Chapter 3: QUADRATIC HYPERSURFACES

This chapter introduce to quadratic hypersurfaces, intersetion

of a quadratic hypersurface and a m-plane,canonical form of
equation, projective classification of quadric hypersurfaces,
apply for classification of quadratic curves in 2 , quadratic
surfaces in 3 and their names, pole and dual of pole, tangent
hyperplanes, dual of quadratic hypersurfaces and Theorem of
Mac-Laurin.

3.1. Quadratic hypersurfaces in n

Let n = P( n1 ) be a projective space of dimension n and R = {Ai ; E}
be a given projective frame in n .
3.1.1. Definition:
a. A projective quadratic hypersurface (or shortly quadric) in n is the set
(S) consists of points X whose representative vectors x in n1 satisfy
H(x) = 0, where H is a quadratic form on n1 . By definition, the set (S) is
a quadric in n if and only if for any point X in (S), its coordinates
(x1, x2,.., xn+1) for projective frame R satisfies the following equation
n 1

a xx
i , j 1
ij i j  0, (3.1.1)

where coefficents aij are not simultaneously equal to zero and aij = aji for
all i ≠ j.
The number n - 1 = dim n
- 1 is called the dimension of quadric (S).
b. Denote A = (aij)n+1, [x] the coordinates columm matrix of X in (S) and
t
[x] the transpose matrix of [x]. Then the equation (3.1.1) has the
t
following matrix form [x]A[x] = 0. (3.1.2)
The matrix A is called a matrix of (S).

1
c. The quadric (S) is said to be regular (or nonsingular) iff the matrix A is
nondegenerate. In the case of A is degenerate, we say that (S) is singular.
d. A quadric in a projective line 1 is either empty or pair of points. A
quadric in a projective plane 2 , a one-dimensional quadric, is called a
quadratic curve and a quadric in 3 is called a quadratic surface.
3.1.2. Properties:
a. Based on definition of the quadratic form H, we see that H(λx) =
λ2H(x) for any scalar λ so that the set of points X = < x > in (S) such that
H(x) = 0 is well-defined. This follows that the definition of quadrics does
not depend on the choice of projective frames in the projective space n .
b. Under projective transformations of n , a quadric is mapped to a
quadric. In other words, the concept “quadric” is a projective concept.
Moreover, concepts “nonsingular” and “singular” of a quadric are also
projective concepts.

3.1.3. Theorem:

For any quadric (S) in n , there exists a projective frame of n

such
that the equation of (S) for this frame has the following form:

x12  x22  ....  xk2  xk21  ....xr2  0 , (3.1.3)

r
where r ≤ n + 1 and ≤ k ≤ r.
2

The equation (3.1.3) is said to be a normal equation of (S).

Proof. Suppose that (S) is a quadric in n defined by a quadratic

form H on n1 . Then, it follows from the Lagrange's Theorem that there
exists a basis in Vn+1 such that H has a normal coordinates expression

2
 H(x1, x2 ,…, xn+1) = x12  x22  ....  xk2  xk21  ....xr2 , (3.1.4)

r
where r ≤ n + 1 and ≤ k ≤ r. Here, the numbers r and k are invariants
2
of the quadratic form H.

We know that a projective frame in n defined by a basis in n1 , it

follows that there exists a projective frame in n such that the equation of
(S) has the normal form (3.1.3).

3.1.4. Remark:

Since the pair (k, r) are invariants of the quadratic form H, we see that for
every quadric in n , there is only a normal equation which is completely
determined by the pair (k, r).

3.2. Projective classification of quadrics:

3.2.1. Definition: Let (S) and (S') be two quadrics in n . Then we say that
(S) and (S') are belong a same class iff they have the same normal
equation, that is the pairs (k, r) in their normal equations are equal to each
other.

3.2.2. Theorem: The quadrics (S) and (S') in n are projective equivalent
if and only if they are belong to the same class.

Proof.
Suppose that quadrics (S) and (S') are projective equivalent, that is,
there exists a projective transformation f of n such that f(S) = (S'). We
consider a projective frame R = {Ai ; E} in n such that the equation
of (S) has normal form. Denote by R' = {A'i ; E'} the corresponding
projective frame of R = {Ai ; E} under the projective transformation f.
It follows that the equation of (S') for R' = {A'i ; E'} is the same as the

3
equation of (S) for R = {Ai ; E}. In other words, they are belong to the
same class.

