1.

6 Environmental Science

It is possible by conversion of light energy into chemical energy by the process

of photosynthesis. The producers carry out the process of photosynthesis in an
ecosystem. The stored chemical energy in the producers is then transferred to
other higher life forms through food chain.
6CO2 + 12 H2O ¾® C6H12O6 +6O2 +6H2O
The flow of energy is governed by the laws of thermodynamics as under
(i) Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed but can be transformed
from one state to another and
(ii) Transformations of energy always results in some loss of energy.
The transfer of the energy is always unidirectional, that is the flow or movement
of the energy is always from producers to the consumers. At every trophic level
a depreciation in the energy content takes place. This occurs because the energy
captured is utilized for various biological activities at each lavel.

Chemical

Decomposers
Herbivores
Producers

Consumers

energy Energy Microbial

stored Energy
stored in activity
Solar Energy through food
stored in
photosyn- food
thesis

Biological Activities/Metabolism at each level

Heat loss at each level

Fig. 5. Energy Flow in an Ecosystem

1.4 Food Chain
A food chain is the path by which energy passes from one living being to another.
The transfer of food energy from the source in plants through a series of organisms
by repeated eating and being eaten up is referred to as food chain.
A food chain is a transfer of the energy that passes from producers to
consumers.
Energy Producer Primary Secondary Tertiary
consumer consumer consumer

Sun Grass Grasshopper Shrew Owl

Fig. 6. Representation of Food Chain

 Ecosystem and Environment 1.7

Types of Food Chains

1. Aquatic- Water-related food chains constituting sea plants and animals are
called aquatic food chains. For example:
Algae ® Larva ® Dragon fly Larva ® Fish Raccoon
Phytoplankton ® Zooplankton ® Fish ® Seal ® Shark
2. Terrestrial: Land-related food chains with land plants and animals are
called terrestrial food chains.
Grass ® Rabbit ® Fox ® Tiger
3. Grazing food chain: The chain starts from plants and ends with carnivores,
passing through herbivores. The energy is derived from the autotrophs.
Ecosystems with such type of food chain are directly dependent on an
influx of solar radiation.
Autotrophs ® Herbivores ® Primary consumer ® Secondary consumer
Plants ® Insects ® Sparrow ® Hawk
Grass ® Rabbit ® Fox ® Tiger
Plants ® Grasshopper ® Frog ® Snake
4. Detritus food chain: The organic wastes derived from the grazing food
chain ( fallen leaves, plant parts or dead animal bodies) are termed as
detritus. This chain starts from dead organic matter and ends in inorganic
compounds. There are certain groups of organisms which feed on dead
bodies of animals and plants are called detrivores. The energy contained
in the dead organism is used in this food chain.
Such ecosystems are thus less dependent on direct solar energy. These
depend chiefly on the influx of organic matter produced in another
system. For example, such type of food chain operates in the decomposing
accumulated litter in a forest.
Dead Plants ® Bacteria
Dead Plants ® Wood Louse ® Black bird
Dead Plants ® Mites ® Insects ® Lizard

Significance of food chain:

1. The studies of food chain help understand the feeding relationship and
the interaction between organisms in any ecosystem.
2. They also help us to appreciate the energy flow mechanism and matter
circulation in ecosystem and understand the movement of toxic substances
in the ecosystem.
3. Food chains help to understand the affect of natural and anthropogenic
disturbances on ecosystem.
4. The study of food chain helps us to understand the problems of bio-
magnifications (pollution).
1.8 Environmental Science

1.5 Food Web
In different ecosystems there are several food chains which are existing and the
food chains cannot exist independently. Any consumer cannot just feed on a single
species. Therefore, the relationship of plants and animals in an environment,
where several food chains are linked together with each other is called food web.
The actual consumption of food and its pathway is studied through food web. A
predator from one food chain may be linked to the prey of another food chain.
The interlocking patterns formed by several food chains that are linked together
are called food webs. For Example:
Owl
Kingfisher

