CHAPTER TWO

Frequency
Distributions and
Graphs

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
1
 Frequency Distributions CHAPTER

and Graphs 2

Outline
2-1 Organizing Data
2-2 Histograms, Frequency Polygons, and Ogives
2-3 Other Types of Graphs

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Learning Objectives
1 Organize data using a frequency distribution.
2 Represent data in frequency distributions graphically
using histograms, frequency polygons, and ogives.
3 Represent data using bar graphs, Pareto charts, time
series graphs, pie graphs, and dotplots.
4 Draw and interpret a stem and leaf plot.
2-1 Organizing Data
 Data collected in original form is called
raw data.
 A frequency distribution is the
organization of raw data in table form,
using classes and frequencies.
 Nominal- or ordinal-level data that can be
placed in categories is organized in
categorical frequency distributions.

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 4
Chapter 2
Frequency Distributions and
Graphs

Section 2-1
Example 2-1
Page #43

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 5
Categorical Frequency Distribution
Twenty-five army inductees were given a blood
test to determine their blood type.

Raw Data: A,B,B,AB,O O,O,B,AB,B

B,B,O,A,O A,O,O,O,AB AB,A,O,B,A
Construct a frequency distribution for the data.

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 6
Categorical Frequency Distribution
Twenty-five army inductees were given a blood
test to determine their blood type.

Raw Data: A,B,B,AB,O O,O,B,AB,B

B,B,O,A,O A,O,O,O,AB AB,A,O,B,A

Class Tally Frequency Percent

A IIII 5 20
B IIII II 7 28
O IIII IIII 9 36
AB IIII 4 16
Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 7
Grouped Frequency Distribution
 Grouped frequency distributions are
used when the range of the data is large.
 The smallest and largest possible data
values in a class are the lower and
upper class limits. Class boundaries
separate the classes.
 To find a class boundary, average the
upper class limit of one class and the
lower class limit of the next class.
Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 8
Grouped Frequency Distribution
 The class width can be calculated by
subtracting
 successive lower class limits (or boundaries)
 successive upper class limits (or boundaries)
 upper and lower class boundaries

 The class midpoint Xm can be calculated

by averaging
 upper and lower class limits (or boundaries)

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 9
Rules for Classes in Grouped
Frequency Distributions
1. There should be 5-20 classes.
2. The class width should be an odd
number.
3. The classes must be mutually exclusive.
4. The classes must be continuous.
5. The classes must be exhaustive.
6. The classes must be equal in width
(except in open-ended distributions).
Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 10
Chapter 2
Frequency Distributions and
Graphs

Section 2-1
Example 2-2
Page #47

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 11
Constructing a Grouped Frequency
Distribution
The following data represent the record
high temperatures for each of the 50 states.
Construct a grouped frequency distribution
for the data using 7 classes.
112 100 127 120 134 118 105 110 109 112
110 118 117 116 118 122 114 114 105 109
107 112 114 115 118 117 118 122 106 110
116 108 110 121 113 120 119 111 104 111
120 113 120 117 105 110 118 112 114 114

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 12
Constructing a Grouped Frequency
Distribution
STEP 1 Determine the classes.
Find the class width by dividing the range by
the number of classes 7.
Range = High – Low
= 134 – 100 = 34

Width = Range/7 = 34/7 = 5

Rounding Rule: Always round up if a remainder.

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 13
Constructing a Grouped Frequency
Distribution
 For convenience sake, we will choose the lowest
data value, 100, for the first lower class limit.
 The subsequent lower class limits are found by
adding the width to the previous lower class limits.
Class Limits
The first upper class limit is one
100 - 104
105 - 109 less than the next lower class limit.
110 - 114
The subsequent upper class limits
115 - 119
120 - 124 are found by adding the width to the
125 - 129 previous upper class limits.
130 - 134
Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 14
Constructing a Grouped Frequency
Distribution
 Theclass boundary is midway between an upper
class limit and a subsequent lower class limit.
104,104.5,105
Class Class Cumulative
Frequency
Limits Boundaries Frequency
100 - 104 99.5 - 104.5
105 - 109 104.5 - 109.5
110 - 114 109.5 - 114.5
115 - 119 114.5 - 119.5
120 - 124 119.5 - 124.5
125 - 129 124.5 - 129.5
130 - 134 129.5 - 134.5
Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 15
Constructing a Grouped Frequency
Distribution
STEP 2 Tally the data.
STEP 3 Find the frequencies.
Class Class Cumulative
Frequency
Limits Boundaries Frequency
100 - 104 99.5 - 104.5 2
105 - 109 104.5 - 109.5 8
110 - 114 109.5 - 114.5 18
115 - 119 114.5 - 119.5 13
120 - 124 119.5 - 124.5 7
125 - 129 124.5 - 129.5 1
130 - 134 129.5 - 134.5 1
Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 16
Constructing a Grouped Frequency
Distribution
STEP 4 Find the cumulative frequencies by
keeping a running total of the frequencies.
Class Class Cumulative
Frequency
Limits Boundaries Frequency
100 - 104 99.5 - 104.5 2 2
105 - 109 104.5 - 109.5 8 10
110 - 114 109.5 - 114.5 18 28
115 - 119 114.5 - 119.5 13 41
120 - 124 119.5 - 124.5 7 48
125 - 129 124.5 - 129.5 1 49
130 - 134 129.5 - 134.5 1 50
Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 17
2-2 Histograms, Frequency
Polygons, and Ogives
3 Most Common Graphs in Research
1. Histogram