Conversely, suppose that the quadrics (S) and (S') are belong to the
same class. Then there exists projective frames R = {Ai ; E} and
R' = {A'i ; E'} in n such that the equation of (S') for R' = {A'i ; E'} and the
equation of (S) for R = {Ai ; E} are the same. Denote f: n → n the
projective transformation defined by R and R' which maps the frame R to
the frame R'. Then we can prove that f(S) = S'. It follows that the quadrics
(S) and (S') are projective equivalent.

3.2.3. Remark: Based on the normal equations of quadrics in n and the

above theorem, we can classify the set consists of all quadrics in n by the
pair (k, r).
There are classes of quadrics in n
as follows:
a. (k, r) = (n +1, n+1): x12  x22  ....  xn21  0 (the null oval hypersurface).

b. (k, r) = (n, n+1): x12  x22  ....  xn2  xn21  0 (the oval hypersurface).

c. (k, r) = (k, n+1), where k ≤ n - 1: x12  x22  ....  xk2  xk21  ....xn21  0 (the ruled
hypersurface).
n 1
All of the above quadrics are nonsingular. Since ≤ k ≤ n +1, it
2
follows that for n < 3, there are not ruled hypersurfaces.
r
d. (k, r), where r < n – 1, ≤k≤r:
2

x12  x22  ....  xk2  xk21  ....xr2  0 (the conical hypersurface).

This is quadratic hypersurfaces which are singular.

4
3.2.4. Corollary:
a. There are three classes of quadrics in 1
as follows:
● x12  x22  0 : two adjoint imaginary points.

● x12  x22  0 : two real points.

● x12  0: two coincident real points.
b. There are five classes of quadrics in 2
as follows:
● x12  x22  x32  0 : the null oval (or null conic).
● x12  x22  x32  0 : the oval (or conic).
● x12  x22  0: the pair of adjoint imaginary lines.
● x12  x22  0: the pair of distinct real lines.
● x12  0: the pair of coincident real lines.
c. There are eight classes of quadrics in 3
as follows:
● x12  x22  x32  x42  0 : the null oval surface.
● x12  x22  x32  x42  0 : the oval surface.
● x12  x22  x32  x42  0 : the quadratic ruled surface.
● x12  x22  x32  0: the imaginary conical surface.

● x12  x22  x32  0: the quadratic conical surface.

● x12  x22  0: the pair of adjoint imaginary planes.
● x12  x22  0: the pair of distinct real planes.
● x12  0: the pair of coincident real planes.

5
3.2.5. Intersection of a quadric and a plane of dimension m

In n consider a quadric (S) and a m-plane . Choose a projective frame R

= {Ai ; E} such that vertices A1, A2,..., Am+1 lie on . Then, the plane
has the following equation:
xk = 0, k = m +1, m +2,..., n. (3.1.5)
Suppose that the quadric (S) has the equation
n 1
t
[x]A[x] =  aij xi x j  0. (3.1.6)
i , j 1

Then, the intersection of (S) and consists of points X(x1; x2:...: xn+1)
such that coordinates (x1, x2,..., xn+1) satisfy the system of equations
(3.1.5) and (3.1.6).
If for all i, j = 1, 2,..., m +1 we have aij = 0, then every point in will be
in (S). In other words, we have  (S).
If there exists aij ≠ 0 then (S) ∩ is a quadric in the projective space .
Suppose that is a line defined by two distinct points U(u1, ..., un+1) and
V(v1, ..., vn+1) and has the equation:
xi = λui + μvi, i = 1, 2,..., n + 1. (3.1.7)
Then, the intersection of (S) and consists of points X(x1: x2:...: xn+1)
such that coordinates
(x1, x2,..., xn+1) satisfy the system of equations (3.1.6) and (3.1.7).
Based on this, we get the equation:

Pλ2 + 2Qλμ + Rμ2 = 0, (3.1.8)

where P = t[u]A[u] ; Q = t[u]A[v] ; P = t[v]A[v].

Solving the equation (3.1.8), we find the intersection of (S) and .

6
3.3. Quadrics in the model n
= n
\ n1

In n with a given projective frame R, consider a quadric (S) that has

the following equation:
n 1

a xx
i , j 1
ij i j  0.

