FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT FAILURES IN NIGERIA, POSSIBLE CAUSES AND REMEDIES

A RESEARCH PROJECT

PRESENTED BY

WOSU, FORTUNE EMEKA

SUBMITTED TO

THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

RIVERS STATE UNIVERSITY

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR

THE AWARD OF POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA
IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

JANUARY, 2023
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this project on “Flexible pavement failure, possible causes and

remedy is on original work of Wosu Fortune Emeka with Matriculation Number PG.2020/00809

carried out under the supervision of Engr. Amadi Okparali in the department of Civil

Engineering, Rivers State University.

--------------------- …………….....…………
Student Signature/Date

Engr. ----------------- ……………....………....

Supervisor Signature/Date

Prof. ---------------- …....…………………....

Head of Department Signature/Date

…………………….......…………. …………....…………....
External Supervisor Signature/Date

DEDICATION
 This project is dedicated to the Almighty God for making this research work a huge

success.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
 With the successful completion of this study, I acknowledge and appreciate the

Almighty God, the Alpha and Omega for being my fortress, my light and my salvation whose

guidance and extravagant grace have been immeasurable, the giver of wisdom without whose

help and provision, my efforts could have been fruitless. He started with me abinitio and

through him I have a wonderful completion.

ABSTRACT

This project work which focused on the “flexible pavement failure in Nigeria, possible causes
and remedies” is a research work which is to investigate the cause of road pavement failure and
their remedies. The project work, reviews the early development of road construction and the
way of which the constructed roads will be maintained for it to be durable enough. It also
enable to re-examined the problems caused by failed roads in Nigeria and their remedies to the
various causes of flexible pavement where shown to be provision of appropriate design, use of
professional Engineers. Decongestion of Roads, use of appropriate materials in construction,
designed to expectations and specifications.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page

Certification - - - - - - - - - ii

Dedication - - - - - - - - - - iii

Acknowledgements - - - - - - - - iv

Abstract - - - - - - - - - - v
Table of Contents - - - - - - - - vi

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction - - - - - - - - - 1

1.1 Background of study - - - - - - - 2

1.2 Statement of Problem- - - - - - - 5

1.3 Aim/Objectives of study - - - - - - 8

1.3.1 Objectives - - - - - - - - - 8

1.4 Significance of study - - - - - - - 8

1.5 Scope / Limitations of study - - - - - - 9

1.5.1 Scope of the study - - - - - - - 9

1.5.2 Limitations of study - - - - - - - 9

1.6 Definition of terms - - - - - - - 10

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Flexible Pavement Deterioration Mechanism - - - 12

2.2 Performance Evaluation of Pavement - - - - 13

2.3 Performance Prediction Modules (PPM) - - - - 15

2.4 Global Scenario - - - - - - - - 15

CHAPTER THREE
 METHOD AND MATERIALS

3.1 Introduction - - - - - - - - 19

3.2 Research Design - - - - - - - - 19

3.3 Area of Study - - - - - - - - 20

3.4 Population of the Study - - - - - - 20

3.5 Sample Size - - - - - - - - 20

3.6 Instrument of data collection - - - - - - 21

3.7 Description of Instrument - - - - - - 21

3.8 Validation of Instrument - - - - - - - 21

3.9 Reliability of the Instrument -- - - - - 22

3.10 Questionnaire administration and Retrieval - - - 22

3.11 Statistical Procedure - - - - - - - 22

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

4.1 Introduction - - - - - - - 24

4.2 Research Question 1 - - - - - - 24

4.3 Research Question 2 - - - - - - 26

4.4 Research Question 3 - - - - - - 27

4.5 Research Question 4 - - - - - - 28

4.6 Research Question 5 - - - - - - 29

4.7 Research Question 6 - - - - - - 30

4.8 Research Question 7 - - - - - - 31

4.9 Research Question 8 - - - - - - 32

4.10 Research Question 9 - - - - - - 32

4.11 Research Question 10 - - - - - - 33

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion - - - - - - - - 35

5.2 Recommendations - - - - - - 35

References

Appendix

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Road construction and maintenance is an important desire for development

especially in developing countries, market accessibility, economic growth, natural

resource exploration, habitat fragmentation, deforestation and the disappearance of

wild life are all related to road existence and status. Road constructed and maintained

that collapse upon the need of local society and their extension in the country. Also the

priority of investment (political needs, industrial stations, or agricultural habitats and

zones) is address when decisions usually taken for new construction of roads and for

maintenance.
 Road transport is the moving engine for other sectors and activities in

developing countries. It provide access to industry, agriculture, investment, health

services, and education through providing of goods and passengers. And the lack of

good roads or the existence of poorly maintained or poor conditions of roads are

barriers to the development and investment in developing countries.