Small fish Frog Shrew Spider Wood mouse

Tadpole Water beetle Snail

Beetle Grasshopper Snail

Algae
Green plant

Fig. 7. Examples of Food Web

1.6 Ecological Pyramids

An ecological pyramid is a diagram that shows the relationship of amounts of
energy or matter contained within each trophic level in a food web or food chain.
These pyramids were devised by Charles Elton and are thus also called Eltonion
pyramids. In a pyramid food chains are represented sequence wise with producers
at the base, followed by herbivores and finally carnivores .
Producers ® Herbivores ® Carnivores
There are three types of ecological pyramids depending upon the number of
individuals, amount of biomass and amount of energy.
· Pyramid of Numbers
· Pyramid of Biomass
· Pyramid of Energy
Pyramid of Number: The Pyramid of number shows the relationship between
producers, herbivores and carnivores at successive trophic levels in terms of their
numbers. It shows the number of organisms at each trophic level per unit area
of an ecosystem. The diagrammatic representation of the relative decrease in
the number of organisms at each trophic level in food chain is called Pyramid of
number. It may be erect or inverted or spindle shaped. A spindle shaped pyramid
is obtained when a large tree supports many herbivores birds which are in turn
eaten up by eagle which are few in number. Other examples of pyramid of number
are a pond ecosystem and grassland ecosystem.
 Ecosystem and Environment 1.9

Tertiary
consumers
Secondary
consumers

Primary consumers

Producers

Fig. 8. Pyramid of Number (Upright Pyramid - Grassland Ecosystem, Pond Ecosystem)

Hyperparasites

Parasites

Herbivores

Plants

Fig. 9. Pyramid of Number (Inverted Pyramid - Parasitic Ecosystem)

Carnivores

Herbivores

Tree

Fig. 10. Pyramid of Number (Spindle Shaped Pyramid – Tree Ecosystem)

Pyramid of Biomass: The total amount of matter present in organisms of an

ecosystem at each trophic level is is known as biomass. Pyramid of biomass records
the total dry organic matter of organisms at each trophic level in a given area of
an ecosystem. Pyramid of biomass may be erect or inverted or spindle shaped. As
per Fig. 11 A, the total biomass of producers is more than the herbivores which
is contrary to Fig. 11 B.
1.10 Environmental Science

Tertiary consumers

Secondary
Tertiary consumers
consumers
Secondary Herbivores
Consumers

Plants
Primary consumers

Producers

A B

Fig. 11. Pyramid of Biomass (A = Grassland ecosystem, B = Forest ecosystem)

Pyramid of Energy: The pyramid of energy shows the amount of energy input
to each trophic level, in a given area of an ecosystem, over an extended period.
This depicts the flow of energy from producers to the top consumers. It is a
graphical representation of the amount of energy trapped per unit time and area
in different trophic levels of food chain, with producers forming the base and
top carnivores the tip.
The flow of energy is always unidirectional and continuous. The energy content
is expressed as Kcal/m2/yr. Of the three types of ecological pyramids, the energy
pyramids give the best picture of overall nature of the ecosystem. Pyramid of
energy is always ERECT.

Tertiary
consumers
Secondary
consumers

Primary consumers

Producers

Fig. 12. Pyramid of Energy (Upright or Erect)

1.7 Abiotic Components
The abiotic components of ecosystem include all the nonliving components of the
environment. Inorganic substances like carbon, hydrogen, phosphorous, sulphur,
organic compounds like carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and climatic factors like
water, soil, air and light, are the key elements. The important abiotic components
are hydrosphere, lithosphere and atmosphere.
 Ecosystem and Environment 1.11

1.7.1 Hydrosphere
Hydrosphere is a system where water exists. We live on a planet that has more
than 70% of the surface covered with water. Water containing region is termed as
hydrosphere. Approximately 97% of all the water on Earth is in the oceans. The
other 3% is held as freshwater in glaciers and icecaps, groundwater, lakes, soil,
the atmosphere, and within life. Water is the major constituent of almost all life
forms (more than 60% water by volume). The main reservoirs of water include
atmospheric moisture (snow, rain and clouds), oceans, rivers, lakes, groundwater,
subterranean aquifers, and polar icecaps.
The importance of hydrosphere can be listed as:
1. Every biological cell is made up of water and it is required to perform all
the basic metabolic activities.
2. Drinking water regulates the proper functioning of the cellular actions.
3. Water is called as universal solvent and dissolves in it various gases which
are essential for the survival of living forms in water. Nutrients like nitrate,
nitrite, ammonium ions and other ions are dissolved in water.
4. Water can act as a habitat for the organisms.
5. Water is used for other purposes like washing, cleaning and industrial
processes.
6. Agricultural activities are dependent on the availability of water.
7. The oceans play a very important role in the climate change by absorbing
the green house gases and for redistribution of the energy received from
the sun.
8. Thus, hydrosphere / water helps in temperature maintenance of the earth.
9. Without hydrosphere, the other components of ecosystem cannot be
maintained.