Let n1 : xn+1 = 0 be a hyperplane in n and n = n \ n1 be the

corresponding affine model. We denote (S0) the subset consists of points
in the intersection of (S) and n , that is, consists of points X(x1:...: xn) in
(S) such that their coordinates satisfy the equation of (S) and xn+1 ≠ 0.
xi
Denote Xi = for all i = 1,…, n and a = an+1,n+1. Then it follows from
xn 1
the equation of (S) that we can obtain an equation of following form:
n n

a
i , j 1
ij Xi X j  a X
i , j 1
i i  a  0.

Since non-homogeneous coordinates (X1,…, Xn) are affine

coordinates in n , we see that the above equation is the general equation
of an quadratic hypersurface in n . In other words, every quadratic
hypersurface (S0) in n = n \ n1 induced from a quadratic hypersurface
(S) in n by removing points in n1 . Moreover, the asymptotic direction of
the quadric (S0) in n is just the intersection of the quadric (S) in n with
n1
, the hyperplane at infinity.
Now, we apply for the case of n = 2, that is, conics in 2
= 2
\,
where  is a projective line in 2 .
In 2 , given (S) is a conic and a line  . Then, we have the
following results:

7
 Case 1: If (S) does not intersect the line  then we obtain an ellipse
(E) in affine space 2 = 2 \  .

Indeed, in 2
, with a projective frame R , suppose that the conic (S )
has equation:
x12  x22  x32  0

and the line  has equation x3  0 . Since X   , it follows that if

X  ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  (S )  2 then x3  0 . We have

2 2
x  x 
x  x  x  0   1    2   1  0  X 12  X 22  1.
2
1
2
2
2
3
 x3   x3 

The equation X12  X 22  1 define a ellipse in affine space 2

.

Case 2: If (S) intersects the line  at an unique point then we obtain

a Parabola (P) in the affine space 2 = 2 \  . Indeed, in 2 with a
projective frame R, suppose that the conic ( S ) has equation:

x12  x22  x32  0 .

8
 Changing of coordinates:

 x1  x1'


 x2   x1  x3  .
1 ' '

 2

 x2  2  x1  x3 
1 ' '

Then we obtain the equation of the conic (S) x12  x22  x32  0 in the new
frame as follows (S):. x1'2  x2' x3'  0 .
Choose the line  : x3'  0 as the line at infinity, then the conic (S)
tangent to the line  : x3'  0 at the point I(0: 1: 0).

If X  ( x1' , x2' , x3' )  S  2

( X  I ) then x3'  0 . We have
2
 x'  x'
x  x x  0   1'   2'  0  X 12  X 2  0,
'2
1
' '
2 3
 x3  x3

x1' x2'
where X1  ' , X 2  ' .
x3 x3

The equation X12  X 2  0 defines a parabola in the affine space 2

.

Case 3: If (S) intersects the line  at two distinct points then we

obtain a hyperbola (H) in affine space 2 = 2 \  .

9
 Similarly, suppose that the conic S has equation (for the projective
frame R): x12  x22  x32  0.

 x1  x3'

Changing of coordinates  x2  x2 .
'


 x3  x1
'

Then we obtain the equation of the conic (S) x12  x22  x32  0 in the new
frame as follows (S): x3'2  x2'2  x1'2  0 .
Choose the line  : x3'  0 as the line at infinity, then the conic (S)
intersects the line  : x3'  0 at two points I(1:1: 0), J(1: -1: 0).

If X ( x1' : x2' : x3' )  S  A2 ( X  I , J ) then x3'  0 .

We have
2 2
 x1'   x2' 
x  x  x  0  x  x  x   '   '  1
'2
3
'2
2
'2
1
'2
1
'2
2
'2
3
 x3   x3 
x1' x2'
 X 1  X 2  1, where X 1  ' , X 2  ' .
2 2

x3 x3

The equation X12  X 22  1 defines a Hyperbola in affine space 2

.