The accurate and sensitive prediction of rutting development is an essential

element for the efficient management of pavement system by poor testing and

maintenance to keep road in a good condition. Road defect are visible evidence of an

undesirable and avoidable conditions in the pavement affecting serviceability, structural

conditions or appearance, performance and function. Also, the definition of ROAD

DEFECT includes, any part of a road, highway or construction site that does not meet

regulation for safe roads. In addition to that; road defect are most often causes injuries

to the people or damage to vehicle that include; inadequate roads shoulders, lanes that

are uneven, pavement that uneve, improperly marked sign malfunction stop

construction negligence and municipal negligence. OKIKBO,(2012).

1.1 Background of Study

Construction is one of the primary activties in which human more large

quantities of earth materials. From the earliest times, one of the strongest indication of

the society's level of development has been it's road system. Road makes a crucial

contribution to economic development and growth and bring important social benefits.
 Kaare, Kuhi and KOPPEL (2012) pointed that flexible pavement deteriorate under

the effect of traffic loads and climate. This effect depend on the technology applied in

material construction and application on the road, but the greatest effect depend on

traffic loads and volumes proposed to be repeated on road section. ABHIJIT (2011)

investigated the effect of poor drainage on the road condition and found that the

increase in moisture content decreases the strength of pavement. Therefore, poor

drainage causes the premature failure of the pavement tends to crack at some point of

their life under the combination action of traffic and the environment and climate

conditions. WEE ET AL.., (2009). Wisconsin department of transport investigate the

pavement fatigue as a result of the number and weight of axle loads. They also discusses

how wheel loads, number of truck axles, number of truck tires quality ofsubgrade,

pavement thickness and changing seasons contribute to pavement failure.

In addition, climate conditions were seen to have seen to have an effect on road

deterioration, vehicles operating costs and safety and the environment ANTALA ET, AL

(2011). Transport canade (2015) indicate that climatic factors are a major cause for

pavement deterioration. It is a fact that temperature, frost and thaw action as well as

moisture are factors that can cause certain types of pavement deterioration Transport

canada(2005). These factors can also intensify pavement deterioration on caused by

heavy vehicles.

Hariscandia (2004), found that potholes, cracks, edges defects, depressions and

corrugation are significant road defects observed in the field. At the same time he
 emphasized that traffic, age, road geometry, weather, drainage, construction quality as

well as construction material, maintenance policy play the major role as road

deterioration agents. Korkiala_tanttu and Deason (2007) sugguested that in the

pavement or embankment, water plays a primary role in giving shorter service life and

in increasing the need of rehabilitation measures.

Abdulkareem and Adeoti (2004) examine the method of road maintenance in

Nigeria. To do so, they defined and analyzed the causes of structural failure of highway

and suggest some factors; action of wheather, rain and heat, unstable ground condition

and poor drainage, poor economic material and methods post construction activities

like digging of trenches along the road etc, poor workmanship and inadequate

maintenance. On his study on Nigeria highway, Okido (2012) has indetified some of the

factors that causes highway failure. These factors are; poor design, poor workmanship,

poor maintenance of already built highways, use of low quality materials in construction

work and applying of heavy traffic that were not meant for the road.

Futhermore, he also suggest that the following will lead to highway failure such

as; poor highway facilities, no knowledge base, inadequate sanction for highway failure,

no local standard of practice, poor laboratory in situ test on soil and week local

professional bodies in highway design, construction and management.

1.2 Statement of Problem

 The problem of pavement failure in Nigeria has become an embarrassing stigma.

In some part of this country, normal interaction has been frustrated by bad pavement.

