Sampling Methods | Types,

Techniques & Examples

Published on September 19, 2019 by Shona McCombes. Revised on June 22,
2023.

When you conduct research about a group of people, it’s rarely

possible to collect data from every person in that group. Instead,
you select a sample. The sample is the group of individuals who
will actually participate in the research.

To draw valid conclusions from your results, you have to carefully

decide how you will select a sample that is representative of the
group as a whole. This is called a sampling method. There are two
primary types of sampling methods that you can use in your
research:

Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you

to make strong statistical inferences about the whole group.
Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection
based on convenience or other criteria, allowing you to easily
collect data.

You should clearly explain how you selected your sample in the
methodology section of your paper or thesis, as well as how you
approached minimizing research bias in your work.

 Table of contents

1. Population vs. sample

2. Probability sampling methods
3. Non-probability sampling methods
4. Other interesting articles
5. Frequently asked questions about
sampling
Population vs. sample
First, you need to understand the difference between a population
and a sample, and identify the target population of your research.

The population is the entire group that you want to draw

conclusions about.
The sample is the specific group of individuals that you will
collect data from.

The population can be defined in terms of geographical location,

age, income, or many other characteristics.

It can be very broad or

quite narrow: maybe you
want to make inferences
about the whole adult
population of your
country; maybe your
research focuses on
customers of a certain
company, patients with a
specific health condition,
or students in a single school.

It is important to carefully define your target population according

to the purpose and practicalities of your project.

If the population is very large, demographically mixed, and

geographically dispersed, it might be difficult to gain access to a
representative sample. A lack of a representative sample affects
the validity of your results, and can lead to several research biases,
particularly sampling bias.
Sampling frame
The sampling frame is the actual list of individuals that the sample
will be drawn from. Ideally, it should include the entire target
population (and nobody who is not part of that population).

Example: Sampling frame

You are doing research on working conditions at a social

media marketing company. Your population is all 1000
employees of the company. Your sampling frame is the
company’s HR database, which lists the names and contact
details of every employee.

Sample size
The number of individuals you should include in your sample
depends on various factors, including the size and variability of the
population and your research design. There are different sample
size calculators and formulas depending on what you want to
achieve with statistical analysis.

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Probability sampling methods
Probability sampling means that every member of the population
has a chance of being selected. It is mainly used in quantitative
research. If you want to produce results that are representative of
the whole population, probability sampling techniques are the most
valid choice.

There are four main types of probability sample.

1. Simple random sampling

In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an
equal chance of being selected. Your sampling frame should
include the whole population.

To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random
number generators or other techniques that are based entirely on
chance.

Example: Simple random sampling

You want to select a simple random sample of 1000

employees of a social media marketing company. You assign
a number to every employee in the company database from
1 to 1000, and use a random number generator to select 100
numbers.
2. Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is
usually slightly easier to conduct. Every member of the population
is listed with a number, but instead of randomly generating
numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.

Example: Systematic sampling

All employees of the company are listed in alphabetical

order. From the first 10 numbers, you randomly select a
starting point: number 6. From number 6 onwards, every
10th person on the list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on),
and you end up with a sample of 100 people.

If you use this technique, it is important to make sure that there is

no hidden pattern in the list that might skew the sample. For
example, if the HR database groups employees by team, and team
members are listed in order of seniority, there is a risk that your
interval might skip over people in junior roles, resulting in a sample
that is skewed towards senior employees.

3. Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into
subpopulations that may differ in important ways. It allows you
draw more precise conclusions by ensuring that every subgroup is
properly represented in the sample.

To use this sampling method, you divide the population into

subgroups (called strata) based on the relevant characteristic (e.g.,
gender identity, age range, income bracket, job role).

Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate

how many people should be sampled from each subgroup. Then
you use random or systematic sampling to select a sample from
each subgroup.

Example: Stratified sampling

The company has 800 female employees and 200 male

employees. You want to ensure that the sample reflects the
gender balance of the company, so you sort the population
into two strata based on gender. Then you use random
sampling on each group, selecting 80 women and 20 men,
which gives you a representative sample of 100 people.
4. Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into
subgroups, but each subgroup should have similar characteristics
to the whole sample. Instead of sampling individuals from each
subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.

If it is practically possible, you might include every individual from

each sampled cluster. If the clusters themselves are large, you can
also sample individuals from within each cluster using one of the
techniques above. This is called multistage sampling.

This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed

populations, but there is more risk of error in the sample, as there
could be substantial differences between clusters. It’s difficult to
guarantee that the sampled clusters are really representative of the
whole population.

