Department of Mathematics and Applied Mathematics

UNIT: COMPLEX NUMBERS

 COMPLEX NUMBERS
Background (what you need to know before working through this unit):
• Radian measure.
• Basic Trigonometry.
• Properties of addition and multiplication in  .

After working through this unit you should be able to:

• Perform arithmetic operations on Complex Numbers.
• Change between rectangular, polar, and exponential form.
• Determine powers and roots of complex numbers.

1. INTRODUCTION
The equation x + 2 =0 has no solution in the set of natural numbers  . When the set of natural
numbers is extended to the integers  , then there is a solution x =−2 ∈  .

The equation 3 x + 2 = 0 has no solution in the set of integers, but when we enlarge the set of integers
2
to the set of rational numbers  , then we have a solution x =− ∈  .
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The next problem is when we want to solve equations like x − 2 =2
0 . The equation has no solution in
the set of rational numbers, so again we have to extend the number system  to a larger set of
numbers which include solutions for equations like these. One solution for this equation is 2 , i.e.
( 2)
2
0 The number
− 2 =. 2 is not a rational number, it is called an irrational number and it is just
a symbol representing a solution for the equation x 2 − 2 =0.

This leads to the set of real numbers  which consists of the rational numbers and the irrational
numbers.

Even the set of real numbers is not sufficient to provide solutions to all simple equations. Consider the
equation x 2 + 1 =0 . In this chapter we will show how to extend the set of real numbers to a bigger set,
the set of complex numbers, to include solutions to equations like x 2 + 1 = 0.
2
A solution to this equation will be written as i , i.e. i + 1 =0.

This number i is not a real number and it is called a complex number. In this new set of numbers, we
also want to do the usual arithmetic so we need to define addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division of complex numbers as well as how to find powers and roots of complex numbers.

DEFINITION
x + iy where x, y ∈ , and i satisfies i 2 =
A complex number z is an expression of the form z = −1.

{a + ib | a, b ∈ , i 2 =
• The set  = −1} is the set of all complex numbers.
• We agree that i 0 = 0 = 0i and i1= i = 1i .

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 • For z= x + iy , we call x the Real Part and y the Imaginary Part,
written Re ( z )= Re ( x + iy )= x, Im ( z )= Im ( x + iy )= y .
• Every Real Number, a ∈  , can be written as a = a + 0 = a + i 0 , hence  ⊆  .
• Im ( a + 0i )= 0 and Im ( i )= Im ( 0 + i1)= 1 .
• We write a complex number x + i ( − y ) as x − iy .
• ib = bi .

Complex numbers can be represented in many other forms. Different forms will be used for
different types of computations to simplify the calculations. The form x + iy is called the
rectangular form of the complex number z= x + iy . Later we will consider the polar form and
also the exponential form. Note that engineers like to use j instead of i since i is reserved for
current.

We can represent the real numbers geometrically on a number line. This useful visualization of
the real numbers can be extended to the complex numbers, but now we cannot only use a line.
For the complex numbers we use the Argand plane. This is a rectangular coordinate system,
much like the Cartesian coordinate system with which you are quite familiar. A complex
number z= x + iy is then represented by the point ( x, y ) in the plane. The horizontal axis
represents the real part and the vertical axis the imaginary part.

Complex numbers in rectangular form, z= x + iy can also be written as an ordered pair ( x, y ) .

DEFINITION
For complex numbers x + iy and a + ib,
we say these numbers are equal and write: x + iy = a + ib ⇔ x = a and y = b.

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2. ARITHMETIC OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

DEFINITION
For complex numbers z= a + ib and w = x + iy,
we define addition and multiplication in  as follows:
z + w = ( a + ib ) + ( x + iy ) = ( a + x ) + i ( b + y )
zw = ( a + ib ) ⋅ ( x + iy ) = ( ax − by ) + i ( ay + bx )
Let k ∈ , we define scalar multiplication in  as:
kz = k ( a + ib ) = ka + i ( kb )

Remark: The scalar multiple kz can be written as kz =( k + i 0 )( a + ib ) =ka + i ( kb ) .

Example 1
Solve for x and y given x + iy = ( 2 + 3i ) + 5 ( 4 − i ) :

x + iy =( 2 + 3i ) + 5 ( 4 − i )
=( 2 + 3i ) + ( 20 − 5i )
=( 2 + 22 ) + i ( 3 − 5 )
= 24 − 2i
The definition of the equality of complex numbers gives x = 24 and y = −2.