10
3.4. Pole and dual of pole
3.4.1. Definition: In n with a given projective frame, let (S ) be a
quadric that has equation
n 1
t
[ x] A[ x]   aij xi x j  0 (3.4.1)
i , j 1

and a point U(u1: u2:…: un+1). Consider the equation

n 1
t
[u ] A[ x]  a u x
i , j 1
ij i j  0. (3.4.2)
n 1
If for j = 1, 2,…, n+1, coefficients [u] A   aij ui are not simultaneously
t

i 1

equal to zero, the equation (3.5.2) is the equation of a hyperplane

which is called the polar hyperplane of U versus ( S ) . The point U is
called then the pole or polar point of versus ( S ) .
n 1
If coefficients t
[u] A   aij ui are zero for all j = 1, 2,…, n+1, we say that
i 1

the point U is a special point (or singular point) of ( S ) . It follows that

there does not exist polar hyperplanes for special points versus the
quadric ( S ) .
3.4.2. Remark:
a. If U(u1:…: un+1) is a special point versus (S ) then (S ) is singular and
the point U in ( S ) .
b. If ( S ) is nonsingular then every point in n
always has a unique polar
hyperplane versus ( S ) .
3.4.3. Theorem: Let ( S ) be a nonsingular quadric in n . Then for every
hyperplane in n there is a unique polar point versus ( S ) .
Proof: Firstly, suppose that ( S ) has the equation of form (3.5.1) where
det [aij](n+1) is not zero and has the following equation

11
 n 1

c x
i 1
j j  0.

If U(u1: u2:…: un+1) is a polar point of versus (S ) then the

n 1
equation of is a ux
i , j 1
ij i j  0.

It follows that
n 1

a u
i , j 1
ij i  c j ; j  1, 2,..., n  1.

Since det [aij](n+1) is not zero, the above equation has a unique solution
(u1, u2,…, un+1).

3.4.4. Definition: In n
with a given projective frame, let (S ) be a
n 1
quadric that has equation [ x] A[ x]   aij xi x j  0
t

i , j 1

and take points U(u1: u2:…: un+1), V(v1: v2:…: vn+1).

We say that U and V are adjoint each other versus (S) iff
n 1
t
[u ] A[v]   aij ui v j  0.
i , j 1

By definition, we see that a point U is in ( S ) if and only if U is

adjoint by itself versus ( S ) . Moreover, for each point U that is not in ( S ) ,
the polar hyperplane of U versus ( S ) is just the set of all points V such
that U and V are adjoint each other versus ( S ) .
3.4.5. Theorem: Let ( S ) be a quadric in n . Then, the point U lies on the
polar hyperplane of V versus ( S ) if and only if the point V lies on the
polar hyperplane of U versus ( S ) .
Proof. Suppose that for a given projective frame in n , (S) has equation
n 1
t
[ x] A[ x]   aij xi x j  0
i , j 1

and take points U(u1: u2:…: un), V(v1: v2:…: vn).

12
Then, the polar hyperplane of U versus (S) has the following equation
n 1
t
[u] A[ x]  a u x
i , j 1
ij i j  0.

It follows that the point V lies on the polar hyperplane of U versus (S) if
and only if
n 1
t
[u ] A[v]   aij ui v j  0.
i , j 1

Since the matrix A = [aij](n+1) is a symmetric matrix, this condition is

n 1
equivalent with t
[v] A[u ]   aij vi u j  0, which says that the point U lies
i , j 1

on the polar hyperplane of V versus (S).

Example: In the projective plane 2

, consider a conic (S) defined by the
equation:
x12 + 3x22 - x32 + 2x1x2 - 6 x2x3 + 2x1x3 = 0
and the line d: 2x1 - 9x2 - x3 = 0.
a. Determine the polar point of the line d versus (S).
b. Find a point B on d such that B is adjoint to A(-1: 1: 2) versus (S).
Solving:
a. Determine the polar point of the line d versus (S): U(0: -1: 5).
b. Find a point B on d such that B is adjoint to A(-1: 1: 2) versus (S):
- The polar line of A: dA = [1: -2: -3] and d = [3: -9: -1].
- Since B = d  dA, we obtain that B(5: 1: 1).

13
3. 5. Tangent hyperplanes
3.5.1. Definition: Let ( S ) be a quadric and U be a point in n
.

a. If the point U lies on ( S ) which is not a singular point of ( S ) , then the

polar hyperplane of U versus (S) is said to be the tangent hyperplane
of ( S ) at U. In this case, the point U is in and called the tangent point.
b. Every r-plane (1  r  n-1) passing through U and containing in the
tangent hyperplane of ( S ) at U is said to be the tangent r-plane of ( S )
at U. In the case r = 1, we often call the tangent 1-plane of ( S ) at U by
tangent line of ( S ) at U, for shortly.
3.5.2. Definition: Let n be a projective space of dimension n and R be a
given projective frame of n .
a. A co-quadric in n is the set ( S * ) consists of prọective hyperplanes
= [u1: u2:..: un+1] whose their coordinates [u1, u2,.., un+1] for projective
frame R satisfy the following equation
n 1

