Environmental Geography, CC10,Sem 4

Water Pollution

Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies, usually as a result of human activities.
Water bodies include for example lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and groundwater. Water
pollution results when contaminants are introduced into the natural environment. For
example, releasing inadequately treated wastewater into natural water bodies can lead
to degradation of aquatic ecosystems. In turn, this can lead to public health problems for
people living downstream. They may use the same polluted river water for drinking or
bathing or irrigation. Water pollution is the leading worldwide cause of death and disease,
e.g. due to water-borne diseases.
Water pollution can be classified as surface water or groundwater pollution. Marine
pollution and nutrient pollution are subsets of water pollution. Sources of water pollution are
either point sources or non-point sources. Point sources have one identifiable cause of the
pollution, such as a storm drain or a wastewater treatment plant. Non-point sources are more
diffuse, such as agricultural runoff. Pollution is the result of the cumulative effect over time.
All plants and organisms living in or being exposed to polluted water bodies can be impacted.
The effects can damage individual species and impact the natural biological
communities they are part of.
The causes of water pollution include a wide range of chemicals and pathogens as well as
physical parameters. Contaminants may include organic and inorganic substances. Elevated
temperatures can also lead to polluted water. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use
of water as a coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers. Elevated water
temperatures decrease oxygen levels, which can kill fish and alter food chain composition,
reduce species biodiversity, and foster invasion by new thermophilic species.
Water pollution is measured by analysing water samples. Physical, chemical and biological
tests can be conducted. Control of water pollution requires appropriate infrastructure and
management plans. The infrastructure may include wastewater treatment plants. Sewage
treatment plants and industrial wastewater treatment plants are usually required to protect
water bodies from untreated wastewater. Agricultural wastewater treatment for farms,
and erosion control at construction sites can also help prevent water pollution. Nature-based
solutions are another approach to prevent water pollution. Effective control of urban runoff
includes reducing speed and quantity of flow. In the United States, best management
practices for water pollution include approaches to reduce the quantity of water and
improve water quality
Water is typically referred to as polluted when it is impaired by anthropogenic contaminants.
Due to these contaminants it either does not support a human use, such as drinking water, or
undergoes a marked shift in its ability to support its biotic communities, such as fish. Natural
phenomena such as volcanoes, algae blooms, storms, and earthquakes also cause major
changes in water quality and the ecological status of water.
Water pollution is a major global problem. It requires ongoing evaluation and revision
of water resource policy at all levels (international down to individual aquifers and wells). It
has been suggested that water pollution is the leading worldwide cause of death and
diseases.[2][1] Water pollution accounted for the deaths of 1.8 million people in 2015.[8]
The organization Global Oceanic Environmental Survey (GOES) consider water pollution as
one of the main environmental problems that can present a danger for the existence of life on
earth in the next decades. One of the main concerns, is that water pollution,
heart phytoplankton who produce 70% of oxygen and remove a large part of carbon
dioxide on earth. The organization proposes a number of measures for fixing the situation,
but they should be taken in the next 10 years for being effective.
India and China are two countries with high levels of water pollution. An estimated 580
people in India die of water pollution related illness (including waterborne diseases) every
day. About 90 percent of the water in the cities of China is polluted. As of 2007, half a billion
Chinese had no access to safe drinking water.
In addition to the acute problems of water pollution in developing countries, developed
countries also continue to struggle with pollution problems. For example, in a report on water
quality in the United States in 2009, 44 percent of assessed stream miles, 64 percent of
assessed lake acres, and 30 percent of assessed bays and estuarine square miles were
classified as polluted

Types
Surface water pollution includes pollution of rivers, lakes and oceans. A subset of surface
water pollution is marine pollution.
Marine pollution

