Chapter II: Review of Related Literature

The researchers acquired these certain related literatures as background

information pertinent to the study, to gain a better insight on the use of coffee grounds

as an alternative fertilizer for the Kangkong plant. It is worth reviewing the selected

related research literature because it may give the current researchers and the reader

more in-depth information that may help them as they proceed in their research.

As the researchers’ topic is about the use of spent coffee grounds as an

alternative fertilizer, the entire section of the related literature about composting and soil

amendment could serve to be immensely helpful in the aspect of data analysis and

control situations.

Spent Coffee Grounds for Agriculture

According to Ragauskaitė and Šlinkšienė (2021), the richness of spent coffee

grounds can be applied as an alternative organic fertilizer that improves the soil’s

properties as well as promotes plant growth. This journal article examines the additive

effects of used coffee grounds on the growth of rye (Secale cereale L.). Coffee grounds

were mixed with soil during the research and five different composition mixtures were

created: 0 %, 2 %, 4 %, 6 % and 8 % of coffee grounds were added to the soil,

respectively. The control is the mixture with no coffee grounds. After being chopped, the

grown rye was weighed. The researchers counted the number of leaves and measured

the length of each stem. The results proved that adding coffee grounds has a negative

impact on rye growth.

growth and as an effective weed control measure, rather than using herbicides. In

addition, applying spent coffee grounds results to an increased carbon and nitrogen

content in the soil, which is thought to have enhanced crop growth, while cropping

and/or with tillage after crop harvesting is economically efficient and effective for weed

control and soil improvement. Experiments on this article are based on the effectiveness

of two different applications (mulching and plough-in application) where mulching

application of spent coffee grounds was more effective for weed control, and the effect

of this plough-in amount was equal to or greater than the effect of mulching.

Furthermore, the plough-in application decreases weed dry weight for a longer period.

Spent coffee grounds plough-in application was not efficient for weed control during

cropping because of the inhibitory effects of spent coffee grounds on plant growth and

germination. In conclusion, both mulching and plough-in of spent coffee grounds are

deemed effective or potential for weed control.

Spent Coffee Grounds for Soil Improvement

Bedaiwy et al. (2018) stated that the physical characteristics of the examined

soils, including their dry density, porosity, hydraulic conductivity, infiltration rate, and

aggregate formation, appear to be positively impacted by coffee grounds. Spent coffee

grounds caused the bulk density of the soil to decrease and its porosity to rise. With the

addition of coffee grounds, saturated hydraulic conductivity and infiltration rate

significantly decreased in sand and rose in clay. Spent coffee grounds may still be a
valuable, affordable, and secure soil conditioner to enhance certain of the soil's physical

qualities, especially those linked to soil aggregation and water movement.

According to Pérez-Burillo et al. (2022) the researchers should be concerned

with the use of spent coffee grounds as an organic amendment of soils because of its

pros and cons. Its pros are being high in nutrients that the plant can theoretically take

full advantage of and grow more effectively, the cons however prevent this effective

absorption from happening because the spent coffee grounds can also release

chemicals that can be toxic and impede the plant’s ability to absorb nutrients properly.

Research also shows that spent coffee grounds release almost 17 kilograms of carbon

dioxide (CO2), which is not particularly helpful to the entire idea of it being a good

natural organic amendment. It’s all about weighing what the researchers gain from it

against what the researchers potentially lose. A number of cons can be mitigated by

employing diverse ways of implementing the spent coffee grounds allowing whoever

uses it to benefit more from it with less down sides.

Picca et al. (2023) studied that applying both biochar and composted spent

coffee grounds as a fertilizer substrate for the tomato plant. Combining biochar with

spent coffee ground compost would reveal a potential alternative for peat-based

growing media, which could promote a circular production model inside the horticulture

sector. Using biochar as an acting bulking agent during the composting process

changes microbial activity and community composition, this enhances nitrogen

retention, immobilizes potentially hazardous metals and organic contaminants, and

reduces greenhouse gas emissions during the process. In addition, the factors

influencing any plant growth under spent coffee grounds, and biochar application was
synergic, which improved the plant growth from composted biochar blended substrate

may be attributable to better physical properties. Moreover, the tomatoes that were

grown with spent coffee grounds and biochar compost have accumulated larger

quantities of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium ingredients than the plants grown on

control peat substrates. Finally, using biochar and SCG’s as a growing medium has

been proposed as an alternative to peat for horticulture and results showed that co-

composting spent coffee grounds with biochar and green waste is a successful

approach for recycling nutrient-rich waste.

Simões et al. (2020), the purpose of this study was to evaluate the influence of

different doses of spent coffee grounds on soil microorganisms. After undergoing a lot of

procedures, as a result, coffee grounds can be used as a good alternative organic

fertilizer for agricultural purposes with increased organic matter, microbial biomass, and

qMIC being the most important factors in the development of corn crops. Spent coffee

grounds can have positive effects on the fixation of carbon in the soil, providing better

decomposition and mineralization of organic matter and a significant increase in the root

and plant aerial part. However, further studies are needed as it is only studied with corn

crops.

