the solidified drops of metal, a crack like discontinuity is formed. Cold shuts can also be formed by the lack of fusion between two intercepting surfaces of molten material of different temperatures. , Hot ter (shrink crack) : ot tear is caused by unequal shrinking of light and heavy sections fof a casting as the metal cools. In casting having light and heavy seotons, the ligt sections, being smaller, solidify faster; they shrink faster pulling the heavier sections towards them, as they ae nower and do not sink as fas. Shrinkage cavity : Shrinkage cavity is caused by lack of enough molten metal to fill the space created by shrinkage ofthe solidifying meta, just as a “PIPE is formed in an ingot. It can be found anywhere in te cat product, unlike the “pipe” in he ingot, svhich always occurs only at the op portion ofthe ingot fg. Micro shrinkage : Shrinkage can also occur in the casting atthe mold gate, ie., atthe entrance tothe mold through which the molten metal is poured. Shrinkage occurs, if metal at the gate solidifies or is blocked off while some of the metal beneath is still molten. Shrinkage Which occurs atthe gate appear as 2 number of small holes called "micro shrinkage". Micro shrinkage can also occur deeper within the metal, ifthe mold is improperly designed, 1, Blow holes: Blow holes are small holes on the surface of the casting and are caused by external gas emanating from the mold iself. 3: FORGING DEFECTS Forging isthe process of working of metal into a useful shape by hammering or pressing Mos forging operations are carried out hot, although certain metals can be cold forged. ‘The (a2) $00 a (orrescton + op. 39, 59, b.(@preacion : e., 3700 ing) oF 2, 2% ©. (areaction : eg. TAN (0,0) 1'Na Itidium-192 is also obtained by a process similar to “a’, by bombardment of iriium-191 with ‘When a target containing *m' gram of the element of interest is exposed to neutron flux of 9" nJomsec. the activity induced inthe target (S) is given by the relation asxmxexe veomn = SERMKEK Py ome] By Were, 5, actin weg Ba) tistne of ration Tistai ite of adobowpe protced (( Tae i sane unis) is cross section in barns (10% cm?) for the reaction ‘st mass somber ofthe urge clement For prodetion of iidium-192, cobalt-60 and thulium-170 radiography sources, thin metal cises of purity better than 99.9 percent are used as targets. 2.2 : Production by Nuclear Fission CCaesium-137, used sometimes in industrial radiography is produced by nuclear fission. In a nuclear reactor, uranium atom splits (undergoes fission) into two different elements withthe release of neutrons and enormous amount of energy. Caesiumn-137 and strontium-90, two radioisotopes, commonly used both i industrial and medical applications, are produced by this ‘method. Ceesium-137, because ofits chemical form, is now discouraged for use in industrial radiography. 3 : SOURCES FOR INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY A radioisotope, to be useful in industrial radiography should have suitable radiation energies, higher radiation ouput, reasonably long halflife and possibilry of economic production at high specific activites. Iridium-192 and cobalt-60 are two commonly used radioisotopes in industrial radiography. Table 2.1 gives the charactors ofthese two radioisotopes. ‘TABLE 2.1 : CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIOGRAPHY SOURCES Source Half life Production Gamma Radiation Useful Process Energy Ourput Range of. (MeV) RIRICi Thickness at 1 metre in Steel (mm) 192, 191 0.2960 ie 74a (oe) 10-60 n nO) 613 O48 © 39, Line 233 ‘co (0) 1 50.200 a Yo 72 ya 18 3.1 : Specific Activity “The specific activity of a radioisotope is measured in gigabequerels per gram (GB/s) or cuies per gram (Cilg). A high specific asivity indicates that a radioisotope of given activity will be Of smaller mass. In industrial radiography, to obtain a sharper image, the size ofthe source should also be stall, This is achieved by a source of higher physical density. Iridium-192, with a physical density 2.4 gloc and halflife 74.5 days, i @ very good source for industrial radiography, 4: FABRICATION OF RADIOISOTOPES Fabrication ofa sealed radioisotopes involves sealing ofthe active material in an inactive capsule, resistant enough to withstand, under normal conditions of use, dispersion of active materials. Generally, stainless steel is used as the encapsulation material Board of Radiation and Isotope Technology (BRIT), Mumbai-400 094, fabricates and supplies cobalt-60 and iidium-192 radiography sources for use ina variety of equipment ad ia a range of activity values. Although thee ate differences in shapes and sizes of source assemblies, the inner source capsule, loaded in these are similar in shape and dimensions. Ics a stainless steel capsule with dimensions: 8mm length, 4.5mm diameter. Each irgium-192 pellet is of dimension 2.5mm diameter and 0.3mm thickness. The number of pellets in a capsule ‘depends