Road user are in distress as they are not identifying the proposed factors that causes the

deterioration of highway in Nigeria from client perspective comparing them with the

contractor's perspective comparing them with the relative importance for the use by

consultants and main road contracting firms. A questionnaire was designed including

the factors and ascertains their important index from client's perspective.

The current research highlights the factors for cracks and defects in highways

and roads in Nigeria from client’s perspective and comparing them with contractors'

perspective. Tarawneh and sarireh (2013). The work will help in prioritizing the relevant

importance for these factors to improve the programs for highways and road in future.

Current research mainly highlights the factors proposed to have an effect on the

highway pavement performance. Based on previous studies and face to face interviews

in some of the construction companies and consultancy, a list of some factors were

proposed to have an effect on pavement performance and defects according to

researchers and contractors in road construction. A questionnaire was prepared

including these factors of road cracks and defeats. The prepared questionnaire was

initially presented to a group of experts in questionnaire preparation.

These problems must be looked into because our country cannot develop with

rickety infrastructure and will not succeed in attracting dire of foreign investment or

tourism where things are this bad.

 Failures of flexible pavements (bituminous roads) have been prevalent in many

developing countries, a trend causing concern to both the road users and the road

authorities. In this regard, it was found necessary that an investigation be initiated to

determine the possible causes of such failures and a case study was carried out on

CALABER-ITU highway in Akwa ibom state, Nigeria. The investigation were conducted in

several categories to determine the pavement characteristics such as structural strength

by Benkelman beam deflection test (BBDT), Skid resistance by British pendulum tester

(BPT), Traffic loading by axle load measurement, Traffic volumes of counting and ageing

characteristics of the type of the bitumen used by cut ling cores and extracting the

bitumen for standard tests, such as penetration, ductility, bitumen content, air voids

softening point and CBR using the light drop weight tester (LDWT). The visual inspection

of the pavement showed that due to the hardening of the bitumen and overloading,

cracks and potholes were very common for the whole stretch of the road. Axle load

exceed the maximum allowed axled load limits, especially until 19th January 1996, after

that the enforcement of axle load limits was tightened. This fact together with the

revelation that road is a very busy one as depicted in the traffic counts, could be one of

the major causes of road's fast deterioration.

1.3 Aim/Objectives of Study

Maintenance is often neglected or improperly performed resulting in rapid

deterioration of the road and eventual failure from both climatic and vehicle use impact
 thus this project is aimed at knowing more about flexible pavements construction, their

causes, failures, procedures and maintenance.

1.3.1 Objectives

 To review the causes of pavement failure in Nigeria.

 To review the early development in flexible pavements construction

 To know the various causes of pavement failure and remedies

 To review the pavement problem in Nigeria and history of pavement failure and

make recommendations as appropriate

1.4 Significance of Study

This study will fill the knowledge gap by investigating the role of knowledge

management initiative in reducing the rate of flexible pavement failure in the country.

Also, it helps educate both the students and society on the dangers of poor

construction of flexible pavement. This project work also helps students to know the

remedies of the different types of pavement.

Finally, this study will build upon the existing academic knowledge and bring

practical issues, best strategies and critical success factor to the pavement construction
1.5 Scope/Limitations of Study

1.5.1 Scope of the Study

The scope of this project work comprises mainly of flexible pavements

construction, it causes, failures, and various maintenance of road work.

1.5.2 Limitations of Study

The researcher encountered some problems which could have cause the study

unsuccessful while carrying out the study, they are as follows;

 Financial Constrain: The researcher encountered some financial difficulty; it

takes financing in the process if the study must be successful.

 The researcher was face with the problem of retrieving of questionnaire.

 The researcher also encountered some difficulty in locating related and current

literatures. This was because most of the literatures were out dated. However,

the researcher was to locate, read and review work of recognized and acceptable

authors.

1.6. Definition of Terms

1.6.1 Road Defect: These are visible evidence of an undesirable and avoidable conditions I the

pavement affecting serviceability, structural condition or appearance, performance and

functions.

1.6.2 Pavement: Is the upper most layer of a road which provide the firm smooth water

proofing skid resistance riding surface.