Example: Cluster sampling

The company has offices in 10 cities across the country (all

with roughly the same number of employees in similar roles).
You don’t have the capacity to travel to every office to
collect your data, so you use random sampling to select 3
offices – these are your clusters.

Non-probability sampling methods

In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-
random criteria, and not every individual has a chance of being
included.

This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a

higher risk of sampling bias. That means the inferences you can
make about the population are weaker than with probability
samples, and your conclusions may be more limited. If you use a
non-probability sample, you should still aim to make it as
representative of the population as possible.

Non-probability sampling techniques are often used in exploratory

and qualitative research. In these types of research, the aim is not
to test a hypothesis about a broad population, but to develop an
initial understanding of a small or under-researched population.
1. Convenience sampling
A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen
to be most accessible to the researcher.

This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there
is no way to tell if the sample is representative of the population,
so it can’t produce generalizable results. Convenience samples are
at risk for both sampling bias and selection bias.

Example: Convenience sampling

You are researching opinions about student support services

in your university, so after each of your classes, you ask your
fellow students to complete a survey on the topic. This is a
convenient way to gather data, but as you only surveyed
students taking the same classes as you at the same level,
the sample is not representative of all the students at your
university.

2. Voluntary response sampling

Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is
mainly based on ease of access. Instead of the researcher
choosing participants and directly contacting them, people
volunteer themselves (e.g. by responding to a public online
survey).
Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat biased,
as some people will inherently be more likely to volunteer than
others, leading to self-selection bias.

Example: Voluntary response sampling

You send out the survey to all students at your university

and a lot of students decide to complete it. This can
certainly give you some insight into the topic, but the people
who responded are more likely to be those who have strong
opinions about the student support services, so you can’t be
sure that their opinions are representative of all students.

3. Purposive sampling
This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves
the researcher using their expertise to select a sample that is most
useful to the purposes of the research.

It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants

to gain detailed knowledge about a specific phenomenon rather
than make statistical inferences, or where the population is very
small and specific. An effective purposive sample must have clear
criteria and rationale for inclusion. Always make sure to describe
your inclusion and exclusion criteria and beware of observer bias
affecting your arguments.

Example: Purposive sampling

You want to know more about the opinions and experiences

of disabled students at your university, so you purposefully
select a number of students with different support needs in
order to gather a varied range of data on their experiences
with student services.

4. Snowball sampling
If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used
to recruit participants via other participants. The number of people
you have access to “snowballs” as you get in contact with more
people. The downside here is also representativeness, as you have
no way of knowing how representative your sample is due to the
reliance on participants recruiting others. This can lead to sampling
bias.

Example: Snowball sampling

 You are researching experiences of homelessness in your
city. Since there is no list of all homeless people in the city,
probability sampling isn’t possible. You meet one person
who agrees to participate in the research, and she puts you
in contact with other homeless people that she knows in the
area.

5. Quota sampling
Quota sampling relies on the non-random selection of a
predetermined number or proportion of units. This is called a
quota.

You first divide the population into mutually exclusive subgroups

(called strata) and then recruit sample units until you reach your
quota. These units share specific characteristics, determined by
you prior to forming your strata. The aim of quota sampling is to
control what or who makes up your sample.

Example: Quota sampling

You want to gauge consumer interest in a new produce

delivery service in Boston, focused on dietary preferences.
You divide the population into meat eaters, vegetarians, and
vegans, drawing a sample of 1000 people. Since the
company wants to cater to all consumers, you set a quota of
200 people for each dietary group. In this way, all dietary
preferences are equally represented in your research, and
you can easily compare these [Link] continue recruiting
until you reach the quota of 200 participants for each
subgroup.

Other interesting articles

If you want to know more about statistics, methodology, or
research bias, make sure to check out some of our other articles
with explanations and examples.

 Statistics

Student’s t-distribution
Normal distribution
Null and Alternative Hypotheses
Chi square tests
Confidence interval
Quartiles & Quantiles

 Methodology

Cluster sampling
Stratified sampling
Data cleansing
Reproducibility vs Replicability
Peer review
Prospective cohort study

 Research bias

Implicit bias
Cognitive bias
Placebo effect
Hawthorne effect
Hindsight bias
Affect heuristic
Social desirability bias

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Frequently asked questions about

sampling

What is sampling? 

Why are samples used in research? 

What is probability sampling? 

What is non-probability sampling? 

What is multistage sampling? 

What is sampling bias? 

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Shona McCombes
Shona has a bachelor's and two master's degrees, so she's an
expert at writing a great thesis. She has also worked as an editor
and teacher, working with students at all different levels to improve
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