According to Cervera-Mata et al. (2022), due to its high quantity of organic matter

and nutritional components, spent coffee grounds, a type of biowaste that is frequently

produced worldwide, is desirable as a soil amendment. Despite this, numerous studies

have shown that applying untreated spent coffee grounds to soil has detrimental

agronomic and environmental effects because to its high rate of degradability and

hazardous chemical concentration. This study's objectives were to characterize various

how well they function as organic amendments. This is the first study to characterize

and compare the effects of eight different by-products derived from the same spent

coffee grounds on the soil's carbon and nitrogen cycles. The features of the numerous

spent coffee ground by-products and their influence on the carbon and nitrogen cycles

showed that they may be successfully applied to soil to fulfill various agronomical and

environmental activities. This review thus presents were to characterize the solid spent

coffee ground by-products produced by pyrolysis, hydrothermal carbonization,

vermicomposting, and defatting, and evaluate the effects of bio-residue properties on

carbon and nitrogen dynamics, added carbon conservation potential, microbial biomass

content, and nutrient availability in a soil incubation experiment. To sum it up, more

research is required to better understand the interaction between byproduct

characteristics and effects on soil functions.

Washington State University (2021), this study examines the science behind the

use of spent coffee grounds in gardens and landscapes. In this case, coffee grounds

are used in gardens and landscapes to repel cats, kill slugs, prevent weeds, aerate, and

acidify the soil, provide nitrogen, and attract earthworms. Furthermore, when coffee

grounds are composted, they provide a rich supply of nutrients but there is no published

evidence that they will repel or kill many garden pests. However, they can also

moderate soil temperature and help retain soil water, provides essential plant nutrients

such as nitrogen, iron, and zinc. In addition, it is assumed that coffee grounds are acidic

by gardeners, but the pH of decomposing coffee grounds is not stable so one should

not assume that it will always, or ever, be acidic.

million tons of spent coffee grounds. Spent coffee grounds are suggested as a carbon

and nutrient source for degraded soils to help decrease waste going to landfills. Spent

coffee grounds contains toxins like caffeine that prevent plant growth. Besides that, they

also deter slugs and snails. Spent coffee grounds have several reported advantages

when used as a soil amendment, especially in soils with low levels of carbon. For

instance, 10% spent coffee grounds can raise the levels of carbon, nitrogen,

phosphorus, and potassium in the soil. Additionally, 10% spent coffee grounds lowers

soil bulk density and increases soil porosity. In low carbon soils, spent coffee grounds

also reduce pesticide leachate. The use of spent coffee grounds as a soil amendment

has also been linked to a decrease in plant diseases, and Trichoderma species, which

are antagonistic to plant pathogens, can grow on it. Additionally, adding spent coffee

grounds to soil as an amendment lowers greenhouse gas emissions and waste sent to

landfills.

Direct use of spent coffee grounds in large agricultural areas can enhance soil

and control weeds while being ecologically safe. Spent coffee grounds are known to

influence plant development when applied to soil. According to Hirooka et al. (2021),

given the possible negative effects of spent coffee grounds application on crop growth,

the use of spent coffee grounds in agricultural cultivation has not been suggested so far.

Another negative effect of the application of spent coffee grounds is a decrease in soil

mineral nitrogen concentration. However, top dressing with spent coffee grounds, on the

other hand, can reduce the inhibitory effect on cultivated crops. Spent coffee grounds

are spread over the surface following crop germination to mimic living mulch and reduce
growth inhibition. According to the researchers, they examined that applying spent

coffee grounds to the entire soil surface after crop germination lessens the detrimental

impact of spent coffee grounds on crop output during wheat-soybean double cropping.

That is, however, just during the first planting season. Additionally, if enough spent

coffee grounds are utilized, this approach can significantly reduce grass growth while

also enriching the soil with carbon and nitrogen in the long run. As a result, it is

indicated that when spent coffee grounds are regularly applied as top dressing, there is

a chance of conflict between the enhancing and inhibiting effects of spent coffee

grounds.

Spent Coffee Grounds as a Fertilizer

According to De Bomfim et al. (2022), spent coffee grounds contain large

amounts of carbohydrates (polysaccharides), including cellulose and hemicellulose.

Glucose units found in cellulose may be used in the production of pulp and paper.

Moreover, because cellulose can be converted to glucose (sugar), spent coffee grounds

cellulose can be used to generate ethanol and butanol. There are hemicelluloses and

different types of sugars, chemical or biological. As a result, common examples of

sugars produced from hemicelluloses include mannose, arabinose, and galactose.

Spent coffee grounds can be used as a reliable source of nutrients in the food sector

due to their high protein content, and they may be important substrates in

biotechnological and fermentative processes. In a different analysis, spent coffee

ground proteins were found to have antihypertensive and antioxidant effects, which

suggests potential applications in the human diet for glycemic and hypertension control.
Minerals are also a part of the spent coffee grounds chemical composition. Hence,

using compost substrates based on spent coffee grounds can help to prevent the loss of

minerals from the soil. The wide range of nutrient rich compounds retrieved from spent

coffee grounds, depending on the content, have a variety of uses, mainly in agriculture

as fertilizers. As a result, it is necessary to characterize these compounds to find the

applications that are most appropriate.

