CHEMISTRY

BIOLOGY Types of Anatomy

“Biology is defined as the study of living organisms, their
origins, anatomy, morphology, physiology, behaviour, and * Human Anatomy – involves the study of the physical
distribution.” structure of the human body. It focuses on numerous systems,
including circulatory, digestive, endocrine, skeletal, lymphatic,
Theoretical Biology nervous, respiratory, urinary, reproductive and muscular
a branch of biology that encompasses mathematical models to systems.
investigate certain principles that affect life.
*Plant Anatomy – Also called the phytotomy. It is the study
Quantum Biology of the internal structure of a plant including the tissues, root
deals with biological processes that are quantum mechanical system, stem, leaves, flower, fruit and seeds.
in nature – such as the conversion of energy into more usable
forms. Other branches of biology are as follows: *Animal Anatomy – Also called the zootomy. It deals with
the study of the internal structure of an animal including the
 Anatomy cells, tissues, organs, bones and other organs of the animal
is a branch of biological science which is concerned with the body.
description of body structures of various living organisms as
revealed by dissection. * Microscopic Anatomy (Histology)- Also known as
histology. Microscopic anatomy is the study of cells and
The word anatomy is derived from the Greek word tissues as discerned by a microscope. The individuals who
“anatomē”, where “ana” means “up” and “tome” means specialize in this study are called histologists. The process
“cutting.” Originally, anatomy was first learnt by cutting up involves marking and dividing cells and tissues into sections to
corpses, hence the name “anatomy.” be viewed under a microscope. The biological samples are
dissected into thin slices so that they could be clearly
examined. Stains are added to these dissected samples to
enhance visibility and highlight important structures.
Microscopic anatomy is useful to examine and compare
different types of organisms, their structures and different
stages of the cell cycle.
 Recombinant DNA technology - is a technique to alter the
* Gross Anatomy - Also known as macroscopic anatomy. genes of an organism. The desired gene is inserted into host
Gross anatomy is defined as the study of an organism’s using recombinant DNA technology. The host shows the
structures which are visible to the naked eye. The main desired trait phenotypically, which is governed by the inserted
objective of Gross anatomy is to obtain complete information gene.
about the structural organization of an organism.
Process
 Biotechnology 1. Restriction enzymes are known as molecular scissors that
is the use of technology for modifying or manipulating a cut the desired sequence of DNA.
biological system for the benefits of human beings. 2. This DNA is then ligated into the vector with the help of
Biotechnology utilises a living system for making different ligases before inserting it into the host organism.
products. 3. The DNA-vector combination is known as the
Recombinant DNA which is then transformed into the
Biotechnology is widely used in several fields such as host.
agriculture, medicine, genetics and the production of various 4. This recombinant DNA along with the foreign DNA gets
commercial products such as alcohol, wine, chemicals, etc. multiplied within the host.
People have been using biotechnology for ages for brewing 5. It is then provided with optimum conditions to induce
and baking purposes. the expression of the target protein. This protein is
known as the recombinant protein.
Principles of Biotechnology 6. Many genetically modified crops are produced using this
technology, e.g. Bt cotton, a pest-resistant variety of
*Genetic Engineering - The principle of genetic engineering is cotton.
to manipulate and modify the genetic material of an organism
to incorporate desirable traits. Recombinant DNA technology
is the main pillar of genetic engineering.

*Bioprocess Engineering - modern biotechnology is  Ecology

responsible for the advancement of the pharmaceutical is a branch of science, including human science, population,
industry. It helped in the production and storage of products community, ecosystem and biosphere. Ecology is the study of
like antibiotics, enzymes, vaccines, etc. on a large scale. organisms, the environment and how the organisms interact
with each other and their environment. It is studied at various
A large amount of culture can be obtained by carrying out the levels, such as organism, population, community, biosphere
multiplication of organisms in the bioreactors under sterile and ecosystem.
and optimum conditions. We get a higher yield of the required
product using bioprocess engineering. An ecologist’s primary goal is to improve their understanding
of life processes, adaptations and habitats, interactions and
Process biodiversity of organisms.
1. The host organism containing the rDNA is cultured in a
sterile bioreactor by providing suitable growth conditions. The  Genetics
products formed are either released in the growth medium or is the branch of biology that deals with the study of heredity
accumulated inside the cells and its biological process. It also involves the study of genes,
2. The obtained products are subjected to a series of genomes and the cell cycle.
processes before being marketed.
3. The products are purified by a process called downstream Genetics is termed as the study to understand the functioning
processing and formulated by various processes. of inheritance of traits from parents to offspring. The
4. The product undergoes a strict quality check before it is groundwork on which heredity stands is known as inheritance.
subjected to further trials. It is defined as the procedure by which characteristics are
handed down from one generation to the other.
 Botany
is the branch of Biology that deals with the study of plants. Gregor Johann Mendel is known as the “Father of Modern
Genetics” for his discoveries on the basic principles
The term ‘botany’ is derived from an adjective ‘botanic’ that is of heredity.
again derived from the Greek word ‘botane’. One who studies
‘botany’ is known as a ‘botanist’. Principles of Inheritance