1.6.3 Highway: A highway is a way over which vehicles and public in generally may lawfully pass

without any license. It is a class of roads.

1.6.4 Failure of Pavement: is defined as the localized depression and heaving up in its vicinity.

1.6.5 Roads: A road is a way for vehicles and other types of traffic (human and animal) which

may or may not be lawfully usable to the public.

1.6.6 Cracks: These are lines on the surface of a road structure along which it has slit without

breaking into separate parts.

1.6.7 Highway Maintenance: Is define as the preserving and keeping each components of the

highway such far as possible in their original conditions and provide such addition work

which is necessary to keep the traffic moving safely.

1.6.8 Potholes: Is isolated depression in a road surface.

1.6.9 Bridge: These are structures built across a channel or water within section of road to

allow or give access to people or vehicles moving from one side to another.
1.6.10 Asphalts: is a term used for a mixture of small stone sand, filler and bitumen which is

used as a road paving materials.

1.6.11 Bitumen: is a black viscous mixture of hydrocarbons obtain naturally as a residue from

petroleum distillation.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Flexible Pavement Deterioration Mechanism

The structural and functional conditions of a flexible pavement changes with

time due to continued effects of its structural adequacy, volume composition and

loading characteristics of traffic, environment, surrounding conditions and maintained

input provided. The failure of pavement occurs due to internal damage caused by traffic

load within an operational environment, over a period of time; and is not an abrupt

phenomenon. Deterioration can also be defined as the process of accumulation of

damage and failures of the pavement is said to have reached at the limiting stage of

serviceability level. Studies conducted all over the world have established that even

though design and construction techniques vary from country to country, the

deterioration pattern of pavement shows the same trend.

According to Gedafe, (2007) <the main deterioration includes cracking, pothole,

rutting along wheel path and roughness of road surface>. The physical manifestation of

the internal damage (cracking, rutting, potholes etc) is known as distress. Percentage of

distress gives an indication of the pavement conditions. Different modes of distress

occur either independently or simultaneously with mutual interaction. For planning

purpose, the distress can be based on distress type and most important are those,

which trigger decisions. The distresses can be broadly classified as;

1. Fatigue cracking;

 Loading-associated cracking

 Thermal cracking (due took freezing and thaw)

 Longitudinal cracking at edges

 Deflection cracking

2. Load associated pavement distortion * transverse distortion or rutting

 Longitudinal distortion or roughness

 3. Non load associated pavement distortion due to foundation movements.

4. Disintegration (raveling, stripping, potholes)

2.1.1 Types of Failures in Flexible Pavements due to Structural Distresses

Some of the structural distresses which can cause failures in flexible pavements are:

1. Alligator Cracking of Flexible Pavements

Alligator cracks are also called as map cracking. This is a fatigue failure caused in the asphalt
concrete. A series of interconnected cracks are observed due to such distress.

The tensile stress is maximum at the asphalt surface (base). This is the position where the cracks
are formed, i.e. the area with maximum tensile stress. A parallel of longitudinal cracks will
propagate with time and reaches the surface.

Repeated loading and stress concentration will help the individual cracks to get connected.
These will resemble as a chicken wire or similar to the alligator skin. This is termed as the
alligator cracking. It is also known as the crocodile cracking.

These cracking is observed only in areas that have repeated traffic loading. Alligator cracking is
one shows alligator cracks formed in the pavement.

2. Depressions in Flexible Pavements

There are certain areas in the pavement that are localized and have a lower elevation compared to the
surrounding pavement level. These lowering are depressions found on the pavement. They are mainly
noticed only when they are filled with water (After rain).

Depressions in flexible pavements are a very common distress found in parking lot construction as well
as in overlays. These depressions can be caused either by the foundation soil settlement due to
continuous loading or it can be formed during the construction.
There are different severity levels that are considered for the depression in the flexible pavement that is
constructed for airfield purposes.

3. Corrugations in Flexible Pavements

The corrugations are distress seen in the pavement at regular intervals in the form of ridges and valleys.
These are usually less than 5 feet, along with the direction of the pavement.

The ridges form of corrugations will be perpendicular to the traffic direction. Unstable pavement plus
traffic will create such distress. Where the traffic starts and stops, this distress are observed.