Ragauskaitė and Šlinkšienė (2022) stated that agriculture's primary goal is to

provide people with essential products and commodities such as food and textiles.

Since excessive fertilizer usage harms the natural ecosystem, Synthetic fertilizers are

commonly used. According to the study, plants are unable to absorb all the nutrients

that are available to them. Moreover, chitosan, polysaccharides, and other agricultural

residues that are ecologically acceptable fertilizers are some of the substances that are

utilized to coat fertilizers to slow their breakdown rate and fulfill crop nutrient

requirement throughout the season. After examining the data, it is possible to conclude

that increasing the amount of spent coffee grounds in the combination had minimal

impact on the findings. The addition spent coffee grounds as a detrimental influence on

Secale cereal development, however it was determined throughout the experiment that

combinations with a larger amount of spent coffee grounds required less frequent

watering. Furthermore, organic bulk fertilizers were created by combining wasted coffee

grounds, green algae Chlorella sp., and urea. The fertilizer grades obtained were 3-1-

1+MN for the spent coffee grounds and green algae Chlorella mixture, and 13-1-0+MN

for the mixture with the urea addition. Evidently, the absorbance investigation of the

spent coffee grounds and algal biomass granules yielded better findings. Granules
began to mold after seven days in a water vapor atmosphere. In brief, this study had a

detrimental influence on granules’ hygroscopic since the urea component increased the

physical and chemical qualities of the complete product.

Azmin (2022) studied that anaerobic decomposition of domestic waste such as

seashells, tea, and coffee grounds for organic fertilizer is quite easy for anyone to do

due to its relative simplicity. Anaerobic decomposition has some pros and cons

compared to aerobic decomposition, mainly the time it takes for anaerobic

decomposition being longer and the fact that anaerobic decomposition produces less

byproducts that could lead to soil could lead to soil contamination. The anaerobic

attribute of releasing less byproducts also means that it produces less greenhouse

gasses which will be very good in the long term.

Tombarkiewicz et al. (2022) Mineral and organic waste are being produced at an

increasing pace, these wastes must be addressed in the environment as part of the

circular economy. Hence, spent coffee grounds are an example of organic waste for

environmental management. As well, the chicken eggshells and duck eggshells are

another waste with distinct physicochemical characteristics. They have been proposed

as potential soil improvers since these are the wastes that are excellent substitutes for

organic-mineral fertilizers that help to improve the physicochemical properties of the soil

and keep its fertility. Spent coffee grounds are a source of organic carbon and nitrogen

and are particularly high in carbohydrates and protein. Also, they contain bioactive

substances like caffeine that can have an impact on microbes and lessen the soil's

ability to release nitrogen. Furthermore, the calcium phosphates found in bird eggshells

are a good supply of phosphorus, which can be utilized to make mineral fertilizers and
implantation materials. Upon putting chicken eggshells and duck eggshells waste to

soil, they were also identified to have amino acids that may be used by plants as a

source of nitrogen. However, the study did find that chicken eggshells and duck

eggshell had lower levels of carbon and total nitrogen than spent coffee grounds which

are a rich source of carbon compounds and nitrogen. The carbon and nitrogen in spent

coffee grounds are found in various organic compounds, while the carbon in chicken

eggshells and duck eggshell is mostly found in minerals and amino acids, and they can

be absorbed by plants upon being released into the soil environment. According to the

study, the combination of spent coffee grounds and duck eggshells proved to be the

most effective in terms of fertilizer elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur.

On the other hand, the combination of spent coffee grounds and chicken eggshells were

higher in the contents of calcium, magnesium, and potassium. Therefore, spent coffee

grounds and eggshell combinations are both excellent sources of organic carbon,

however mixes using chicken eggshells are higher in potassium and lower in nitrogen

than mixtures using duck eggshells.

SCG and its Cons

Ciesielczuk et al. (2018) spent coffee grounds can also be processed into

fertilizer instead of going through the expensive and time-consuming process of

composting. In this way, organic debris that has not been contaminated can serve as a

useful supply of nutrients for organic farming, supporting the spread of sustainable

agriculture concepts. High-quality fertilizer is produced, and there is no risk of heavy

metals getting into the food chain. Another benefit is that because these fertilizers are
so easy to make, they may be processed internally with the assurance of receiving the

highest-quality product. The only reason it is necessary to establish the maximum dose

that won't harm the vegetation is because spent coffee grounds are phytotoxic. On the

other hand, data gathered after using pre-composed fresh spent coffee grounds confirm

better lettuce plants' element composition (compared with lower yield) after use of this

substrates in high doses.

Conclusion/Synthesis of Review:

It would be wise for individuals to learn more about the practice of using spent

coffee grounds to enhance plant development. Spent coffee grounds are a useful

substitute for traditional fertilizers since they provide nutrients that are good for the

environment and the soil. Even though it is a material that is helpful for plant

development, it should also be utilized carefully since excessive amounts of SCGs may

harm the environment rather than be an aid to it.