a uu
i , j 1
ij i j  0, (3.5.1)

where coefficents aij are not simultaneously equal to zero and aij = aji for
all i ≠ j.
b. Denote A = [aij](n+1), [u] the coordinates columm matrix of in ( S * )
and t[u] the transpose matrix of [u]. Then the equation (3.5.1) has the
following matrix form
t
[u]A[u] = 0. (3.5.2)
The matrix A is called a matrix of ( S * ) for the given projective frame R.
c. The co-quadric ( S * ) is said to be regular (or nonsingular) iff the matrix
A is nondegenerate. In the case of A is degenerate, we say that ( S * ) is
singular.

14
3.5.3. Remark:
a. The "co-quadrics" in n
is dual concept of the "quadrics" in n
.

Proof:
Let R = {Ai;; E} be a given projective frame in n . Denote ( n )* the set of
all projective hyperplanes in n and consider the dual map π : n  ( n )*
defined by
π (X) = [x1: x2: ...: xn+1],
for every X(x1: x2: ...: xn+1) in n . Suppose that for a given projective
frame in n , the quadric ( S ) has equation
n 1
t
[ x] A[ x]   aij xi x j  0. (3.5.3)
i , j 1

Then, a point X (x1: x2: ...: xn+1) is in ( S ) if and only if its coordinates
satisfies the equation (3.5.3). Based on the dual map π, the point X is
mapped to a hyperplane π(X) which has the same coordinates as the
coordinates of X.
In other words, the coordinates [x1: x2: ...: xn+1] of the hyperplane π (X)
has also satisfied the equation (3.5.3).
Thus, based on the dual map π, the set ( S ) is mapped to a set ( S * ) consists
of all hyperplanes in n whose their coordinates [u1: u2:...: un+1] for
projective frame R satisfy the following equation
n 1
t
[u ] A[u ]   aij ui u j  0. (3.5.4)
i , j 1

Hence, the quadric ( S ) is mapped to a co-quadric ( S * ) and it follows that

( S * ) is the dual version of the quadric ( S ) under the dual map π.
b. Based on the previous remark, we see that the "nonsingular co-
quadrics" is dual concept of the "nonsingular quadrics". Moreover, we
can define concepts for the co-quadrics that are corresponding dual
versions of concepts defined for the quadrics.

15
3.5.4. Theorem: (Theorem of Maclaurin) Let ( S ) be a nonsingular
quadric in n . Then, the set of all tangent hyperplanes of ( S ) is a
nonsingular co-quadric ( S * ) in n . Conversely, every nonsingular co-
quadric ( S * ) consists of tangent hyperplanes of a nonsingular quadric ( S )
in n .
Proof: Suppose that for a given projective frame R in n , ( S ) has
equation
n 1
t
[ x] A[ x]   aij xi x j  0.
i , j 1

Since ( S ) is nonsingular, it follows that det A  0. Let be a tangent

hyperplane of ( S ) at a point U (u1: u2:...: un+1). Then, we see that the
tangent hyperplane of ( S ) at U has the following equation
n 1
t
[u ] A[ x]  a u x
i , j 1
ij i j  0.

Based on the equation of the tangent hyperplane , we understand that

the coordinates column of is A[u] .
Since U is in (S ) , we get t [u] A[u]  0. It follows that ( t [u] A) A1 ( A[u])  0.
In other words, t (A[u]) A1 ( A[u])  0. It shows that the set of all tangent
hyperplanes of ( S ) is a nonsingular co-quadric ( S * ) in n whose its
matrix is A1 .
Conversely, consider a nonsingular co-quadric ( S * ) in n which has the
following equation t [u]B[u]  0, where det B  0. Denote A  B1 and choose a
n 1
quadric (S ) in n
which has the equation [ x] A[ x]   aij xi x j  0.
t

i , j 1

Then, by a similar argument, we can show that every hyperplane of

( S * ) is just a tangent hyperplane of ( S ) .

16
Example: In the projective plane 2
, consider a conic (S) defined by the
following equation:
x12 - 3x22 + 5x32 - 2x1x2 + 4x1x3 - 2x2x3 = 0
and a point U = [-7: 1: 4].
a. Find the polar line of the point U versus (S).
b. Determine the tangent lines for (S) that passing through the point U.
Solving:

a. Finding the equation of polar line dU: x3 = 0.

b. Determine the tangent lines for (S) passing through U (-7: 1: 4):
+ Finding the intersection of dU and (S): P(1; - 1: 0), Q(3: 1: 0).
+ Determining the equations of tangent lines:
UP: 2x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = 0 and UQ: 2x1 - 6x2 + 5x3 = 0.