on the activity required. A 1000 GBq capsule may have four or five such pelle’ ‘TABLE 2.2 : DECAY CHART FOR COBALT-60 SOURCE (Balife:§.27 years) Monts-> 00 @ 0 06 08 10 Years 00 : 0.98 0.96 0.94 0s 0.0 o 0.88 0.36 0.8 ox 0.80 078 o 0.76 075 073 on 0.70 0.0 G 0.67 0.66 0.64 0.63 0.61 0.60 os os 0s 056 03s oss 033 0s ost 030 09 0.48, 087 0.46, 06 0.45 oe 0.43, 042 ot 040 a 0.39 0.38 0.38 037 0.36 0.35 08 034 0.34 033 0.32 032 031 © 030 0.29 029 0.28 028 oz 10 0.26 0.26 025 024 024 028 ‘TABLE 2.3 : DECAY CHART FOR IRIDIUM-192 SOURCE, (BalElife: 74.5 days) Dy = 0 «5 (1 SOSH SS (00 = —(O.8S O91 0.87 0.83 0.79 0.75 0.72 0.69 0.66 050 0.63 0.60 057 0.54 0.52 050 0.47 O45 0.43 OI 100 0.39 (0.37 0.36 0.34 032 031 030 028 0.27 0.26 1500.25 0.23 0.22 0.21 0.20 0.19 0.19 O18 0.17 0.16 200 «O15 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.13 0.12 0.12 O11 0.11 0.10 2C. GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY EQUIPMENT 1: INTRODUCTION Gamma radiography equipment or camera consists of the following : 1. A source housing, which serves as a shielded container forthe gamma source during, its storage and i has an arrangement to give a controlled radiation beam, when needed, 2. An “Exposure Mechanism’, inthe source housing or separately attachable and 3, Accessories such as source manipulators, teleflex cable and gear drive system, flexible guide tubes for the cable and source travel, source position Indicators, radiation beam collimators, source changers (for transport), et. Design and development of radiography equipment has special importance inthe programme of [NDT inspection, 2: DESIGN CRITERIA FOR EXPOSURE DEVICES ‘The design and test criteria for radiographic exposute devices are based upon both use and transport considerations, as these devices are also used as transport packages. Size, shape and weight of a radiography camera is dependent upon the types of exposure mechanism, the activity of te radioisotope and also onthe shielding material used. The heart of the gamma radiography exposure device is source assembly with its housing. The design tnd fabrication criteria to be considered are shielding material exposure mechanism source assembly satery interlocks control unit feasibility and reliability ‘easy maintenance and source replenishment installation tcanspertation u In general the exposure devices can be broadly classified on the bass of thelr weight. 8) Manvally handled (ight) upto 50 kg (Class P) Portable) ) Trolley mounted (medium) - 50.500 kg (Class M) ‘obie) ©) Fixed (Inhouse) (Heavy) Over 500 kg (Class F) (Pied) Trolley and manually handled units can be moved at the site for exposures. Classifications given in brackets are as per ISO 3999, 1. Main body 2, Source 3. Source assembly 4. Shuter 5. Teleflex cable 6. Driving unit. ig. 2.5: Souree Exposure Methods 1) Source held in she housing and the shutter is displaced to expose the source (Fig. 2.5a). Itcould be used only in portable cameras because of practical limitations on size and weight of the shutter. (no longer in use in India) by Source held on a cylindrical drum which is rotated 10 expose she source (Fig, 2.5). Ik provides wide radiation beam. €) Source enclosed ina rigid source holder which is moved through a small distance for ving the exposure (Fg. 2.50), This type i used generally fr sources With more Peneting ration such a coba-0, of higher aclviy, and for use in permanent Exposure oom. © Source assembly attached to the tip ofa flexible cable and driven out of the source ‘housing for panoramic exposure (Fig. 2.54). 12 3: DESIGN ‘The important points to be considered, while designing a radiography camera are ; type of source assembly, L 2. shielding materiel, 3. souree exposure mechanism, 4. incorporation of safety devices, 5. feasibility of fabrication, 6. easy maintenance and source replenishment, 7, installation and 8. ransportation. 3.1: Source Assembly ‘The radiation source ina radiography camera is always housed in a secondary container called ~source assembly’. ‘The source assembly can be of two types, rigid or flexible. Rigid source holder is preferred for source housings shown in fig. [Link] to2.5e. Flexible source assembly is used, when the source is required to travel large distance to and from the source housing, ‘rough bends and at different planes. (Fig 2.6) Source capsule (Ga yreeereeree ROLI-1 source assembly a Techops-660 source assembly ez o_= ‘pletron source assembly, Fig. 2.6: Source Assemblies 32: ielding Material As stated earlier, size and weight ofa source housing is decided by the shielding material and its thickness. Properties of different shielding. mazerials are given Tle 2.4, ‘TABLE 2.4: PROPERTIES OF RADIOGRAPHY SIR 1. Atomie number 2” 88% tungsten Za74) OD Canon) 1 «s ‘Lead is commonly used shielding material, a itis cheaper, easily available and can be made in any desired shape, But, i needs a meal lining to hold it, ast isa soft material. Heavy alloy and ‘ranium ate best suited for shielding to produce compact and light weight cameras. However, fabrication of source housings with these materials requites special techniques. 