2. Frequency Polygon
3. Cumulative Frequency Polygon (Ogive)

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 18
2-2 Histograms, Frequency
Polygons, and Ogives
The histogram is a graph that
displays the data by using vertical
bars of various heights to represent
the frequencies of the classes.

The class boundaries are

represented on the horizontal axis.

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 19
Chapter 2
Frequency Distributions and
Graphs

Section 2-2
Example 2-4
Page #57

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 20
Histograms
Construct a histogram to represent the
data for the record high temperatures for
each of the 50 states (see Example 2–2 for
the data).

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 21
Histograms
Histograms use class boundaries and
frequencies of the classes.
Class Class
Frequency
Limits Boundaries
100 - 104 99.5 - 104.5 2
105 - 109 104.5 - 109.5 8
110 - 114 109.5 - 114.5 18
115 - 119 114.5 - 119.5 13
120 - 124 119.5 - 124.5 7
125 - 129 124.5 - 129.5 1
130 - 134 129.5 - 134.5 1
Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 22
Histograms
Histograms use class boundaries and
frequencies of the classes.

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 23
2.2 Histograms, Frequency
Polygons, and Ogives
 The frequency polygon is a graph that
displays the data by using lines that
connect points plotted for the
frequencies at the class midpoints. The
frequencies are represented by the
heights of the points.
 The class midpoints are represented on
the horizontal axis.
Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 24
Chapter 2
Frequency Distributions and
Graphs

Section 2-2
Example 2-5
Page #58

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 25
Frequency Polygons
Construct a frequency polygon to
represent the data for the record high
temperatures for each of the 50 states
(see Example 2–2 for the data).

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 26
Frequency Polygons
Frequency polygons use class midpoints
and frequencies of the classes.
Class Class
Frequency
Limits Midpoints
100 - 104 102 2
105 - 109 107 8
110 - 114 112 18
115 - 119 117 13
120 - 124 122 7
125 - 129 127 1
130 - 134 132 1
Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 27
Frequency Polygons
Frequency polygons use class midpoints
and frequencies of the classes.
A frequency polygon
is anchored on the
x-axis before the first
class and after the
last class.

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 28
2.2 Histograms, Frequency
Polygons, and Ogives
 The Ogive is a graph that represents
the cumulative frequencies for the
classes in a frequency distribution.

 The upper class boundaries are

represented on the horizontal axis.

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 29
Chapter 2
Frequency Distributions and
Graphs

Section 2-2
Example 2-6
Page #59

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 30
Ogives
Construct an ogive to represent the data
for the record high temperatures for each
of the 50 states (see Example 2–2 for the
data).

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 31
Ogives
Ogives use upper class boundaries and
cumulative frequencies of the classes.
Class Class Cumulative
Frequency
Limits Boundaries Frequency
100 - 104 99.5 - 104.5 2 2
105 - 109 104.5 - 109.5 8 10
110 - 114 109.5 - 114.5 18 28
115 - 119 114.5 - 119.5 13 41
120 - 124 119.5 - 124.5 7 48
125 - 129 124.5 - 129.5 1 49
130 - 134 129.5 - 134.5 1 50
Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 32
Ogives
Ogives use upper class boundaries and
cumulative frequencies of the classes.
Cumulative
Class Boundaries
Frequency
Less than 104.5 2
Less than 109.5 10
Less than 114.5 28
Less than 119.5 41
Less than 124.5 48
Less than 129.5 49
Less than 134.5 50
Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 33
Ogives
Ogives use upper class boundaries and
cumulative frequencies of the classes.

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 34
 Procedure Table
Constructing Statistical Graphs

Step 1 Draw and label the x and y axes.

Step 2 Choose a suitable scale for the
frequencies or cumulative frequencies,
and label it on the y axis. (Do not label
the y axis with numbers in the
cumulative frequency)
Step 3 Represent the class boundaries for the
histogram or ogive, or the midpoint for
the frequency polygon, on the x axis.
Step 4 Plot the points and then draw the bars
or lines.
Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
2.2 Histograms, Frequency
Polygons, and Ogives
If proportions are used instead of
frequencies, the graphs are called
relative frequency graphs.