1.7.2 Lithosphere
Lithosphere is the solid, rocky crust covering entire planet earth. It contains
minerals, rocks and soils. It constitutes one thirds part of the Earth. The earth
consists of three major zones or layers i.e., crust, mantle and core.
· The Crust is composed of two types of rocks, granite and basalt. The
continental crust is mostly granite (20 to 70 km thick) and the oceanic crust
is basalt( ~ 8 km thick). The boundary between crust and upper mantle is
called the Moho.
· The Mantle is the largest layer of the Earth. The middle mantle is composed
of very hot dense rock.
· The Core of the Earth is like a ball of very hot molten metals. Temperature
being high in this region, all the metals in this zone is in the liquid state. The
outer core is composed of the molten metals like nickel and iron (3700oC)
1.12 Environmental Science

whereas the inner core of the Earth has temperature around 4300oC and
pressures is huge. Due to the predominance of nickel and iron in the core,
it is also called ‘nife’.
Crust
Moho
30 km
Upper mantle
700 km Sial layer

Mantle

2900 km Lower mantle

Liquid metals
Outer core
5150 km

Rigid
Core
Inner core

Fig. 13. Components of Lithosphere

Lithosphere can be studied under two types:

1. Oceanic lithosphere, which is related to oceanic crust and exists in
the ocean basins. It is slightly denser than the other type of lithospheres.
(mean density of about 2.9 grams per cubic centimeter).
2. Continental lithosphere, which is associated with continental crust, and
is much thicker than the oceanic lithosphere (mean density of about 2.7
grams per cubic centimeter).

Continental
crust Sedimentary Oceanic
deposits crust

10 km

100 km
Lithosphere

Plastic asthenosphere
200 km
Upper mantle
(down to 670 km)

Fig. 14. Structure of Lithosphere

 Ecosystem and Environment 1.13

The most distinguished aspect associated with Earth’s lithosphere is its

tectonic activity. Tectonic activities are the interactions of the gigantic slabs of
lithosphere called tectonic plates. These activities are responsible for Earth’s most
dramatic geologic events like earthquakes, volcanoes, orogeny (mountain-building),
and formation of deep ocean trenches.
The importance of lithosphere can be listed as:
1. It is the area where we live.
2. It is reservoir of the earth’s resources.
3. Lithosphere serves as source for minerals and elements like iron, aluminium,
calcium, copper and magnesium etc. which are required by human beings
for various activities like tool making and machines.
4. Lithosphere acts a store house for fossil fuels. Fuels like coal, petroleum,
natural gas are all obtained from the lithosphere.
5. It contains various nutrients required for the survival of living organisms
mainly plants.
6. Lithosphere supports large oceans and rivers and lakes which are required
for balanced ecosystem.
7. Geographic variations of the lithosphere affects climatic patterns.

1.7.3 Atmosphere
Earth’s atmosphere is made of a mixture of gases called air. Nitrogen gas makes
about 78% of Earth’s atmosphere. The second most abundant gas is oxygen, which
makes 21% of Earth’s atmosphere.

Atmosphere
structure

On the basis of chemical

On the basis of temperature
and physical properties

Troposphere Thermosphere
Stratosphere Mesosphere Chemosphere Ionosphere

Fig. 15. Structure of Atmosphere

1.14 Environmental Science

Table 1.1 Principal components of Dry Air

Constituent Percentage by Volume Concentration (in ppm)

Nitrogen 78.08 780900
Oxygen 20.94 209400
Argon 9.3 9300
Carbon dioxide 0.036 360
Neon 0.0018 18
Helium 0.00052 5.2
Methane 0.00013 1.3
Krypton 0.0001 1
Hydrogen 0.00005 0.5

The atmosphere of earth can be divided into various layers depending on the
temperature. Various layers are as follows:
· Troposphere: The first layer of the atmosphere is the Troposphere with
tropopause as its outer limit. The troposphere goes from 0 km to 16 km.
All the weather phenomena occurs in the troposphere. More than half of
the air in the total atmosphere is in this layer. This layer contains the O2,
N2, CO2, and H2O. The temperature of this sphere drops with altitude
(positive lapse rate).
· Stratosphere: The second layer is called the Stratosphere. The stratosphere
extends from 16 km to 50 km. The temperature goes up with altitude
(negative lapse rate). The protective ozone is present in this region which
protects us from harmful UV radiations from the sun. The increase in the
temperature in this region is due to absorption of the ultra-violet rays by
ozone. The outer limit of stratosphere is called stratopause.
· Mesosphere: The Mesosphere goes from 50 km to 90 km. In the
mesosphere, the temperature drops with altitude. The temperature falls to
-75oC in this sphere. The mesosphere is the coldest layer of the atmosphere.
This layer contains O2+, NO+. The outer limit of mesosphere is called
mesopause.
· Thermosphere: The Thermosphere goes from 90 km to 300 km. In the
thermosphere the temperature goes up with altitude. The thermosphere is
the hottest layer of the atmosphere. Curtains of light called auroras occur
in this layer. The Ionosphere is found in the thermosphere.
· Exosphere: The Exosphere is the outermost layer of the atmosphere. The
temperature in the exosphere goes up with altitude. Satellites orbit earth
in the exosphere.
 Ecosystem and Environment 1.15