3.3 Source Exposure Directional exposures with collimated beam with source fixed in the source housing are best fiom the radiation safety stand point. However, such exposures greatly restrict the Rexibilty ‘of operation. Therefore, mast of the modern units are designed for panoramic exposure with provisions vo atach collimators (Fig. 2.7) for directional exposures. Fr ciroumfrential exposure For unidirectional exposure Shielding thickness should be more than 1 TVL Fig, 2.7 : Collimators Panoramic exposures are made by moving the souroe assembly out ofthe source housing, using remote driving devices, operated by pneumatic, electrical or mechanical systems. With flexible source assembly, only mechanical systems using teleflex cable are favoured, 3.4 : Safety Devices All radiography equipment should be provided with safety devices such as interlocks, source couplings source holder locking, immobilizing device forthe source, etc. In-house facilis sre planned with more elaborate safety devices, such as door interlocks, audio-visual signals, seatch operations in exposure areas, and other fool-proof safety features. In addition, radiation monitoring instruments should als be incorporated inthe design. 3.5 : Fabrication Design of the unit should be done keeping in mind the limitations during the fabrication of Components. These components are evaluated for soundness and reliability to ensure fool proof performance over the designed life ofthe equipment. 3.6 : Maintenance ‘The equipment should be designed in such a way that minimum maintenance is required during ls service and defective partis easily replaceable 3.7 : Transportation "The design of the camera, when loaded with source should meet the prescribed transport regulations. 3.8 : Installation Installation of units with kilocurie activity needs special gadgets. These gadgets should be designed in conjunction withthe unit to be installed. ‘TABLE 2.5 : PERMISSIBLE LEAKAGE LEVEL AROUND RADIOGRAPHY CAMERAS Maximum exposure rate Gy (mk) Class Onexternal 50mm from Im from surface of external surface external surface container of container of container Portable 2.0(200) or 0.5 (50) 0.02 @) Mobile 2.0200) or 1.0 (100) 0.05 (6) Fixed 2.0200) or _‘1.0(100) 0.10 (10) 4: QUALITY CONTROL DURING PRODUCTION All radiography cameras are required to be subjected to strict quality control examination 19 Confirm the integrity of mechanical pars and also to ensure that radiation leakage levels are )v the permissible limits. ‘The existing permissible radiation leakage levels on the source housings in of” position ae given inthe table 25. Prowotype units with remote contol system are specially tested for operational reliability under simulated conditions to assess the life of components and associated accessories. 5 : EQUIPMENT IN USE IN INDIA Iridium-192 and cobalt-60 sources together can cover an inspection range of thickness 10-200 mm, steel equivalent. Thus, efforts for equipment development have been mainly directed towards these sources. Many equipment are commercially available, with these sources, shielded either wit lead, heavy alloy or depleted uranium 1. Portable Teletron SU-100/50 Gemmamat TI/TI-F/S-301 ‘Amertest-660 Cenmury SA SpeozT Gammarid 2. Mobile ROLEE Gammamat-M (Crawiet) cRC2A Gammamat TK 10 IRCK-150, GRO 3, Fixed cae $000 Gammnamnat TK 100/600 ‘Amertest 520 Gas Prom Some ofthese equipment are discussed below. 5.1 : Lead shielded, low cost equipment S.L.1 + Ildium-192 Units ROLI-I is a remote operated lead shielded camera designed for 35 Ci iridium-192 source (Fig. 2.8). thas “S* conduit to house a flexible source assembly. 5.1.2 + Cobalt-60 Units Radiography camera with a capacity of 10 Ci designed for panoramic exposure is shown in 2.16 {igure 2:9, ‘The spherical source housing, is mounted on a rugged trolley for ease of maneuver. The unit enables source movement ina rigid guide tube for panoramic exposure Radiation beam can be restricted for directional exposures using a collimator, which can be fixed othe source housing. 