Relative frequency graphs are used

when the proportion of data values that
fall into a given class is more important
than the actual number of data values
that fall into that class.
Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 36
Chapter 2
Frequency Distributions and
Graphs

Section 2-2
Example 2-7
Page #61

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 37
Construct a histogram, frequency polygon,
and ogive using relative frequencies for the
distribution (shown here) of the miles that
20 randomly selected runners ran during a
given week.
Class
Frequency
Boundaries
5.5 - 10.5 1
10.5 - 15.5 2
15.5 - 20.5 3
20.5 - 25.5 5
25.5 - 30.5 4
30.5 - 35.5 3
35.5 - 40.5 2
Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 38
Histograms
The following is a frequency distribution of
miles run per week by 20 selected runners.
Class Relative Divide each
Frequency frequency
Boundaries Frequency
by the total
5.5 - 10.5 1 1/20 = 0.05 frequency to
10.5 - 15.5 2 2/20 = 0.10 get the
15.5 - 20.5 3 3/20 = 0.15 relative
20.5 - 25.5 5 5/20 = 0.25 frequency.
25.5 - 30.5 4 4/20 = 0.20
30.5 - 35.5 3 3/20 = 0.15
35.5 - 40.5 2 2/20 = 0.10
f = 20 rf = 1.00
Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 39
Histograms
Use the class boundaries and the
relative frequencies of the classes.

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 40
Frequency Polygons
The following is a frequency distribution of
miles run per week by 20 selected runners.
Class Class Relative
Boundaries Midpoints Frequency
5.5 - 10.5 8 0.05
10.5 - 15.5 13 0.10
15.5 - 20.5 18 0.15
20.5 - 25.5 23 0.25
25.5 - 30.5 28 0.20
30.5 - 35.5 33 0.15
35.5 - 40.5 38 0.10

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 41
Frequency Polygons
Use the class midpoints and the
relative frequencies of the classes.

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 42
Ogives
The following is a frequency distribution of
miles run per week by 20 selected runners.
Class Cumulative Cum. Rel.
Frequency
Boundaries Frequency Frequency
5.5 - 10.5 1 1 1/20 = 0.05
10.5 - 15.5 2 3 3/20 = 0.15
15.5 - 20.5 3 6 6/20 = 0.30
20.5 - 25.5 5 11 11/20 = 0.55
25.5 - 30.5 4 15 15/20 = 0.75
30.5 - 35.5 3 18 18/20 = 0.90
35.5 - 40.5 2 20 20/20 = 1.00
f = 20
Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 43
Ogives
Ogives use upper class boundaries and
cumulative frequencies of the classes.
Cum. Rel.
Class Boundaries
Frequency
Less than 10.5 0.05
Less than 15.5 0.15
Less than 20.5 0.30
Less than 25.5 0.55
Less than 30.5 0.75
Less than 35.5 0.90
Less than 40.5 1.00

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 44
Ogives
Use the upper class boundaries and the
cumulative relative frequencies.

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 45
 Shapes of Distributions

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 46
 Shapes of Distributions

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 47
2.3 Other Types of Graphs
Bar Graphs

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 48
2.3 Other Types of Graphs
Pareto Charts

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 49
2.3 Other Types of Graphs
Time Series Graphs

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 50
2.3 Other Types of Graphs
Pie Graphs

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 51
2.3 Other Types of Graphs
Dotplot
A dotplot is a statistical graph in which
each data value is plotted as a point (dot)
above the horizontal axis.

Dotplots are useful for showing how values

are distributed, and for finding extremely
high or low data values.

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 52
Bluman, Chapr 2
Chapter 2
Frequency Distributions and
Graphs

Section 2-3
Example 2-13
Page #83

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 53
Bluman, Chapter 2
Example 2-13: Named Storms
Construct and analyze a dotplot from the
data.

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 54
Bluman, Chapter 2
Example 2-13: Named Storms

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 55
Bluman, Chapter 2
2.3 Other Types of Graphs
Stem and Leaf Plots
A stem and leaf plot is a data plot that
uses part of a data value as the stem
and part of the data value as the leaf to
form groups or classes.
It has the advantage over grouped
frequency distribution of retaining the
actual data while showing them in
graphic form.
Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 56
Chapter 2
Frequency Distributions and
Graphs

Section 2-3
Example 2-14
Page #84

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 57
At an outpatient testing center, the
number of cardiograms performed each
day for 20 days is shown. Construct a
stem and leaf plot for the data.

25 31 20 32 13
14 43 02 57 23
36 32 33 32 44
32 52 44 51 45

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 58
 25 31 20 32 13
14 43 2 57 23
36 32 33 32 44
32 52 44 51 45

Unordered Stem Plot Ordered Stem Plot

0 2 0 2
1 3 4 1 3 4
2 5 0 3 2 0 3 5
3 1 2 6 2 3 2 2 3 1 2 2 2 2 3 6
4 3 4 4 5 4 3 4 4 5
5 7 2 1 5 1 2 7

Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bluman Chapter 2 59