4. Potholes

In road surfaces where a portion of the same has broken away, cause a disruption by forming a pothole.
These are also called as a kettle. In the Western United States, these are known as chuckhole.

The pavement fatigue is the main reason behind the formation of potholes. The occurrence of fatigue
cracking will interlock to form alligator cracking. These chunks between the cracks formed in the
pavement will become loose and will be picked out under continuous loading and stresses. This will
leave a pothole on the pavement.

In cold temperatures, the water trapped in the pothole will carry out the freezing and thawing action
that leads to additional stresses and crack propagation.

Once the pothole is formed, the distress grows resulting in the continuous removal of pavement chunks.
Water entrapped will increase this rate of expansion of distress. The pothole can expand to several feet
in width. They don’t develop too much in depth. The vehicle tires are damaged due to large potholes.

5. Rutting of Flexible Pavements

The depression formed in the surface is called the rutting. This is formed in the wheel path surface. This
depression will make the other sides of the wheel to undergo uplift as shown in the figure-6. This
pavement uplift is also called as shearing.
These ruts like depressions are evident after rain. Where these depressions would be filled with water.
There are two types of rutting that can occur;

Pavement Rutting

Subgrade Rutting

6. Swelling of Flexible Pavements

These are distress that long and gradual wave. These can be ten feet long. The swelling distress is
characterized by the upward bulge in the pavement surface. Surface cracking is the next series of
distress that is seen after swelling.

The main reason behind swelling in flexible pavement is the frost action in the subgrade. Where frosting
results in the swelling of the soil.

2.1.2 Types of Failures in Flexible Pavements due to Environmental Distresses

1. Bleeding in Flexible Pavements

The phenomenon of formation of a film of asphalt binder over the surface of the pavement surface is
called as bleeding. The occurrence of bleeding will give a shiny glass like reflecting surface. The layer will
have bubbles which are seen as blisters. The asphalt binder formed will be sticky in nature.

The filling of asphalt binder into the aggregate voids during hot weather conditions and their expansion
in later situations will result in bleeding. As the process of bleeding cannot be reverted in cold
temperatures, they remain on the top of the pavement as such. The bleeding can be caused due to the
following factors:

Excessive asphalt binder in the mix

Excessive application of the binder during surface treatment

Lower air void content – no adequate voids for the bitumen to penetrate

2. Block Cracking in Flexible Pavements

This is also called as thermal cracking. The cracking is happening in the form of blocks. These cracks are
interconnected making the pavement to divide into rectangular pieces (almost rectangular).

The size of each rectangle may vary from one foot by one foot to ten foot by ten foot. This is spread over
a wide pavement area. But these are observed in areas of no traffic. This is an after effect of
environmental exposure, hence it is called thermal cracking. The temperature effects and aging are the
possible reasons.

3. Bumps and Sags

Pavement surface that is localized, small in area that has undergone an upward displacement will be
named as bumps. These are caused due to the instability factor of pavement.

Several factors contribute to bumping formation. They can be caused even due to buckling or the
bulging of the concrete slabs. Areas, where an asphalt pavement is laid over a concrete pavement,
observes such failures.

Another contribution to bumps are the frost heaves that creates bumps due to expansion. Oxidation will
result in the spelling of the crack edges. Any plant roots growing under the pavement too can cause
bumps in the pavement.

The sags are mainly caused due to the settlement or the displacement of the pavement surface. Sags are
small, abrupt and localized. Large or long dips in the pavement can be created by the sags.

4. Edge Cracking in Flexible Pavements

In unconfined asphalt pavements, edge cracking is found to occur. During the compaction process of the
pavement, the edges will start to yield, especially when there is no sort of confinement like curbs or
edge barriers.

The edges will yield with age, undergo oxidation and becomes brittle. The edge cracking is observed in
the shape of ‘C’ formed along the edges of the street, parking lot or the roads.

5. Joint Reflection Cracking

These are cracks that are observed in the flexible overlay over a rigid pavement. The rigid pavement
joints that are an underlying experience these cracks.

6. Raveling

The dislodgement of aggregate particles will result in the disintegration of the hot mixed asphalt
progressively from the surface to downward direction. This failure is called as raveling. This
dislodgement is the loss of bonding between the aggregate particles and the asphalt binder.