One common path of entry by contaminants to the sea are rivers. An example is directly
discharging sewage and industrial waste into the ocean. Pollution such as this occurs
particularly in developing nations. In fact, the 10 largest emitters of oceanic plastic pollution
worldwide are, from the most to the least, China, Indonesia, Philippines, Vietnam, Sri Lanka,
Thailand, Egypt, Malaysia, Nigeria, and Bangladesh, largely through the rivers Yangtze,
Indus, Yellow, Hai, Nile, Ganges, Pearl, Amur, Niger, and the Mekong, and accounting for
"90 percent of all the plastic that reaches the world's oceans."
Large gyres (vortexes) in the oceans trap floating plastic debris. Plastic debris can absorb
toxic chemicals from ocean pollution, potentially poisoning any creature that eats it. Many of
these long-lasting pieces end up in the stomachs of marine birds and animals. This results in
obstruction of digestive pathways, which leads to reduced appetite or even starvation.
There are a variety of secondary effects stemming not from the original pollutant, but a
derivative condition. An example is silt-bearing surface runoff, which can inhibit the
penetration of sunlight through the water column, hampering photosynthesis in aquatic
plants.
Groundwater pollution
Interactions between groundwater and surface water are complex. Consequently,
groundwater pollution, also referred to as groundwater contamination, is not as easily
classified as surface water pollution. By its very nature, groundwater aquifers are susceptible
to contamination from sources that may not directly affect surface water bodies. The
distinction of point vs. non-point source may be irrelevant in some situations.
Analysis of groundwater contamination may focus on soil characteristics and site
geology, hydrogeology, hydrology, and the nature of the contaminants. Causes of
groundwater pollution include: naturally-occurring (geogenic), on-site
sanitation systems, sewage, fertilizers and pesticide, commercial and industrial
leaks, hydraulic fracturing, landfill leachate.
Categories of pollution sources
Surface water and groundwater have often been studied and managed as separate resources
even though they are interrelated. Surface water seeps through the soil and becomes
groundwater. Conversely, groundwater can also feed surface water sources. Sources of
surface water pollution are generally grouped into two categories based on their origin.
Point sources

Point source water pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway from a single,
identifiable source, such as a pipe or ditch. Examples of sources in this category include
discharges from a sewage treatment plant, a factory, or a city storm drain.
The U.S. Clean Water Act (CWA) defines point source for regulatory enforcement
purposes. The CWA definition of point source was amended in 1987 to include municipal
storm sewer systems, as well as industrial storm water, such as from construction sites.
Non-point sources
Nonpoint source pollution refers to diffuse contamination that does not originate from a
single discrete source. This type of pollution is often the cumulative effect of small amounts
of contaminants gathered from a large area. A common example is the leaching out
of nitrogen compounds from fertilized agricultural lands.[3] Nutrient runoff in storm
water from "sheet flow" over an agricultural field or a forest are also cited as examples of
non-point source pollution.

Contaminated storm water washed off of parking lots, roads and highways, called urban
runoff, is sometimes included under the category of non-point sources. This runoff becomes a
point source because it is typically channeled into storm drain systems and discharged
through pipes to local surface waters.

Contaminants and their sources

The specific contaminants leading to pollution in water include a wide spectrum
of chemicals, pathogens, and physical changes such as elevated temperature and
discoloration. While many of the chemicals and substances that are regulated may be
naturally occurring (calcium, sodium, iron, manganese, etc.) the concentration usually
determines what is a natural component of water and what is a contaminant. High
concentrations of naturally occurring substances can have negative impacts on aquatic flora
and fauna.
Oxygen-depleting substances may be natural materials such as plant matter (e.g. leaves and
grass) as well as man-made chemicals. Other natural and anthropogenic substances may
cause turbidity (cloudiness) which blocks light and disrupts plant growth, and clogs
the gills of some fish species.
Alteration of water's physical chemistry includes acidity (change in pH), electrical
conductivity, temperature, and eutrophication. Eutrophication is an increase in the
concentration of chemical nutrients in an ecosystem to an extent that increases the primary
productivity of the ecosystem. Depending on the degree of eutrophication, subsequent
negative environmental effects such as anoxia (oxygen depletion) and severe reductions in
water quality may occur, affecting fish and other animal populations.
Pathogens
Disease-causing microorganisms are referred to as pathogens. Pathogens can
produce waterborne diseases in either human or animal hosts. Coliform bacteria, which are
not an actual cause of disease, are commonly used as a bacterial indicator of water pollution.
Other microorganisms sometimes found in contaminated surface waters that have caused
human health problems include:

 Burkholderia pseudomallei
 Cryptosporidium parvum
 Giardia lamblia
 Salmonella
 Norovirus and other viruses
 Parasitic worms including the Schistosoma type
High levels of pathogens may result from on-site sanitation systems (septic tanks, pit latrines)
or inadequately treated sewage discharges. Older cities with ageing infrastructure may have
leaky sewage collection systems (pipes, pumps, valves), which can cause sanitary sewer
overflows. Some cities also have combined sewers, which may discharge untreated sewage
during rain storms. Silt (sediment) from sewage discharges also pollutes water bodies.

Pathogen discharges may also be caused by poorly managed livestock operations.

Organic, inorganic and macroscopic contaminants
Contaminants may include organic and inorganic substances. Many of the chemical
substances are toxic.

