SP6: GENERAL BIOLOGY 2

MODULE 6: MENDEL’S LAW OF INHERITANCE

CYCLE 3 | S.Y. 2022-2023 TRANSCRIBED BY: Jannie Tolentino | 12-OLF
LECTURER: MELVIN AGUILAR

LESSON/TOPIC  GAMETES
SUBTOPIC  Reproductive sex cells
SUB-SUBTOPIC
 HETEROZYGOUS
INTRODUCTION  Organisms thatbhave two different alleles for the same
trait (Aa)
 Your genes are responsible for the traits or characteristics
you inherited from your parents or grandparents. Genes are  HOMOZYGOUS
the units of heredity composed of DNA molecules that are  Organisms that have two identical alleles for a particular
transferred from parents to offspring. trait
 (AA) (aa)
 In this module, you will understand that all organisms have a
set of genes inherited from the previous generation. Through  PUNNETT SQUARE
advancements in science and technology, you can now  Diagram used to predict an outcome of a particular cross
understand how genes are acquired and passed on from one or breeding experiment
generation to the next.
 The scientific study of genes and how they affect heredity is PROBABILITY AND GENETICS
called genetics.
 Whenever Mendel performed a cross with pea plants, he
 Laws have empirical (felt by senses) evidences. carefully counted the offspring. With his knowledge in
mathematics, he found out that every time he repeated a
 EVOLUTION, GENETICS, TAXONOMY = UNDERSTANDING particular cross, he obtained similar results, For example,
BIODIVERSITY whenever he crossed two plants that were heterozygous for
stem height, he kept on getting similar results that three out
GREGOR MENDEL AND HIS WORKS of four offspring were tall. With these results, he realized that
the principles of probability could be used in genetics.
 GREGOR JOHANN MENDEL
 The field of genetics somehow began with Gregor  Probability is the branch of mathematics that explains the
Johann Mendel, an Austrian monk, teacher, and likelihood that a particular event will occur.
biologist. He discovered the basic principles in the field  EX. In tossing a coin, there is a 50% probability, or
of genetics through his garden pea experiments, which half chance, that you will get a head. The other 50% is
is why he is known as the father of modern genetics. for you getting a tail.
 His experiments on pea plants led to the discovery that  EX. In rolling a dice, the probability of getting an even
there are certain traits that follow particular patterns of number is 50% because three out of six numbers in a die
inheritance from one generation to the next. This led to are even numbers (three out of six is also equal to -half).
him formulating the laws of inheritance the law of
dominance, law of segregation, and law of independent PUNNETT SQUARE EXPERIMENTS
assortment.
 Mendel's experiments involved the use of the punnett square.
IMPORTANT TERMS IN GENETICS  In a punnett square, gametes produced by the parents are
written on the outer sides (the top and the left sides) of the
 ALLELE square. The possible gene combinations are represented
 one of two or more alternative forms of a gene inside the square. Capital letters represent the dominant
alleles, and the lowercase letters represent the recessive
 GENOTYPE alleles.
 Genetic composition of an individual
MONOHYBRID CROSS
 PHENOTYPE
 Observable characteristics of an individual  A cross between parents that differ in one trait is
a monohybrid cross.
 RECESSIVE TRAIT
 Trait that is masked in the presence of dominant trait  The following Punnett square shows a monohybrid cross
between two plants. For example, the allele that codes for a
 DOMINANT TRAIT yellow-colored flower (Y) is dominant over the allele that
 Trait that is expressed in phenotype (always capital) codes for a green-colored flower (y). Both parents
(represented on top and on the left side of the square) contain
 F1 GENERATION heterozygous alleles that code for a yellow-colored flower (Yy).
 "first filial or first generation of offspring For a monohybrid cross, there are two kinds of
gametes produced in reference to the allele being studied Y
 F2 GENERATION and y.
 generation produced by interbreeding individuals of the
F1 generation