The aggregates are sometimes coated with dust particles that result in lack of bonding. This will make
the aggregate to bind with the dust rather than the binder.

7. Cold Joints in Flexible Pavements

These are longitudinal joints which are formed in the asphalt pavement. This failure occurs when a hot
mix asphalt is poured adjacent to an existing pavement. This kind of failure is mainly common in parking
lots, inverted crowns and areas with lower traffic.

The difference in temperature and the plasticity variation will bring a different between the two layers.
This will cause a longitudinal joint to occur between the asphalt mats that are laid.

The longitudinal joint possesses a lesser density compared to other pavements. These longitudinal joints
called the cold joint, with time will let intrusion of water. It increases the roughness and hence limits the
life of the pavement.

Longitudinal and Transverse Cracking Distress

This distress can be considered as either a structural or an environmental distress. The longitudinal
cracks are formed parallel to the pavement alignment or the center line of the pavement.

This is a fatigue cracking. Here, the cracking occurs in the direction of traffic flow. The transverse
cracking is formed perpendicular to the pavement centerline. This is caused as a thermal cracking.
2.2 Performance Evaluation of Pavements

In order to build more durable road for tomorrow, it’s impressive to find out how

pavements and materials will perform under repeated heavy loads. The deterioration of

pavement shows progress during the initial years after construction, but very fast

progress during later years. Performance evaluation involves a thorough study of

various factors such as sub grade support, pavement compositions and it thickness,

traffic loading and environment conditions. The evaluation is broadly classified into; (1)

structural evaluation and (2) functional evaluation. Pavement evaluation process is

normally represented using four criteria, namely, pavement roughness (reliability),

pavement distress (surface conditions), pavement deflection (structural failure) and skid

resistance (safety). Certain terms are defined by researcher and are mentioned here

before looking upon the model developed. They are;

1. Present Serviceability: this is the term used to represent the ability of specific

section of pavement to serve high speed, high volume, mixed traffic within the

existing conditions.

2. Present of Serviceability Index (PSI): PSI is a mathematical combination of values

obtained from certain physical measurements formulated to predict the PSR for

those pavement within prescribe limits.

3. Performance Index (PI): this denote the summary of PSI over a period of time
 which can be represented by the area under the PSI versus time curve. There are

many ways in which the summary value can be computed. The simplest summary

consist of the mean ordinate of the curve of PSI against time.

Aggarwal et al., (2005) has given an overall picture of the problems of road

networks in developing countries which are rapid traffic growth, inadequate funding for

maintenance and up keep, lack of skilled man power attitude toward maintenance etc.

Thube et al. (2005) critically reviewed the maintenance management strategy for low

volume roads in Nigeria and stressed the need for developing pavement distress data

base, deterioration models, optimal investment and maintenance strategy and highlight

the need for a suitable national level policy regarding paving of unpaved low roads in

Nigeria.

2.3 Performance Prediction Modules (PPM)

According to the world road association Ferreira et al, (2004) a PPM is a

mathematical representation that cash be used to predict the future state of pavements

based on current state, deterioration factors (traffic and climate ) and effect resulting

from maintenance and rehabilitation action.

The projection of the present condition of the performance of the pavement is

done within user-defined scenarios of future loading land maintenance using accurate

and realistic models. But the outcome of the applied model will be acceptable only if

they conform to a reasonable set of generic criteria. Road deterioration modeling is

 considered as important parameters in Road Infrastructure Management and Road

Maintenance Management system (RIMRMMS). Good road deterioration models should

be able to suggest efficient and economically viable treatment options, which could be

converted into realistic work programs and strategy for planning. They assumed

important in a PMS is due to many reason was given below.

1. The type of the deterioration indicated by model its severity, intensity and extent

with time of occurrence are use to decide upon the nature of the proposed

treatment.

2. Modeled maintenance effects can be realistic only if the road deterioration

model produces accurate predictions.