Organic water pollutants include:

 Detergents
 Disinfection by-products found in chemically disinfected drinking water, such
as chloroform
 Food processing waste, which can include oxygen-demanding substances, fats and grease
 Insecticides and herbicides, a huge range of organohalides and other chemical
compounds
 Petroleum hydrocarbons, including fuels (gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuels, and fuel oil) and
lubricants (motor oil), and fuel combustion byproducts, from storm water runoff[30]
 Volatile organic compounds, such as industrial solvents, from improper storage.
 Chlorinated solvents, which are dense non-aqueous phase liquids, may fall to the bottom
of reservoirs, since they don't mix well with water and are denser.
o Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs)
o Trichloroethylene
 Perchlorate
 Various chemical compounds found in personal hygiene and cosmetic products
 Drug pollution involving pharmaceutical drugs and their metabolites, this can
include antidepressant drugs or hormonal medicines such as contraceptive pills.
These molecules can be small and difficult for treatment plants to remove without
expensive upgrades.
Inorganic water pollutants include:

 Acidity caused by industrial discharges (especially sulfur dioxide from power plants)
 Ammonia from food processing waste
 Chemical waste as industrial by-products
 Fertilizers containing nutrients--nitrates and phosphates—which are found in storm water
runoff from agriculture, as well as commercial and residential use[30] (see nutrient
pollution)
 Heavy metals from motor vehicles (via urban storm water runoff)[30][32] and acid mine
drainage
 Secretion of creosote preservative into the aquatic ecosystem
 Silt (sediment) in runoff from construction sites, logging, slash and burn practices or land
clearing sites.
Macroscopic pollution – large visible items polluting the water – may be termed "floatables"
in an urban storm water context, or marine debris when found on the open seas, and can
include such items as:

 Trash or garbage (e.g. paper, plastic, or food waste) discarded by people on the ground,
along with accidental or intentional dumping of rubbish, that are washed by rainfall
into storm drains and eventually discharged into surface waters.
 Nurdles, small ubiquitous waterborne plastic pellets. See plastic
pollution and microplastic pollution.
 Shipwrecks, large derelict ships.
Change in temperature
Thermal pollution is the rise or fall in the temperature of a natural body of water caused by
human influence. Thermal pollution, unlike chemical pollution, results in a change in the
physical properties of water. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as
a coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers. Elevated water temperatures decrease
oxygen levels, which can kill fish and alter food chain composition, reduce
species biodiversity, and foster invasion by new thermophilic species. Urban runoff may also
elevate temperature in surface waters.
Thermal pollution can also be caused by the release of very cold water from the base of
reservoirs into warmer rivers.

Measurement

Water pollution may be analyzed through several broad categories of methods: physical,
chemical and biological. Most involve collection of samples, followed by specialized
analytical tests. Some methods may be conducted in situ, without sampling, such as
temperature. Government agencies and research organizations have published standardized,
validated analytical test methods to facilitate the comparability of results from disparate
testing events.
Sampling
Sampling of water for physical or chemical testing can be done by several methods,
depending on the accuracy needed and the characteristics of the contaminant. Many
contamination events are sharply restricted in time, most commonly in association with rain
events. For this reason "grab" samples are often inadequate for fully quantifying contaminant
levels. Scientists gathering this type of data often employ auto-sampler devices that pump
increments of water at either time or discharge intervals.
Sampling for biological testing involves collection of plants and animals from the surface
water body. Depending on the type of assessment, the organisms may be identified
for biosurveys (population counts) and returned to the water body, or they may be dissected
for bioassays to determine toxicity.
Physical testing
Common physical tests of water include temperature, solids concentrations (e.g., total
suspended solids (TSS)) and turbidity.
Chemical testing
Water samples may be examined using the principles of analytical chemistry. Many
published test methods are available for both organic and inorganic compounds. Frequently
used methods include pH, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD),[36]:102 chemical oxygen
demand (COD),[36]:104 nutrients (nitrate and phosphorus compounds), metals (including
copper, zinc, cadmium, lead and mercury), oil and grease, total petroleum hydrocarbons
(TPH), and pesticides.
Biological testing
Biological testing involves the use of plant, animal or microbial indicators to monitor the
health of an aquatic ecosystem. They are any biological species or group of species whose
function, population, or status can reveal what degree of ecosystem or environmental
integrity is present. One example of a group of bio-indicators are the copepods and other
small water crustaceans that are present in many water bodies. Such organisms can be
monitored for changes (biochemical, physiological, or behavioral) that may indicate a
problem within their ecosystem.