THEOREM 1
Addition of Complex Numbers satisfies the following properties:
Let z , w, u ∈ 
1. z + w ∈  ( is closed under addition)
2. z + ( w + u ) = ( z + w ) + u (Addition is associative in )
3. z + w = w + z (Addition is commutative in )
4. The complex number 0 = 0 + 0i has the property: z + 0 = z , ∀z ∈ . (0 is the additive identity)
5. ∀z = a + bi ∈ , ∃ − z ∈ , − z = ( −a ) + ( −b ) i ∋ z + ( − z ) = 0 ( - z is the additive inverse of z )

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Proof:
(we leave the proofs of 2 and 4 as an exercise)

3: Let z =
a + ib and w = x + iy, with a, b, x, y ∈ .
z + w = ( a + ib ) + ( x + iy ) = ( a + x ) + i ( b + y ) Definition of addition in 
= ( x + a) + i ( y + b) , Addition in  is commutative
= w+ z

5: Let z = a + bi, − z = ( −a ) + ( −b ) i , with a, b, −a, −b ∈  .

z + ( − z )= ( a + ib ) + ( ( −a ) + i ( −b ) )
= ( a + ( −a ) ) + i ( b + ( −b ) ) Definition of addition in 
= 0 + 0i Additive inverse in 
=0

• For complex numbers z and w , we write z + ( − w ) as z − w.

• For a complex number z = a + bi, z = 0 ⇔ a = 0 and b = 0.
Thus if z ≠ 0 then a ≠ 0 or b ≠ 0.
• For Real Numbers a and b , we can say a < b, a= b or a > b. Unlike in real numbers, for complex
numbers z and w , there is no property of “order”, < and > .

THEOREM 2
Let z , w, u ∈ 
1. zw ∈  ( is closed under multiplication)
2. z ( wu ) = ( zw ) u (Multiplication is associative in )
3. zw = wz (Multiplication is commutative in )
4. The complex number 1 = 1 + 0i has the property: z ⋅1 = z , ∀z ∈ . (1 is the multiplicative identity)
1 1 a b 1 1
5. ∀z = a + bi ∈ , z ≠ 0, ∃ ∈ , = 2 2
−i 2 2
∋ z ⋅  = 1 ( is the multiplicative inverse of z )
z z a +b a +b z z
6. z ( w + u ) = zw + zu and ( z + w ) u = zu + wu. (Multiplication is distributive over addition in )

Proof: (we leave the proofs of 1, 2, 4, 6 as an exercise.)

3: Let z =
a + ib and w = x + iy. Then a, b, x, y ∈ .
zw =+( a ib )( x + iy )
= ( ax − by ) + i ( ay + bx ) Definition of multiplication in 
= ( xa − yb ) + i ( ya + xb ) Multiplication in  is commutative
( x iy )( a + ib )
=+ Definition of multiplication in 
= wz

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5: If z ≠ 0 then a ≠ 0 or b ≠ 0, so a 2 + b 2 ≠ 0.
1 a b
Then
= 2 2
−i 2 is a well-defined complex number. Also,
z a +b a + b2
1 a b
z⋅ = ( a + ib )  2 2 − i 2 2 
z  a +b a +b 
a −b
= ( a + ib )  2 2 + i 2 2 
 a +b a +b 
 a2 −b 2   −ab ba 
= 2 2
− 2 2 
+i 2 2
+i 2  Definition of multiplication in 
 a +b a +b   a +b a + b2 
= 1 + 0i
=1

Example 2
Let z =
4 − 2i, w =
5 + i.
z + w = ( 4 + 5 ) + i ( −2 + 1) = 9 − i
z − w =4 − 2i + ( −5 − i ) =−1 − 3i
zw = ( 4 − 2i )( 5 + i ) = ( 4 ⋅ 5 − ( −2 ) ⋅1) + i ( 4 ⋅1 + ( −2 ) 5) = 22 − 6i

Example 3
Let z= 4 − 2i
1 1 −4 1 4
then = − i = +i
z 17 17 17 17

• The multiplicative inverse of a non-zero complex number z is also written as z −1 .

w 1
• Given z , w ∈ , with z ≠ 0. Division of complex numbers is given by: w⋅ .
=
z z

DEFINITION
Let z= a + ib be a complex number.
The complex conjugate of z, denoted z , is defined by z= a − ib.