Botany is one of the world’s oldest natural sciences. Initially, *Law of Dominance – Distinct elements termed as factors
Botany included all the plant-like organisms such as algae, control the characteristics. These factors at all times exist as a
lichens, ferns, fungi, mosses along with actual plants. Later on, couple. One of the constituent genes of the couple dominates
it was observed that bacteria, algae and fungi belong to a over the former.
different kingdom.
*Law of Segregation – Alleles don’t blend and the two *Sex Determination
characteristics are recuperated all through the gamete A particular nuclear arrangement was perceived by Henking.
formation (in the F2 generation). The characters are apart He perceived that this particular nuclear arrangement was
from each other and pass on to diverse gametes. Comparable found in only fifty per cent of sperms. He termed this body as
types of gametes are produced by Homozygous and x. Later, it was observed that the ova which only obtained the
Heterozygous produces diverse sorts of a gamete with varied X chromosome matured and were born as females and those
characteristics. that didn’t receive only X chromosomes were born as males.
Thus, the X- chromosome was termed a sex chromosome and
*Incomplete Dominance - It is the discovery that was done the remaining ones were termed autosomes.
after Mendel’s work. Incomplete dominance is the situation in The occurrence due to which a modification in DNA happens
which both the alleles do not display a dominant trait resulting and causes a variation in the phenotype and genotype of a
in a fine combination or a midway amid the characteristics of creature is termed a Mutation.
the alleles.
Genetic Disorders
*Codominance - When two alleles lack the dominant-
recessive association and thus the duo affects the creature Disorders of a Mendelian nature include:
together. *Haemophilia.
*Sickle Cell Anaemia.
*Law of Independent Assortment - The separation of one set *Phenylketonuria.
of characteristics is autonomous of the other set of characters
when they are pooled in a hybrid. Disorders of a chromosomal nature include:
*Down’s syndrome.
*The Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance - Both genes *Klinefelter’s Syndrome.
and chromosomes exist in sets of two. The homologous *Turners Syndrome.
chromosome contains the two alleles of a gene pair in the
homologous sites. The coupling and split of a set of
chromosomes will cause a split in the set of genes (factor) they
carry. This united knowledge is termed the Chromosomal
Theory of Inheritance.

 Physiology 3. Eicosanoids — derivatives of arachidonic acid, 20-carbon

is the study of the characteristics and mechanisms of the polyunsaturated fatty acid.
human body.
Nervous system
Cells are the basic unit of life and approximately 100 trillion is a complex network of nerves and cells that perform three
cells make up the typical human, each specially adapted to overlying functions of sensory input, integration, and motor
perform one or a few particular functions. Nearly 25 trillion output. This process is generally the same even at a very
red blood cells function by transporting oxygen from the lungs primitive level of the nervous system.
to all tissues in the body. All cells have some basic
commonalities. 1. The sensory input is sensing the environment and changes
in an organism and is carried out by sensory organs like eyes,
Oxygen reacts with carbohydrates, fat, and protein to release ears, nose, tongue, and skin, some of them performing
energy, nutrient consumption, and energy production simultaneously.
mechanisms. Almost all cells have the ability to reproduce 2. The integration involves the processing of information and
further similar cells. is carried out by the central nervous system (CNS), which is
composed of the brain and the spinal cord.
Human Physiology 3. Moto-neuron output is the conduction of signals from the
integration centre, the central nervous system, and is carried
The endocrine system - is an integration system influencing out by a group of effector cells, the muscle cells or gland cells,
the metabolic activities of cells. It functions which actually carry out body’s responses to external stimuli.
through hormones – chemical messengers synthesized by Both sensory input and motor output signals are carried
endocrine glands namely – hypothalamus, pineal, pituitary, through nerves, which are long rope-like structures made from
parathyroid, thyroid, gonads, and adrenals. nerve cells. Nerve cells are of two types – neurons and glia.

Hormones – They are the chemical substances produced by Neurons are the functional unit of the nervous system. A
the endocrine glands that control the metabolic functions of neuron consists of three major parts – a cell body that
other cells. contains the nucleus, dendrites, which receive signals, and a
1. Steroid based hormones – cholesterol derivatives. long axon that carries the signal to the next cell. Length of
2. Amino acid-based hormones: single modified amino neurons varies depending on their location.
acids, amino acid derivatives, proteins, peptides,
glycoproteins.
Neurons located in the central nervous system could be a few
millimetres long, but some of the neurons in the peripheral
nervous system could be more than a meter long. In a normal
human body, there are about two billion neurons,
approximately 1 billion in the brain, and another billion in the
rest of the body. Glial cells are supporting cells that provide
structural and functional support to the neurons and help
them carry out their functions.