Control of pollution
Municipal wastewater treatment

In urban areas of developed countries, municipal wastewater (or sewage) is typically treated
by centralized sewage treatment plants. Well-designed and operated systems (i.e., with
secondary treatment steps or more advanced treatment) can remove 90 percent or more of the
pollutant load in sewage. Some plants have additional systems to remove nutrients and
pathogens, but these more advanced treatment steps get progressively more expensive.
Nature-based solutions are also being used instead of (or in combination with) centralized
treatment plants.
Cities with sanitary sewer overflows or combined sewer overflows employ one or
more engineering approaches to reduce discharges of untreated sewage, including:

 utilizing a green infrastructure approach to improve storm water management capacity

throughout the system, and reduce the hydraulic overloading of the treatment plant
 repair and replacement of leaking and malfunctioning equipment
 increasing overall hydraulic capacity of the sewage collection system (often a very
expensive option).
On-site sanitation and safely managed sanitation
Households or businesses not served by a municipal treatment plant may have an
individual septic tank, which pre-treats the wastewater on site and infiltrates it into the soil.
This can lead to groundwater pollution if not properly done.
Globally, about 4.5 billion people currently (in 2017) do not have safely managed sanitation,
according to an estimate by the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and
Sanitation.[40] Lack of access to sanitation often leads to water pollution, e.g. via the practice
of open defecation: during rain events or floods, the human feces are moved from the ground
where they were deposited into surface waters. Simple pit latrines may also get flooded
during rain events. The use of safely managed sanitation services would prevent this type of
water pollution.
Industrial wastewater treatment

Some industrial facilities generate wastewater that is similar to domestic sewage and can be
treated by sewage treatment plants. Industries that generate wastewater with high
concentrations of organic matter (e.g. oil and grease), toxic pollutants (e.g. heavy metals,
volatile organic compounds) or nutrients such as ammonia, need specialized treatment
systems. Some industries install a pre-treatment system to remove some pollutants (e.g., toxic
compounds), and then discharge the partially treated wastewater to the municipal sewer
system.[42][43]:Ch. 1 Industries generating large volumes of wastewater typically operate their
own treatment systems. Some industries have been successful at redesigning their
manufacturing processes to reduce or eliminate pollutants, through a process called pollution
prevention.
To remove heat from wastewater generated by power plants or manufacturing plants the
following technologies are used:

 cooling ponds, man-made bodies of water designed for cooling

by evaporation, convection, and radiation
 cooling towers, which transfer waste heat to the atmosphere through evaporation or heat
transfer
 cogeneration, a process where waste heat is recycled for domestic or industrial heating
purposes.

Agricultural wastewater treatment

Non point source controls
Sediment (loose soil) washed off fields is the largest source of agricultural pollution in the
United States. Farmers may utilize erosion controls to reduce runoff flows and retain soil on
their fields. Common techniques include contour plowing, crop mulching, crop rotation,
planting perennial crops and installing riparian buffers.
Nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) are typically applied to farmland as
commercial fertilizer, animal manure, or spraying of municipal or industrial wastewater
(effluent) or sludge. Nutrients may also enter runoff from crop
residues, irrigation water, wildlife, and atmospheric deposition. Farmers can develop and
implement nutrient management plans to reduce excess application of nutrients and reduce
the potential for nutrient pollution.
To minimize pesticide impacts, farmers may use Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
techniques (which can include biological pest control) to maintain control over pests, reduce
reliance on chemical pesticides, and protect water quality.

Point source wastewater treatment

Farms with large livestock and poultry operations, such as factory farms, are
called concentrated animal feeding operations or feedlots in the US and are being subject to
increasing government regulation. Animal slurries are usually treated by containment
in anaerobic lagoons before disposal by spray or trickle application to grassland. Constructed
wetlands are sometimes used to facilitate treatment of animal wastes. Some animal slurries
are treated by mixing with straw and composted at high temperature to produce a
bacteriologically sterile and friable manure for soil improvement.
Erosion and sediment control from construction sites

 erosion controls, such as mulching and hydroseeding, and

 sediment controls, such as sediment basins and silt fences.
Discharge of toxic chemicals such as motor fuels and concrete washout is prevented by use
of:

 spill prevention and control plans, and

 specially designed containers (e.g. for concrete washout) and structures such as overflow
controls and diversion berms.
Control of urban runoff (storm water)
Effective control of urban runoff involves reducing the velocity and flow of storm water, as
well as reducing pollutant discharges. Local governments use a variety of storm water
management techniques to reduce the effects of urban runoff. These techniques, called best
management practices for water pollution (BMPs) in the U.S., may focus on water quantity
control, while others focus on improving water quality, and some perform both functions.
Pollution prevention practices include low-impact development techniques, installation
of green roofs and improved chemical handling (e.g. management of motor fuels & oil,
fertilizers and pesticides). Runoff mitigation systems include infiltration
basins, bioretention systems, constructed wetlands, retention basins and similar devices.
Thermal pollution from runoff can be controlled by storm water management facilities that
absorb the runoff or direct it into groundwater, such as bioretention systems and infiltration
basins. Retention basins tend to be less effective at reducing temperature, as the water may be
heated by the sun before being discharged to a receiving stream.