2.4 Global Scenario

Juang and Amirkhanian, (1992) documented the findings of a cases study carried

out on the use of pavement management system (PMS) in United state. A model using

fuzzy logic for a PMS based on priority ranking was developed. An index called Unified

Pavement Distress Index (UPDI) was also developed and this was used to measure the

distress conditions of pavement. Guideline for rating six types of distress, weight among
the different types of distresses, fuzzy set representation, fuzzy mathematics and

definition of UPDI and it use in pavement database were given by this approach.

Collop and Cebon (1995) reported a whole life performance model (WLPPM).

This model is capable of making deterministic pavement damage prediction resulting

from realistic traffic and environmental loading. Realistic prediction of pavement

degradation with traffic has been obtained by taking into account most of the primary

factors of vehicles pavement interactions. Simulation by WLLPPM shows that short wave

length surface roughness component can be smoothed out , and traffic loading

increases the amplitude of long wave length components.

Ferreira et al., (2011) compared pavement performance model to recommended

one for the use on the Nigeria pavement management system. The same model was

used in LCCA model in USA. Chen and Flintsch, (2007).

Owolabi et al., (2012) conducted comprehensive investigation and developed

performance model for a typical flexible road pavement in Nigeria. Data on traffic

characteristics, pavement condition rating distress types, pave thickness, roughness

index, rainfall and temperature were collected to develop model to pavement

conditions score (PCS) and international roughness index(IRI). The models were

validated which showed that they can predict the deterioration of pavement with

reasonable accuracy and can be used to update pavement condition data prior to each

maintenance program.
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODS AND MATERIALS

3.1 Introduction

As regarded to this chapter, the materials and methods use in getting data and

information for this project work. This chapter explains the steps, methods, procedures
 and the material that was used in carrying out the necessary information about the

research project. These are represented under the various subheadings.

1. Research design

2. Area of the study

3. Population of study

4. Sample size

5. Instrument for data collection

6. Description of instrument

7. Validation of instrument

8. Reliability of instrument

9. Questionnaire administration and retrieving

10. Statistical procedure

3.2 Research Design

This study was design to survey and gather data’s from the causes of flexible

pavement failure in Nigeria. The design was considered appropriate because it enabled

the researcher to administer questionnaires to different respondents.

3.3 Area Of Study

 The researcher carried out his work at Seyang Construction Company which is

located in Ikot Ekpene Local Government Area, Akwa Ibom state.

3.4 Population of the Study

These comprises of the workers in Seyang Construction Company in Ikot Ekpene

Local Government Area, Akwa Ibom state where 30 workers were selected to carry out

the construction work.

3.5 Sample Size

In the case study, the 30 respondents were randomly selected, they are, 1

director, 5 engineers, 2 architect, 6 machine operators, 2 surveyor, 10 laborers

(villagers), 2 head of department, 2 supervisors.

3.6 Instrument of Data Collection

The researchers used the Tertiary source of data collection which also consists of

some information of collection and distillation of primary and secondary source.

The questionnaires were used to answer the question which was raised by the
researchers in his study. The respondents were given option which is expected to cover
the range of research questions from the executive use of questionnaire by the
 researcher. The questions are constructed in short and precise manner for quick and
easily understanding.

3.7 Description of Instrument

The questionnaire consists of two section, section A and section B

Section A: Involves the personal data of the respondent.

Section B: These were arranged in a way that the respondents can simply answer YES or
NO with the boxes provided.

3.8 Validation of Instrument

This indicates the extent to which a measure provides an accurate

representation of what one is trying to measure. The questionnaire was conducted and

submitted to the project supervisor who made correction that made the instrument

valid.

3.9 Reliability of the Instrument

The instrument used (questionnaire) was able to solicit similar responses from

respondents where ever the instrument was administered at different lines respectively.

3.10 Questionnaire Administration and Retrieval

After the questionnaires was submitted to the supervisor and corrections were

made it was approved. The researcher distributed the questionnaire by himself

 considering the importance of this project, the researcher gave the respondent enough

time to respond to the questions after which he went back to collect the completed

questionnaire.

3.11 Statistical Procedure

The data’s been collected with the aid of the questionnaire and were carefully

arranged and analyzed using statistics (in percentage). The results achieved were

systematically and scientifically organized.

Formula for computation

Total Number of Responses 100

x
Total Number of Respondents 1
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