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 Y y  Pair gametes inside the box.
Y YY Yy  Write the Phenotype in each box.
(yellow) (yellow)
y Yy yy AB Ab aB ab
(yellow) (green) AB AABB AABb AaBB AaBb
(Black hair (Black hair (Black hair (Black
 Each square in the Punnett square signifies a 25% chance of & brown & brown & brown hair &
the genotype and phenotype of the offspring. The results in eyes) eyes) eyes) brown
the Punnett square show that the genotypes and phenotypes eyes)
are not the same for all offspring. The Punnett square shows Ab AABb AAbb AaBb Aabb
that 25% contains the YY genotype 50% contains the Yy (Black hair (Black hair (Black hair (Black
genotype, and the remaining 25% contains the yy genotype. & brown & blue & brown hair
 This means that an offspring has more chances of getting eyes) eyes) eyes) ^blue
a heterozygous genotype (Yy) because the eyes)
Punnett square shows a 50% probability for it. On the aB AaBB AaBb aaBB aaBb
other hand, there is a 75% probability that (Black hair (Black hair (blonde (blonde
the offspring's phenotype will show a dominant trait, & brown & brown hair & hair &
whereas the remaining 25% will show : recessive trait. eyes) eyes) brown brown
This means that, from the example, an offspring has a eyes) eyes)
75% chance of having the trait for the yellow flower, and ab AaBb Aabb aaBb Aabb
an offspring has only a 25% chance of getting the trait (Black hair (Black hair (blonde (blonde
for the green flower. & brown & blue hair & hair &
 Genotypic ratio (GR) = 1 YY:2 Yy: 1 yy or 1:2:1 eyes) eyes) brown blue
 Phenotypic ratio (PR) =3 yellow: 1 green or 3:1 eyes) eyes)

 In Humans, browns eyes (B) are dominant over blue eyes (b).  Identify the genotypic and the phenotypic ratios.
What type of offspring would you expect if the father is  GR= 1AABB: 2 AABb : 1 AAbb:2 AaBB:4 AaBb: 2 Aabb:1
heterozygous and the mother is homozygous recessive? aaBB:2 aaBb : 1 aabb (1:2:1:2:4:2:1:2:1)
 PR = 9 black hair and brown eyes:3 black hair and blue
B b eyes :3 blonde hair and brown eyes:1 blonde hair and
b Bb bb blue eyes (9:3:3:1)
(brown) (blue)
b Bb bb OTHER EXAMPLES:
(brown) (blue)
 In Guinea Pigs, rough coat is dominant to smooth coats; and
 Genotypic ratio (GR) = 2 Bb:2bb or 2:2 short hair is dominant over long hair. Cross a guinea pig
 Phenotypic ratio (PR) =2 brown: 2 blue or 2:2 Homozygous for a rough coat and short hair with a guinea pig
with a smooth coat and long hair. After doing the cross, write
DIHYBRID CROSS the expected genotypic and phenotypic ratios of the offspring.

 Two contrasting traits between parents can also be crossed  Some dogs bark when trailing, others are silent. The barking
to determine the genotype and the phenotype of their trait is due to a dominant gene. Standing ears are dominant to
offspring. This can be solved using a dihybrid cross For drooping ears. Show the cross between a heterozygous
example, each parent has two sets of genes, with each gene standing-eared barker, and a homozygous droopy eared silent
containing alleles for hair color and eye color. For the hair trailer.
color, the allele for black hair (A) is dominant over the allele
for blonde hair (a). For the eye color, the allele for brown eyes THE LAW OF DOMINANCE
(B) is dominant over the allele for blue eyes (b).
 Mendel's third law of inheritance has something to do with
 A father has black hair (Aa) and brown eyes (Bb), and the dominance. A trait is said to be dominant if it is expressed in
mother has black hair (Aa) and brown eyes too (Bb). Both are spite of the presence of another allele. For example, the Rr
heterozygous for the two traits. What are the phenotypic and gene contains a dominant gene for the round seed shape (R)
the genotypic ratios? and a recessive gene for the wrinkled seed shape (r).
 Thus, the round seed shape is manifested because it is the
STEPS IN DIHYBRID CROSS dominant allele. The law of dominance states that some
alleles are dominant, whereas others are recessive. An
 Identify the genotypes of the parents. organism with a dominant allele for a certain trait will always
 Father (AaBb) - heterozygous black hair (Aa) and express that trait. However, an organism with a recessive
heterozygous brown eyes (Bb) allele for a particular trait will express that trait only if the
 Mother (AaBb) - heterozygous black hair (Aa) and dominant allele is not present.
heterozygous brown eyes (Bb)
THE LAW OF SEGREGATION
 Determine the possible gamete combinations.
 Father- AB, Ab, aB, ab  Mendel's law of segregation describes what happens to the
 Mother- AB, Ab, aB, ab alleles during the formation of gametes. According to this law,
an individual has a pair of alleles for each trait.
 Write the possible gamete combinations of the parents on  During gamete formation, the alleles in the pair separate,
the top and on the left side of the punnett square. such that each gamete receives only one allele for the trait.