Example 4
Let z= 4 − 2i then
z =4 − 2i =4 + 2i
z ⋅ z = ( 4 − 2i )( 4 + 2i ) = 20 ∈ 

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 THEOREM 3
Let z , w ∈ 
[Link] z 0=
= then z 0.
2. z ⋅ z ∈ , and z ⋅ z = 0 ⇔ z = 0.
3. z = z.
4. z + w =z + w and zw =z ⋅ w.
1 z w w⋅ z
If z ≠ 0,
5.= . Hence
= .
z z⋅z z z⋅z

Proof: (we leave 1, 3, 4 as an exercise.)

2: Let z =
a + ib . Then a, b ∈ .
z⋅z = ( a + ib )( a − ib ) Definition of complex conjugate
= a 2 + b 2 + i ( ab − ab ) Definition of multiplication in 
2 2
= a +b
∈ since a, b ∈ 

Given z ⋅ z = 0
2 2
Then a + b = 0 ⇒ a = 0 and b = 0.
∴ z = a + bi = 0 and z = 0. (from 1.)

5: If z ≠ 0 then a + ib ≠ 0.
∴ a ≠ 0 or b ≠ 0.
and z= a − ib
∴ z ≠ 0.
1 1 1 z z
Then = ⋅1 = ⋅ = .
z z z z zz

Example 5
4 − 2i
Simplify :
3+i
4 − 2i 3 − i 10 − 10i 10 (1 − i )
Using the complex conjugate of the denominator we get ⋅ = = 1− i
=
3+i 3−i 10 10

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3 POLAR FORM
Let z= a + ib , in the argand plane the number is represented by the point ( a, b ) . The distance from
( 0, 0 ) to ( a, b ) ,=r a 2 + b2 . The angle θ is the angle between the positive real axis and the line
connecting ( 0, 0 ) to ( a, b ) .

Recall θ > 0 if the angle is measured counterclockwise from the positive real axis and θ < 0 if
measured clockwise from the positive real axis.
a b
Then,
= cos (θ ) = and sin (θ ) .
r r
It follows that z =a + ib =r cos (θ ) + ir sin (θ ) =r ( cos (θ ) + i sin (θ ) ) =rcis (θ ) .
This is called the polar form of the complex number.
• r= a 2 + b 2 = z is called the modulus of z .
• The angle θ is called the argument of z , written arg ( z ) = θ .
• The complex number z = 0 is the only complex number with no polar form.
Note that arg ( z ) = θ is not unique, as shown in the following example:

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Example 6
Let z =
1 + i, w =−3 i.
Represented on the Argand Plane, z is in the first quadrant and w in the fourth quadrant.

z= 1+1 = 2,
1 π
tan (θ ) = ⇒ θ =
1 4
π 
∴ z = 2cis  
4
Note, other possible values for θ :
π 9π
θ = + 2π = ,
4 4
π −7π
θ = − 2π =
4 4
π
In general: arg ( z ) = + k ⋅ 2π , k ∈ .
4

w= 3 +1= 2
−1 π
tan (θ ) = ⇒ θ =−
3 6
 π
w 2cis  −  .
∴=
 6
π
In general, arg ( w ) =− + k ⋅ 2π , k ∈ .
6

b
When using a calculator to find θ from tan (θ ) = , the calculator will always give θ in the range
a
π π
− <θ < , so it is important to first sketch the point in the Argand Plane to determine the exact
2 2
value of θ .

• The principle argument, Arg ( z ) is that argument which satisfies −π < Arg ( z ) ≤ π . Notice
arg ( z ) can be any one of the infinitely many values Arg ( z ) + k ⋅ 2π , k ∈  .

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 The following can be used as a guide to find principle arguments, based on the quadrant in which the
point z= a + ib lies.

Im

b b
=θ tan −1   + π θ = tan −1  
a a
 
Re

b b
=θ tan −1   − π θ = tan −1  
a a
 

There is a well-known and important connection between the trigonometric functions, the complex
number i and the exponential function:
Euler’s Formula: For every θ ∈ , eiθ = cos (θ ) + i sin (θ ) .
When θ π , we= get the particular (and beautiful) equality eiπ + 1 0 . (This equation gives the
relationship between seven of the best known symbols of mathematics.)

For z= a + ib in polar form z = rcis (θ ) we can then write

= z rcis
= (θ ) reiθ . This is called the
exponential form of z .