End of a neuron is known as synaptic terminal, which

generally connects with either another neuron to continue the
process of communication or to a muscle to trigger muscle
action. Glial cells outnumber neurons by 10 to 50-folds.

The nervous system is organized into two parts – the central

nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.

Central nervous system is made of the brain and the spinal

cord. The brain is divided into three parts – Forebrain,
Midbrain, and Hindbrain.

Forebrain develops into two parts – the telencephalon which

consists of the cerebrum or the cerebral hemispheres and
includes cerebral cortex, white matter, and basal nuclei; and
diencephalon which consists of thalamus, hypothalamus, and
epithalamus.

Midbrain develops through mesencephalon into a part of the

brainstem.

Hindbrain develops through two parts, the metencephalon, When this happens, the body depends on the immune system
and myelencephalon. The metencephalon eventually develops for a response. This system functions in several ways:
into pons (part of the brainstem) and cerebellum. The
myelencephalon derives into medulla oblongata, which is also 1. The thymus gland, tissues of the bone marrow, the
part of the brain stem. spleen and the lymph nodes synthesize white blood cells
(WBC’s) that are specialized cells, functions by destroying
Spinal cord foreign organisms.
The spinal cord which is about 45 cm in length, starts from the 2. The white blood cells synthesize -A nonspecific response
brain stems and stretches to the lowest end of the backbone. to injury or infection and proteins known as antibodies
It comprises a nerve bundle and is protected by a series of that are part of a particular immune response to foreign
vertebrae which are divided into five regions – cervical, particles.
thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal.
White Blood Cell
The spinal cord itself spans only about two-thirds of the Immune system has specialized cells called white blood cells
vertebral column, but the rest of the space is filled with nerve that recognize foreign materials in the body and respond. The
fibers of spinal roots. Both the spinal cord and the brain number of white blood cells in the blood can increase during
contain fluid-filled spaces or cavities called cerebrospinal fluid an immune response. These cells travel through the
(CSF) which contains nutrients, hormones, and the white circulatory system and the lymphatic system to an injured or
blood cells. Additionally, the cerebrospinal fluid acts as the infected area of the body. White blood cells leave the blood
shock absorber cushioning the brain and provides a direct link vessels and travel into the damaged tissue, where the immune
across the blood-brain barrier for exchanging nutrients and response takes place.
other essential biomolecules.
Lymphatic System
The Immune System The lymphatic system is the network of tissues and organs
A human body has an inbuilt immune system comprising of which has multiple interrelated functions. The primary
different parts which work together by defending against the function of the lymphatic system is to transport lymph and
disease-causing microorganism. Hence it is referred to as the pathogen-fighting white blood cells throughout the body,
body’s best defensive system. This system functions against which is significant to the circulatory system.
infringing microorganisms and keeps us healthy. Sometimes
foreign materials, manage to invade successfully.
 Microbiology Carbon cycle
is the study of a variety of living organisms which are invisible shows the movement of carbon in elemental and combined
to the naked eye like bacteria and fungi and many other states on earth. Diamond and graphite are the elemental
microscopic organisms. forms of carbon and in a combined state, it is found as
carbonates in minerals and as carbon dioxide gas in the
Although tiny in size these organisms form the basis for all life atmosphere.
on earth. These microbes are also known to produce the soil in
which plants grow and fix the atmospheric gases that both Carbon cycle is the process where carbon compounds are
plants and animals use. About 3 billion years ago at the time of interchanged among the biosphere, geosphere, pedosphere,
the formation of the earth, microbes were the only lives on hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the earth.
earth.
Respiration
Microorganisms have played a key role in the evolution of the is one of an essential process carried out by all living organism
planet earth. The history and scope of microbiology is a to survive.
diverse topic which will be discussed later in detail.
Biodiversity
 Zoology is the variation among living organisms from different sources
is the branch of biology concerned with the study animals and including terrestrial, marine and desert ecosystems, and the
animal kingdom. It is also known as animal biology. The study ecological complexes of which they are a part.
of zoology includes the interaction of animal kingdom in their
ecosystems such as classification, Photosynthesis
habits, structure, embryology, distribution, evolution, and is the single most important chemical process on the earth.
extinct species.

Zoology is the division of biology that deals with the animal

kingdom. It is the scientific study related to the entire species
of the animal kingdom.