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 For example, a pea plant contains a gene for seed shape in the F1 generation was formed by the fusion of gametes that
which both alleles code for round. This condition can be have both homozygous alleles (AABB and aabb). As a result of
represented by RR, which indicates that the two letters are his experiment, he found out that the members of the F,
both alleles that code for the round shape of the seed. generation have phenotypes not found in the F, plants. This
Another pea plant with round seeds may have a different shows that the alleles that code for seed shape segregated
combination of alleles. independently from those that code for seed color..
 In this case, it is represented by R, with the capital letter
R representing the allele for the round shape and the MODIFICATIONS ON MENDEL’S CLASSIC RATIOS
lowercase r representing the allele for the wrinkled shape.
Each parent passes an allele at random to the offspring. It is  Not all patterns of inheritance can be described using
only upon gamete formation that the alleles are segregated. Mendel's laws. Sometimes, inheritance patterns are more
The parents with the alleles Tr can be seen with gametes complicated than simple dominance. For example, not
segregated into the uppercase T (tall) and the lowercase all offspring express purely dominant and recessive alleles.
t (short). Some offspring with heterozygous traits express traits that are
intermediate between the traits of their homozygous parents.
 On the other hand, there are also alleles that are both
expressed in the organism. Some individuals may also have
genes that contain more than two alleles. These modes of
inheritance are sometimes called non-Mendelian genetics.

INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE

 Incomplete dominance happens when one allele is not

completely dominant over the other allele. Incomplete
dominance often shows a heterozygous phenotype that is
intermediate between the two homozygous phenotypes. This
means that the traits have blended in the offspring.
 For example, a cross between two four-o' lock plants
(Mirabilis) shows an interesting result. If a red-flowered
(RR) plant is crossed with a white-flowered (rr) plant, the
resulting offspring are pink-flowered (Rr) plants.
THE LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

 The law of independent assortment states that alleles

segregate independently during the formation of gametes.
The genes do not influence one another on how they are
sorted. This law can be represented by Mendel's dihybrid
experiment.

CODOMINANCE

 Somewhat similar to incomplete dominance is the principle of

codominance. In codominance, both alleles contribute to the
phenotype of an organism. An example can be observed in
cattle, wherein the allele for red hair in cattle (R) is
codominant with the allele for white hair (W). If both alleles
are present in the offspring, a roan or pinkish-brown
appearance shows (RW). Roan is basically a combination of
both the red and the white hairs.

 In the first part, he crossed the plants that have round, yellow
peas (represented by the homozygous genotype AABB) with
plants that have wrinkled, green peas (represented by the
homozygous genotype aabb). All of the F1 offspring have
round, yellow peas (represented by the heterozygous
genotype AaBb). This shows that the alleles that code for the
round shape and for the yellow color of the peas are dominant
over the alleles that code for the wrinkled shape and for the
green color of the peas.
 Another notable example of codominance can be seen in
 However, this part only provides the hybrid plants needed for certain varieties of chickens. The allele for black feathers (B) is
the next cross. Mendel then crossed F1 plants to each other to codominant with the allele for white feathers (W). If
create the F2 generation of plants. Note that each plant in

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 these alleles are crossed, the offspring would appear speckled MOERN GENETICS
(BW) with black and white feathers.
PEDIGREE ANALYSIS

 One of the very important tools in studying human genetics

and patterns of inheritance is the pedigree chart. The
pedigree chart is similar to a family tree. It uses symbols that
show one's family history. It also shows the family relations
and the phenotypes of each member.

MULTIPLE ALLELES

 This type of inheritance involves having more than two

phenotypes for a particular trait, which happens when an
organism has more than two alleles for the trait. Thus, you
can observe a mixture of dominant alleles. For example, the
coat color in rabbits can be determined using four different
alleles as shown below. These four alleles can be combined in
different ways.