5.2 : Light Weight, High Activity Equipment ‘These have either depleted uranium or heavy alloy material for shielding. Fabrication ofthese source housings isnot as easy as lead source housings. The ost of te material is also very high Some of the imported radiography equipment spproved in Indi are shown in figures 2.10 9 2.14 6: TYPE APPROVAL OF GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY EQUIPMENT ‘The built-in safety of gamma radiography equipment, both from radiation and operational point of view, is very essential because majority of the radiography work is carried out in workshop area and construction sites which ell fora strong aed rugged equipment. ‘As per the present safety requirements, in addition to shielding adequacy, all models of radiography equipment must be so designed, as to withstand various mechanical and operational tess, such as drop test, fire test, vibration test, shock test, water immersion test and endurance test, as per the specifications Isié down by International Standards Organisation (1S0 3999). (Oaly those equipment which conform to all the provisions of ISO 3999 are type approved and permitted to be used for industrial radiography work. 1. Source assembly 2. Source 3. Lead Shield 4. Locking system 5. Secondary container Portabie/mobile camera Flexible soure assembly Flexible guiée ube °S" conduit Ball & socket coupling Fig. 2.8: ROLE- Camera - Source pesition Source assembly Rotating shuter Lead shield 5. Shutter handle ‘Shutter arrestor plug . Shipping cap Frontside cover Rear side cover Fig. 2.9. CRC-2 Camera 1. Shield 2. Source 3. Source assembly 4. Source assembly catch 5. Key lock for shuter 6. Shutter opening handle 7. Spring lock for shuter 8. Shielding plug Portable camera Depleted uranium shield Rigid source asemmbly Ball & socket coupling “eangsten) Straight conduit Fig. 2.10 :Teletron/Gammavolt Camera 2 1, Source 1 2. Lock 3, Source assembly \ f 4, Stopper | N 5. Shield 6 Portable camera Depleted uranium shield "8 conduit Flexible guide tube Ball & socket coupling Flexible source assembly Fig, 2.11 :TechOps/Amertest Camere 1 1 — =U 3 : ‘5 1. Source capsule 4, Source assembly 2 Safey plug 5. Plunger type lock 3. Depleted uranium shield Fig. 2.12: SPRC - 27 Camera 1, Souree assembly 2, Source 3, Shield 4. Shuter Portable camera Depleted uranium shield Flexible pencil Straight conduit Flexible guide tube Bell & socket coupling Fig, 2.13 : Gammamat Camera 1. Shut plug ina hollow shutile 2. Shutter arrestor 3. Shumer shutle receptor 4 Source capsule 5. Source holder 6. Shield 7. Lock Fig. 2.14 : Gammard - 192 Camera, 3A. PHOTOGRAPHIC AND NON-PHOTOGRAPHIC RECORDING 1: INTRODUCTION The type of X-ray film used in radiography, plays an important role in the detection of flaws. tis therefore, important to have detailed knowledge about structure and properties of fils 2: STRUCTURE OF X-RAY FILM Figure 3.1 shows cross-section of a ypical X-ray flm. It consists of base, emulsion, binding ayer and protective layer Protective layer (Ip) Emulsion (10 - 154) Polyester Base (175) Emulsion (10-154) Protective layer (1) Fig. 3.1 : Cross Section ofan X-ray Film 2.1 : Film Base Polyester i he most commonly wed material for fm base. 2.2: Emulsion Silver womide (Aga) mixed with gelatine i sed fm emulsion 2.3 : Binding layer ‘This layer ats as binder between im bate and emulsion. 2.4: Protective ayer ‘The protective layer consists only gelatine, It serves to protect the lower layers from physical damage, abrasion and suess marks, HARACTERISTICS OF FILMS 3.1 : Film Density X-ray film on exposure to radiation and processing produces black deposits of silver. This blackening ofthe film is called optical density (D) and is given by the expression, L D = Loe, 7* ‘Where L, = Intensity of incident light 1, = Intensity of eansmited light (Optical density is measured with an instrument called “Denstomeer’ "The factors which control the optical density are ; a. ype of film ». energy of radiation amount of exposure and 4 processing conditions Density b 3 0 4 2 a Log relative exposure —} Fig. 3.2 : Characteristic Curves of X-ray Films HERD Gave 3.2 : Characteristic Curve ‘fa number of different exposures are given to various areas of an X-ray film and densities obiained at these areas after processing are plotted asa function of Log,, (exposure), the resulting curve is called “Characteristic Curve" ofthe film (Fig. 3.2). A characteristic curve sive information on speed of film and film contrast 3.2.1 Speed Speed is defined as the density recorded on film due to @ given radiation exposure. It is ‘measured in terms of inverse of exposure required to produce a radiograph of a particular ‘density, under given conditions. Keeping other factors constant, a film which requires less exposure is faster. Figure 3.2 shows characteristics of two industrial X-ray films in which fim A is faster than film B, ‘TABLE 3.1 : FILM FACTORS OF SOME COMMON FILMS. Souce peck Fin Him Fuser | Sou Type Fim Fm Peay oa with Double with Double Tat Soman ea Ss Timis2 Agha 93R | cabaeo Agu? ——19.6R Da Aon Ds bor Dr iar Drak wor-ss38R noress 138 Nore aR Noles 30R Norm TOR Norm 20K ‘The amount of exposure ofa given radiation energy required on a film to produce a given film Fig. 3.3. Gradient Versus Density 3.3 : Effect of radi dion energy ‘There is very lite effect onthe shape ofthe characteristic curve due o energy of radiation, However, the film speed depends on radiation energy, as can be seen in table 3.1. 3 + Various Types of Films “The films can be divided into three groups onthe bass of radiography requirements 1. Films for wse wih fluorescent screens, also known as salt screen films. 