10,000 km
Exosphere

Thermosphere 690 km

Mesosphere 85 km

Stratosphere 50 km

Troposphere 20 km

Fig. 16. Layers of Atmosphere

Table 1.2 Major Regions of Atmosphere

Altitude Temperature Chemical

Layer Feature
(km) (oC) Species
Troposphere upto 11 15 to –56 N2, O2, CO2, H2O Life exists here
Absorbs harmful UV
Stratosphere 11 to 50 – 56 to –2 O3
radiations
Mesosphere 50 to 85 –2 to –75 O2+, NO+ Meteor burns here
High temperature
Thermosphere 85 to 500 –75 to 1200 O2+, NO+, O+
layer
1.16 Environmental Science

Earth's atmosphere Temperature (°F)

–140–120–100–80–60 –40 –20 0 20 40 60 80
120 75
Percentages
at selected 70
110 altitudes are
percentages
65
of sea level
100
pressure.
Thermosphere Ionosphere, 60
90 km, 0.0001%
90 magnetosphere
begin 55
Mesopause
80 50

45
70
Altitude (km)

Mesosphere 40
60
50 km, 0.1%
35
50 Stratopause
30

40 25

20
30 Stratosphere Ozone layer
(main concentration)
Mount Everest 15
20 8.85 km, 28%
10
Tropopause
10 5
Troposphere

0 0
–100–90–80 –70 –60–50 –40–30–20 –10 0 10 20 30 0 250 500 750 1,000
Temperature (°C) Pressure (millibars)

Fig. 17. Temperature Profile of Atmosphere

The importance of atmosphere can be listed as:

1. Atmosphere acts a reservoir for the water during the hydrological cycle.
2. The presence of ozone in the stratospheric region of the atmosphere makes
life possible on earth. This protects living organisms from the harmful UV
rays coming from the sun.
3. The availability of oxygen for the living organism is also ensured by the
atmosphere.
4. The temperature is kept moderate by the atmospheric layers. Without
atmosphere, nights would have been too cold and days would have been
scorching. Atmospheric air molecules absorb the suns energy and maintain
optimum temperature required for the survival of life on earth.
5. It provides us the medium through which the transmission of energy, heat
and sound can take place.
 Ecosystem and Environment 1.17

1.8 Biosphere
The biosphere is a biological component of earth systems, which also includes the
lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. The term was developed by English
geologist Edward Suess. It includes all living organisms on earth, together with
the dead organic matter produced by them. The biosphere serves as the highest
level of biological organizations, which begins with parts of cells and proceeds
to populations, species, ecoregions, biomes and finally, the biosphere. It is unique
as there is no other place where life exists in the universe. The biosphere supports
about 3 to 30 million species of plants and animals, fungi, single celled prokaryotes
like bacteria, and single celled eukaryotes like protozoan. No biosphere has been
detected outside the earth.

Biosphere Hydrosphere

Lithosphere Atmosphere

Fig. 18. Relationships between Components of Ecosystem

1.9 Biogeochemical cycles
A biogeochemical cycle is a pathway by which a chemical matter moves through
both biotic (biosphere) and abiotic (lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere)
components of the Earth. The exchange of chemical nutrients like carbon,
oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, and water etc. taking place through the
biological and physical world is known as biogeochemical cycle. Some of the major
biogeochemical cycles known in nature are carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, oxygen
cycle, water cycle, phosphorus cycle and sulphur cycle.
Biogeochemical cycles are basically of two types:
· Gaseous cycles like carbon (as carbon dioxide), oxygen, nitrogen cycles etc.
In gaseous cycles, the elements have a main reservoir in the gaseous phase, and
the reservoir pool is the atmosphere or water. Gaseous cycles are well buffered
cycles and do not get disturbed owing to their large capacity to adjust.
· Sedimentary cycles like sulphur, phosphorus cycles etc. In sedimentary
cycles, the elements main reservoir pool is lithosphere and the biogenetic
materials involved in circulation are non-gaseous. Such cycles gets easily
disrupted by environmental changes, since the bulk of the nutrients remains
immobilized in the earth.