 Understanding the pedigree chart will help you identify

relevant medical facts about certain traits or diseases, as well
as the family history. You can use the pedigree chart to
note the genetic disorders that some family members have.
Thus, you can somehow predict if the offspring would have a
good chance of inheriting the genetic disorder if one of the
parents has that trait.

GENETIC RECOMBINATION

 Genetic recombination is the process of recombining genes

to produce offspring with traits that are different from those
of their parents. This involves the exchange of
genetic material, either between multiple chromosomes or
between different regions of the same chromosome.
 Another good example of multiple alleles is seen in the human
 The chromosomes that are passed on to the offspring are
blood type. Humans have four different blood types: A, B, AB,
combinations of the chromosomes of the parents. It can be
and O: Their alleles are shown in table below
observed that two chromosomes in each pair swap parts of
their DNA.

 Note that you have only two of these alleles in your genotype.
One allele came from your mother, and the other came from
your father. Among the three alleles, the allele i for blood type
O is recessive to the alleles for blood types A and B. The
different alleles can have these possible genotypes and
phenotypes, as shown in the table. SEX LINKAGE
 As seen in table, six genotypes and four phenotypes can be
derived from the three alleles of the human blood type. There  Sex linkage is a special pattern of inheritance. It applies to
are two possible genotypes each for blood types A and B, genes that are located on the sex chromosomes. Sex
wherein one genotype is homozygous (IAIA or IBIB ) and the hormones determine if an individual is male or female.
other one is heterozygous (IAi or IBi). Blood type AB, however, Females (XX) receive to X chromosome, one form each parent.
contains two different alleles (IAIB), and blood type O contains Males (XY), however, get an X chromosome from their mother
two recessive alleles (ii). and Y chromosome from their father.

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 deficiency, there must be two copies of the defective allele,
one on each of the two X chromosomes.
 Having two copies of the X chromosome is an adaptation for
females, because if one chromosome has a defective allele for
a certain disorder, the other functional copy can often work
well enough on its own, therefore preventing the genetic
disorder to be manifested or expressed. When a female carrier
for CVD breeds with a male with normal vision, the following is
demonstrated

HEMOPHILIA

 Another example of a sex-linked disorder is hemophilia. This is

a disorder related to blood clotting. The gene that codes for
an important protein necessary for blood clotting is missing in
a person with hemophilia. People with this kind of disorder
can bleed to death from just having minor cuts; they may also
 Different kinds of sex-linked genes are found on the X suffer internal bleeding from bumps or bruises.
chromosome. Because of further studies involving sex
chromosomes, more than 100 sex-linked genetic disorders
have now been mapped and classified on the X chromosome.
The Y chromosome is smaller than the X chromosome, and it
contains only a few genes.

DUCHENNE MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY

COLOR VISION DEFICIENCY (CVD)
 Duchenne muscular dystrophy is another sex-linked disorder.
 One of the genetic disorders associated with sex-linkage is A person with this kind of genetic disorder suffers progressive
color vision deficiency (CVD), which is the inability to weakening and loss of skeletal muscle. They do not
distinguish certain colors. Three human genes associated live normally beyond early adulthood.
with color vision are located on the X chromosome. A  The reason for this kind of disorder is a defective version of
defective version of at least one of these genes can produce the gene that codes for a muscle protein. Males are mostly
CVD. affected by this disorder. The progressive muscle
degeneration and weakness causes the muscle tissues to
break down over time. These are eventually replaced by fatty
deposits. The main symptom of a person with this disorder is
muscle weakness accompanied by difficulties with motor skills.

 This disorder is mostly associated with males because they

have only one X chromosome. If the X chromosome received
from the mother contains the defective gene. males will
automatically have CVD. However, for females to express this

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 GENERALIZATION

 Genetics is a very fascinating field because it has plenty of

practical applications.
 Genetics have enabled people to understand the basis for the
traits acquired from the previous generation. Genetics
explains a lot of things. Studying genetics can help us
know details about our own health; thus, we can make healthy
choices. Also, studying genetics can give us vast knowledge
about how to improve the productivity of certain
domesticated plant species that are economically important to
us. Genetics plays a big role in our society. By having an in-
depth understanding of genetics, we can really learn a lot of
things that will help us survive.