2, Films for use with metal screens or without screens (also called ‘direct films’), ‘his {group covers 2 large range of industrial X-ray films. The films are classified ‘spending upon te grain ste ofthe fms; Class <1 Highest contrast, lowest speed film Class High contrast, low speed film Class II = Medium contrast, medium speed film Chass-IV- Lowest contrast, highest speed film Films used for special purposes, e.g, single emulsion lms. 3B. LEAD AND FLUORESCENT SCREENS 1. INTRODUCTION ‘When an object is radiogrephed without using screens, there are two disturbing fectors. 1. ‘The absorption of primary radiation (transmitted through the object, in fil is low. ‘This results in longer exposure time. 2. The absorption of ow energy scattered radiation (scattered by the objet), in flm is relatively more. This reduces the image quality ence, to reduce exposure time and improve image quality of radiographs, radiography soeens se used. 2: TYPES OF RADIOGRAPHY SCREENS ‘There are two types of radiography screens, commonly used in industrial radiography practice : metalic fil screens and fluorescent screens, ‘These screens differ in their basi characteristics e.g, speed, contrast and elimination of seattered radiation, 3: METALLIC FOIL SCREENS Metallic screens help in reduction of scattered radiation from the object. ‘The X-ray film is sandwiched between a pair of lead screen, as shown in igure 3.4 eee Nidy bi Ni y 7 eee Card board / paste | Lead sereen (front) ee Film |— Lead sereen (back) + card board / plastic NIZ NTINNAN w pesacnerd retnon Fig. 3.4 : X-ray Film Sandwiched Between «Pair of Lead Inensifying Seveens 3 Reduction of scattered radiation Attenuation of incident radiation inthe object results in production of low energy scattered radiation and this falls onthe film, along withthe tansmitted primary radiation. As high atomic number elements have more absorption capacity for low energy radiations, if 2 metal foil of high atomic number is placed between abject and film, It will absorb most ofthe low ‘energy radiation, before it falls on the film. Hence, effect ofthe low energy, scattered radiation willbe reduced. ‘This metallic foil will serve addtional purpose of intensification action also. Similarly, to reduce low energy back scattered radiation (obtained due to back scattering of the primary radiation, from objects placed bebind the specimen to be radiogrephed), a metal sheet of high atomic number is placed behind the film. Hence, a double coated X-ray film is sandwiched between a pair of metalic fol screens to reduce the effect of seatered radiation onthe film, thus reslting in an improved definition of radiograph, 3.2 : Intensifying Action Inensifying action ofa radiography sereen is expressed in terms of Iniensfication Factor (IF) which is defined as Exposure time required to produce certain film density without screen re—eer—as Exposure time required 1 produce same density In this definition, itis assumed that same film and radiation source are used for both the exposures. “IP due to double lead sereen exposure with iridium-192 source is about 4.5. Inversifiation action ocoure due to the photoelectrons, emited as a result of interaction of X or ‘gemina rays with the materia Innersifisation factor due to metalic sereens depends on a. fl clement, thickness of foil, «energy of radiation, and 4. specimen thickness. 4: FLUORESCENT SCREENS ‘These are also called “Salt Serens'. ‘These screens consist of a card board or plastic materiat on which certain inorganic erystalline substances are coated on one side. They glow giving light when radiation incident on them. Since a photographic film is more sensitive 0 light than to X/r rays, it enhances the sensitivity of the film. A material which has its light ‘emission in blue or ultraviolet region, is used for this purpose, since the film is highly sensitive to blue light. ‘The most commonly used material for this purpose is calcium tungstate. These seeens are used in pairs, so that double coated X-ray film canbe sand-witched between them as shown in figure 3.5. [Exch crystal in salt screen emits light. This light diverges in all directions and gives image unsharpnes Intensification factor (IF) due to salt sereens depends upon a. density of radiograph, thickness of sreen, coating material and 4. energy of radiation In gamma radiography, the intensification factors with salt seveens, are not very much greater than that obtained with lead screens. Secondly, these sereen pve poor quality image, Hence, these screens are not much used in industrial rediogrephy. [Iti ii ||| semr UY-Card board / plastic Salt (CaWO,)sereen Film Fig. 3.5 : X-ray Fllm sandwiched between a pair of salt inensifying sereens 4A. WORK PARAMETERS AND CONDITIONS, 1: INTRODUCTION In radiography, work parameters and conditions play an equally important rofe as the applied radiography techniques. The