Example 7
Write z =−2 + 2 3i in exponential form: Im
z= 4 + 4 ⋅ 3= 4
2 3
Arg ( z ) tan −1  =
2π (
• −2, 2 3 )
=  + π
 −2  3
 2π 
 2π  i  Re
∴ z 4cis=
=   4e
 3 

 3 

THEOREM 4
z1 r1
If z1= r1cis (θ1 ) and z2= r2 cis (θ 2 ) , then z1 z2= r1r2 cis (θ1 + θ 2 ) and if z2 ≠ 0, = cis (θ1 − θ 2 ) .
z2 r2

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 Proof:
eiα
(To prove this theorem, we use: eiα eiβ = ei(α + β ) and iβ
= ei(α − β ) . You will be asked to prove this in
e
exercise 13.)

= cis (θ1 ) r1eiθ1

z1 r1= and
= cis (θ 2 ) r2 eiθ2
z2 r2=
∴ z1 z2 =r1eiθ1 ⋅ r2 eiθ2
r2 ei(θ1 +θ2 )
r1= since eiα eiβ ei(α β )
+

= r1r2 cis (θ1 + θ 2 )

z1 r1eiθ1
If z2 ≠ 0 then r2 ≠ 0 and =
z2 r2 eiθ2
r1 i(θ1 −θ2 ) eiα
= = e since iβ ei(α − β )
r2 e
r1
= cis (θ1 − θ 2 )
r2

Example 8
1+ i
Use polar form to determine (1 + i )(1 − i ) and .
1− i
π   π
1+ i
= 2cis   and =
1− i 2cis  −  ( check )
4  4
 π  π 
∴ (1=
+ i )(1 − i ) 2 2cis  =+  −   2cis ( 0 ) polar form
 4  4 
= 2 (1 + 0i ) = 2 rectangular form

1+ i 2 π  π  π  π 
= cis  −  −=  1cis=
  cis   polar form
1− i 2 4  4  2 2
= 1( 0 + 1i ) = i rectangular form

Note: Even though we use polar form to do multiplication and division of complex numbers, if the
original numbers were given in rectangular form then give the answer in rectangular form, unless
otherwise stated.

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 4 DE MOIVRE’S THEOREM
THEOREM
Let rcis (θ ) be the polar form of z ∈ .

(=
rcis (θ ) )
n
Then z n
= r n cis ( nθ ) , for n ∈ .

Note: To prove De Moivre’s Theorem for positive integers, you will need to use Mathematical
Induction. This is asked in exercise 14.

Example 9
Determine (1 + i ) :
4

4
  π 
(1 + i )
4
 2cis  4  
=
  

( 2 ) cis  4 ⋅ π4 

4
= (by De Moivre's Theorem )
= 4cis (π )
=−4 + i ⋅ 0
= −4

π 
Let z = 3cis   , determine z 5 :
3
5
  π   π
= 5
z  3cis = 5
  3 cis  5 ⋅  (by De Moivre's Theorem )
  3   3
 5π 
= 35 cis  
 3 

Remark: z n results in an unique complex number.

DEFINITION
Let n ∈ , a complex number w is called an n - th root of the complex number z if wn =
z.

In example 9 we determined that (1 + i ) =

4
−4 , so 1 + i is a 4-th root of −4 .
When working in  , we know that there are two distinct real numbers x for which x 2 = 4 , namely
x= 2 . The next theorem will show that there are n distinct complex numbers w , for which
−2 and x =
w =z.
n

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 THEOREM
Let wn= z= rcis (θ ) ,
 θ + k ⋅ 2π 
then ∀n ∈
= , wk rcis 
n
= , k 0,1, 2,..., (n − 1) are the n distinct solutions for w.
 n 
These are also called the n - th roots of z.

Proof:
cis ( β ) be an n-th root of z rcis (θ ) .
Let w α=
Then (α cis ( β ) ) = rcis (θ )
n

∴α n cis ( nβ ) =
rcis (θ ) (De Moivre's Theorem)
∴α n =r and nβ =θ + 2π k , k ∈  (equality of complex numbers)
1
θ + 2π k
Then α r n and β can be any one of for k ∈ .
n

1
 θ + 2π k 
Let wkr cis 
n
 for all k ∈ .
 n 
We need to show that for any k ∈ , wk is one of w0 , w1 ,..., wn −1 and these n complex numbers are distinct.

Let k be any integer.