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Exercises:

Problem 1: In 2
, find normal equations of following quadratic curves:
a. 4 x12 + x22 + 5 x32 + 4x1x2 - 12x1x3 - 6x2x3 = 0.

b. 2 x12 + x22 - 2 x32 - 6x1x2 + 4x2x3 = 0.

c. x12 - 3 x22 + 5 x32 - 2x1x2 + 4x1x3 - 2x2x3 = 0.

d. x12 + 4 x22 + x32 - 4x1x2 + 2x1x3 - 4x2x3 = 0.

e. 2 x12 - x22 + 2 x32 + x1x2 + 5x1x3 - x2x3 = 0.

Problem 2: In the projective plane 2
, consider a conic (S) defined by the
equation:

2 x12 + x22 - 2 x32 - 6x1x2 + 4x2x3 = 0

and points U (1: 1: 1), V (2: -1: 5).

a. Find the polar lines of the points U and V versus (S).
b. Determine the polar point of d: 7x1 + 4x2 - 10x3 = 0 versus (S).
Problem 3: In the projective plane 2
, consider a conic (S) defined by the
equation:

2 x12 + x22 - x32 + 3x1x2 - x1x3 + 2x2x3 = 0

and the line d: x1 - 2x2 + x3 = 0.

Find the intersection point of d with (S) and determine the polar point of
d versus (S).
Problem 4: In the projective plane 2 , consider a conic (S) defined by the
equation 4 x12 + x22 + 5 x32 + 4x1x2 - 12x1x3 - 6x2x3 = 0 and points
U (1: 1: 1), V (1: 2: 0).

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a. Find the polar lines of the points U and V versus (S).
b. Do U and V are adjoint each other versus (S) or not?
Problem 5: In the projective plane 2
, consider a conic (S) defined by the
equation:
x12 - 3 x22 + 5 x32 - 2x1x2 + 4x1x3 - 2x2x3 = 0.
a. Find the polar line of the point U (7: -1: - 4) versus (S).
b. Determine the tangent lines for (S) that passing through the point U.
Problem 6:
a. In the projective plane 2 , let A, B, C be three points that lie on a line d.
Denote a the fixed line passing through A and b the fixed line passing
through B. Suppose that c is a variable line passing through C and denote
by M = a  c, N = b  c. Prove that the intersection of lines AN and BM
always lies on a fixed line.
b. State the dual problem of the given problem.

Problem 7: Consider a complete quadrilateral in the projective plane 2

defined by lines a, b, c, d such that it is circumscribed to a conic (S) at P,
Q, R, S, respectively. Let denote by A = a  b, B = b  c, C = c  d, D =
d  a, E = a  c, F = b  d.
a. Define the polar point of the line EF.
b. Prove that lines AC, BD, PR, QS are concurrent.

Problem 8. In 2 , let (S) be a variable quadratic line and A, B, C, D be

four points that lie on (S). Denote P the intersection of two tangents of
(S) at A, D and Q the intersection of two tangents of (S) at B, C. Denote
M = AC ∩ DP, N = BD ∩ CQ. Prove that MN, PQ, AB are concurrent.
Problem 9. In 2 , let ABC be a triangle and d be a line such that A, B, C
do not belong to d. A variable conic (S) always tangent to BC, CA, AB

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and d at A', B', C' and D, respectively. Prove that the lines B'C', CA, AD
always passing through a fixed point.
Problem 10: In the projective plane 3
, consider a quadric (S) defined by
the equation:

x12 + x22 + x32 + x42 - 2x1x2 - 2x1x4 + 4x2x3 = 0

and points U (1: 1: 0: 0), V (1: 1: 1: 2).

a. Prove that the point U lies on (S) and find the equation of the tangent
plane of (S) at U.
b. Find the equation of the line UV and prove UV is a tangent line of (S).
Problem 11. In 2 , let ABCD be a complete quadrangle inscribed in a
conic (S). Prove that three diagonal points of the complete quadrangle
ABCD constitute a triangle such that every its vertex is the polar point of
the opposite side versus (S).

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