handling of X-ray films before and after exposure and film rocessing are important in this respect, 2: HANDLING OF FILMS Xray films should be handled carefully to avoid physical strains such as pressure creasing, buckling and friction on [Link] normal pressure applied on a castes to provide good contact with the object does not damage the fms. Whenever the films are loaded inflexible cassettes and external clamping devices are used, it should be seen that pressure is applied uniformly. Localized pressure on film can produce artifacts in te radiograph 23 + Loading and Unloading Films Films should be held by edges in order to prevent finger or pressure marks. Precaution should be taken to avoid handling films ina manner which would cause friction and give confusing blake marks onthe radiograph, 2.2 : Expiry Date The expiry date on a film pack means that the film should be sed before the given date Expiry dates ofthe films depend onthe storage conditions. 3: FILM STORAGE 3.1 : Protection from Gamma and X-rays ‘Xray film shouldbe protected from X-rays and gamma rays to avold fogging. 3.2: Chemical and Physical Hazards Film should not be kept in a chemical storage room or in any location, where there is leakage ‘of ges. Chemical vapours, high humidity and temperatures also contribute to flim fogging Film should be stored in as cool a place as possible, and in tropical regions, temperatures control in the store room is recommended. Films may be stored for long periods ina refrigerator. 4: FILM PROCESSING ‘After exposure to radiation, a latent image of the object is formed in the X-ray film. Film processing converts this invisible image toa visible and permanent image. ‘There are five main stages involve in film processing, 1, Development = creation of the visible image 2. Stop bath: removal of excess developer solution and stopping of developing 2. Fixation removal of unwanted, unexposed silver halide and making image permanent, 3. Washing removal of unwanted fixation products, [Link] = removal of unwanted water 5: LATENT IMAGE FORMATION On exposure to X or gamms radiation, silver bromide in the film is converted to metallic silver. 6: EFFECT OF DEVELOPMENT ‘The function of developer solution is wo reduce only exposed grains of silver bromide ino sctonal metallic silver and leave unexposed, unaffected grains. The rate of development of exposed crystals is much greater than corresponding rat of unexposed ext. Mechanism of he reaction i Agtte > Ae ‘The electron forthe reaction is donated by developer solution. 6.1 -Developers in Use ‘There are two estat types of developers. 1. Solid pack, containing two separate bags of chemicals which have wo be dissolved in correct quantity of water before use 2. Liquid concentrate, which require appropriate dilution with water to give the ‘working solution, 6.1.1 : Commercial Developers Some of the commercially avaliable developers for manual processing of X-ray films are given fa Table 4.1. 6.1.2 1 Use of Developers Weal developing temperature is 20° C and duration of 5 minutes. To avoid faults during eveloping, it should be property agitated during developing. TABLE 4.1 Make “Trade Name Size ofthe pack to make (in lires ‘of working solution Kodak Indian DA-19b 2.25 Photographic Co developer 450 900 1530 2250 AgfeGawver — G-230 225 soveloper 450 3.00 1350 250 May & Baker Solidex X-ray 250 Developer 430 9.00 1350 2230 STOP BATH ‘After developing, the image comes into existence and remaining processes makes it permanent and enable to be viewed. If no action is taken, the developer will continue to work producing ceshanced density, fog oF imegular developer stins. The unwanted Geveloper is removed using stop bath, There are two types of stop baths. 7.1: Water Rinse “The excess developer is removed from the film simply by immersing it in a running water bath. Static water rinse involves the risk of solution becoming alkaline with use and cease to 3¢ of any use in stopping development. Hence, running waterbath is recommended. 72: Acetic Acid Rinse ‘This bath is static and 2 to 3 per cent solution of acetic acid is employed. This is more efficient in action and requires films tobe immersed init for about 5 seconds with agitation. However, unlike flow water rinte, acetic acid will become continuously exhausted with use. A ‘throughput of 100 PT/gallon is reasonable life suggested for this. 73 Faults arising during rinsing. “The only fault which can occur at this stage is due to delay in putting the developer laden-film in sop bath, A thin layer of oxidized developer on the film can lead to production of brown, 8: FIXING BATH. ‘The fixer reacts with undeveloped silver bromide inthe film and transforms it into water soluble compound which gets dissolved in washing operation, — In addition, it enables the mage to become permanent. Since the silver halide is stil sensitive to light to a small extent, and so will lowly darken if i allowed to remain on the fl, 8.1 : Fixing Agent ‘The most widely used agent is sodium thiosulphate (Na,S,0,), commonly known as “hypo! 1s solution in water rapidly dissolves silver chloride and bromide. 