Then k = nq + r , q , r ∈ , 0 ≤ r ≤ n − 1 (by the division algorithm)
 θ + 2π k   θ + 2π ( nq + r )   θ 2nqπ 2rπ   θ 2rπ 
∴ cis  = cis  = cis  + + = cis  + + ( q ) 2π 
 n   n  n n n  n n 
 θ 2rπ   θ + 2π r 
= cis  + =  cis   with 0 ≤ r ≤ n − 1,
n n   n 
Thus wk is one of w0 , w1 ,..., wn −1.

To show w0 , w1 ,..., wn −1 are all distinct, let k1 , k2 ∈  ∋ 0 ≤ k1 < k2 ≤ n − 1 with wk1 =wk2 .
 θ + 2π k1   θ + 2π k2 
Then cis   = cis  
 n   n 
θ + 2π k1 θ + 2π k2
∴ = + 2π p, p ∈ .
n n
∴ k1 = k2 + np
∴k=
1 − k2 np, so k1 − k2 is a multiple of n.
This contradicts 0 ≤ k1 < k2 ≤ n − 1.
∴ w0 , w1 ,..., wn −1 are all different n-th roots of z.

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Example 10
Solve for z given z 6 = −8.
We must determine all six of the 6-th roots of − 8.
In polar form, − 8 =8cis (π )
1
 π + 2π ⋅ k 
∴ wk ( )6 =
8 cis   , k 0,1, 2,3, 4,5.
 6 
1 1
π   7π 
w0 8=
6
cis   w3 8 6 cis  
6  6 
1 1
π   3π 
w1 8=
6
cis   w4 8 6 cis  
2  2 
1 1
 5π   11π 
w2 = 8 cis 
6
 w5 = 8 cis 
6

 6   6 

w1 2i

w2 w0

− 2 2
w3 w5
w4
− 2i

π
These six complex numbers lie on the circle with radius 2 , centred at 0 + i 0 , with the angle of
3
between successive solution.

Example 11
Solve for z in z 3 + 1 =i

 3π 
z 3 =−1 + i = 2cis   so the three solutions are given by:
 4 
 3π 
1
 + 2π ⋅ k 
∴ wk ( )
2=3
cis  4
3
 , k 0,1, 2
 
 

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 1
π 
w0 = 2 6 cis  
4
1
 11π 
w1 = 2 6 cis  
 12 
1
 19π 
w2 = 2 6 cis  
 12 
It is common practice to leave roots in polar form, unless asked otherwise.

Example 12

Find w, given w2 = −4

−4 =4cis (π )
1
 π + 2π ⋅ k 
∴ wk =4 cis  2

 2 
=w0 2=cis (π ) 2i
 3π 
w1 = 2cis   = −2i
 2 

COMPLEX EXERCISES
NUMBERS
1. For z =−2 + 3i, w =4 − 8i, u =x + iy, determine:
a) z and zz .
b) zw .
w
c) .
z
d) The values of x and y such that zu= w − z.
2. Prove properties 1, 2 and 4 of Theorem 1.
3. Prove properties 1, 2, 4 and 6 of Theorem 2.
4. Prove properties 1, 3 and 4 of Theorem 3.
5. Show that the multiplicative identity 1 is unique.
1
6. Show that for each complex number z ≠ 0 , its multiplicative inverse is unique.
z
7. Detemine i n , for n = 1, 2,3, 4,5,... .
1
8. Show that = −i and determine i − n for n = 1, 2,3, 4,5,... .
i
9. Sketch the complex number z= a + bi and its conjugate z= a − bi on the same Argand Plane for
a few specific values for a and b. What do you notice?

15
  5π 
10. What can we deduce about r and θ if we know that rcis (θ ) = 3cis  ?
 7 
11. Find the polar and exponential form of z =−1 + i and w =−1 − i.
 2π 
12. Write z = 2cis   in rectangular form.
 3 
eiα
13. Show that for real numbers α and β , ei(α + β ) = eiα eiβ and ei(α − β ) = iβ .
e
14. Write the following as a single complex number, a + ib :
a) (1 + i ) + ( 2 − 3i ) − ( 2i )
b) ( 3 + i )( 2 − 5i )
5−i
c)
2+i
15. Write the following in polar form with principle argument value:
a) 3 + 4i
b) 8i
c) −2 + 2i
16. Calculate (1 − i ) and give your answer in rectangular form.
8

17. Solve for z :

a) z3 = 1
b) z 2 + 1 = 3i
c) z 3 + 4i =
0

16