8.2 : Use of Fixing Bath Generally, the film is kept for 2-3 minutes in rapid fixing bath and for about 10 minutes in ordinary hypo bath, 1. Agitation ‘The films should be agitated initially, when immerse in fixer. 2. Temperature: The fixation process is less critical than development process and a temperature range of + 2.5°C to ttandard 20°C is, acceptable. 8.3 : Faults arising due to fixation Most of the defects arise due to contamination of fixer by developer into fixer, through careless use of stop bath stage. Faults may also arise if films are inserted without agitation, Streaks may be produced, due to uneven removal of developer. 9: WASHING AND DRYING 91: Washing ‘Washing is carried out to eliminate unwanted products from the emulsion after the fixing ‘operation. For this purpose, the film is washed in running water for about 20 minutes and then taken for drying. It is important to use flowing water, so that the film on it removal ‘rom bath is taken out from uncontaminated water, 9.1.1 Faults arising during washing Useally cwenty minutes are alloted for this stage, but the perlad may prove insufficient if, a. the water is unusually cold, flow is inadequate, «. tank is too small for film throughput and 4. film is not inserted in a proper way. ach of these factors will lead to incomplete elimination of thiosulphate complexes from gelatin. This will make the film yellow/brown on storage. 9.2: Drying It's necessary to remove excess water, a a wet rediograph is not convenient to handle and is lieble to mechanical damage. Usually che wet films are dried by blowing a curren of hot air lover the films, and various types of drying cabinets exis for this purpose. These cabinets a include filter at their ac intake to free the air from dust, which may sick tothe wet film. CHECK LIST OF PROCESSING DIFFICULTIES “AND FILM BLEMISHES a Blemish or Difficulty Black eresoens ‘White crescenss Overall fog, Black streaks / blotches ‘Streaks Drying spots and streaks Black spots Brown stains Dark deposi. ‘White crystalline aepanits Mitky appearance Sharply outined iigntezcareas Blisers ‘Air bubbles ‘ign spots/ptches) Causes inking of film before processing ‘Sharp bending or folding ofthe processed film Over-development, overage film, prolonged exposure to sat light, Improper satelight titer insufficient protection in storage from tadition sours, film stored where temperature or humidity 1s 100 high or chemical vapours exist, viewing developed film, before itis properly fixed: Light leaks due to faulty flm holders or cassette ‘White and black streaks at points where film was attached to hanger cased by processing solution remaining on clips from earlier us. Inadequate egitation during development. Removing film (0 view uring development time causing developer to run across film unevenly, Contamination by chemically active deposits, ‘contamination of developer I Txet Drops of water on semi-rid fim or drops of water runing down semi-dried surface. mr Developer splashes. before placing entice film in developer. Inadequate fixing or exhausted fixing solution, prolonged development in old developer inadequate rinsing Oxidized produets from developer or reacting silver salts. Inadequate washing after processing. Incomplete fixing, exhausted fixing bath. Uneven development, films not agitated during development, films, hung 10 close together in developer. ‘Formation of gas bubbles in film emulsion. ‘Ai tapped on fim surface during development. Reticulation eather Solution too warm, extreme differences in temperature of like appearance) suvoessive processing baths Filling (loosening Fixing in warm or exhausted bath, of emulsion) Prolonged washing at high temperature, ‘Stic marks Black Due fo static electric discharges caused fiction between film and birdtack effects) some other object. Seraches (ack, prope handing ‘erack-like lines), mee Dark fingerprints Fl used wih diy figers before developmen gh ogeprins Film ouch wih greasy fingers before development. Wii spo and areas Pited or worn sceeas. Digton fim sees Bil radiographs Excessive hardening in fice Excesive dying tie, 11 : GEOMETRY OF IMAGE FORMATION ‘The radiographic image on the flm is governed mainly by the basic principles of the shadow formation, A sharp and undistorted image is obtained by controlling various geometrical factors such as source size, source to film distance, film to object distance, alignment of radiation beam with respect to the plane of the object and film. Different exposure geometries ae shown in Fig. 4.1 From these exposure geometries, it could be seen that the radiographic images always have an clement of magnification which wil depend upon the closeness of the film withthe specimen, Distortion in the image would depend on the relative planes of the object and the film, ‘Attempts are made to keep both of them in the same plane, however, with specimen of odd geometry mage distortions are observed, ‘Both X and gamma rays produce a certain unsharpnes on the radiograph due to the finite size of the focal spot or the source, This unsharpness is called geomettcal unsharpness (U,) hich is calculated as axt SE SPD = 14 ay, °° Se ran) where, d__- effective diameter ofthe source/focal spt, SFD - source to film distance, t- thickness ofthe objec. Its clear fom this expression, that U, can never be zero. ‘The magnitude of U, can only be ‘minimized by proper selection of exposure variables. Considering this fact, various codes permit a certain U, value related to object thicknesses. ‘Thinner object Thicker object Film close to SmallUy Large Up ohiet Seall Up 72 7 Film away from onyect ) targe Up \ F-Film Ug" Unsharpness | 4 ; S- Source, 0 - Object 1 | C - Central radiation beam axis | | Eentralanis Central ani. not, Shick contre bbject centre Small Up Large Up Fig, 4.1 : Geometric Representation of Radiographic Image. Radiation Material Film Film Density Distance Screens Front Back Development Development Xray Steel DuPont NDT 65 20 36 inches Lead 0.12 mm, 0.25 mn 5S minutes 20°C Ieidium-192, gamma rays Steel DuPont NDT 35-75 20 24 inches Lead 0.12 mm 2 0.25 mm 5 minutes 2c Fig. 4.3: Exposute Chart for Iridium-192 Source. (Different Films) 190, Curie = hour SB tom 30 ‘S ei 20} ‘ol wl alae) SED (cm) —>40 5040 curte x hour 5 | + 2 2 1} 1 es as a2 oz on eal oe 24-3 Thickness (om) —> ‘Thickness (om) —> Lead sean 0.1 mm front Lead sreen : 0.15 mm front 0.15 mm back 0.20 mm back Iridium - 192 Cobalt 60 Density : 2, Developing time + 5 minutes, 20° C Film : Agfa, For NDT 65 film, muligly above values by 15 ‘To obtain exposure values in GBq x hour, mlply above values by 37. Fig. 4.4: Exposure Chart for Gamma Rays (Different SFD) Recommendations for optimum results are - 1. source or focal spot size should be as small as practicable. Ideal source will bea point source, 2, source to object distance thould be as large as possible, 3. the film should be in close contact with object and 4, source location should be such, that radiation pass normal trough object thickness 12: EXPOSURE TIME CALCULATIONS For calculating the exposure time, the following steps should be followed {Calla the presen source activity in cris (Ci) fom the decay charts, [Link] thickness (em) ofthe objet. [Link] HVT (om) of object material, forthe given source, from the HVT tables, 4Find SED (em) forthe objec hicks, 5. Write RHM value (0.5 for iiium-192 and 1.33 for cobalt-60) 6 Find film factor (F in Roentgen) from table 4.2 TABLE 4.2 : FILM FACTOR (F) VALUES Film Factor Sess’ _NOR@_NDTIO Aga agua Tiduw-i9214R 40R 1IR 35R Covet) —-28R_—-20R_-22R_——7.0R Subsite all these values inthe following formula: Ex2 x GRD Px 60 Exposure time (ninaes) OE le may be noted that this formula is not very accurate for higher thicknesses, particularly when ‘sing cobet-60 source. Exposure chars as given in figures 4.2» 44 are more accurate and sare recommended fo ue, Exerc 1 : Caleulate the exposure time in minutes for 0.75 inch thick steel using 180 kV Xsrays. The machine is operated at S mA stings From figure 4.2, the exposute for 0.75 inch see a 160 KV is 35 mA. 1 the machine is operated at S mA setting, the exposure time ig 35/5 = 7 minutes ‘Exerese 2 : Calculate the exposure time in minutes for 1.5 inch thik steel using NDT 65 film 412 inch SFD to produce optical density 2.0, using irgium-192 source of 8 cures. From figure 4.3, the exposure tie for 1.5 inc steal on NDT 65 film is 250 ‘The exposure char is made for SED of 24 inh Exposure time (min) EF - Exposure factr for SFD d, © ~ Activity in cures 4, “New SED. [Exercise 3: Calculate the exposure time, with the following data: Source ~Iridium-192, 10 cures (C=10) Stel plate - 25 mm thick (= 29 (AVTorT,, = 12.5 mm) Film - NDT-65 =H Radiography density sequired = 2.0 Let SFD be 50 em ‘Substiuting all these vafues in formula, 14x BS x 50x 60 Wx 05x 100° 1.4 x4 x 2500 x60 Fe i0000 = 16.8 minues [From exposure chart (Fig. 4.2) we can see that for 25mm steel and SFD 50 em, we need around 2.8 curie x hour. It means the product of source activity and time in hours should be 28. Hence, fora source activity of 2.8 cure, exposure time i 1 hour for 1.0curie, exposure time is 2.8 hours for 10 curie, exposure time is 2.8 x 60 x 1/10 =_17 minutes We can calculate similarly, for other thicknesses also, 4B, EVALUATION OF RADIOGRAPHIC QUALITY ‘The quality ofa radiograph is assessed by radiographic sensitivity. The sensitivity, in turn, depends upon factors which control contrast and definition of the image. \ WA : Radiographic Sensitivity Radiographic Sensitivity is a general qualitative term refering tothe size of the smallest

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