Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

1.1 Introduction
The term computer is derived from the Latin word ‘compute’ which means to calculate. A computer is
an electronic machine, devised for performing calculations and controlling operations that can be
expressed either in logical or numeric terms. A computer is an electronic device designed to accept
data or instruction (input), performs prescribed mathematical & logical operations at high speed
(processing) and supply the results of these operations to the outside world (output) or store the data.
In simple words it is an electronic device that performs mathematical & logical operations with the
help of instructions to process the information in order to achieve the desired results. Computers have
entered in every sphere of human life and found applications in various fields such as medicine and
health care, business, education, science, technology, government, entertainment, engineering,
architecture and agriculture.

1.2 Information & Communication Technology (ICT)

Information & Communication Technology is technology that merges computing with high-speed
communications links carrying data and information in the form of text audio, or video. The most
important consequence of information technology is that it is producing a gradual fusion of several
important industries in a phenomenon that has been called technological convergence. Technological
convergence is derived from a combination of two recent technologies computers and
communications.

1.3 Characteristics of Computers

Following are some of the characteristics of computers, which have made them an essential part of
every emerging technology and such a desirable tool in human development:

 Automatic. Computers are automatic; once started on a job, they carry on until the job is finished,
normally without any human intervention.
 Speed. A computer is a very fast device. Units of time are microseconds (10-6 second),
nanoseconds (10-9 second) or even picoseconds (10-12). A powerful computer is capable of
performing several billion (109) simple arithmetic operations per second.
 Accuracy. The accuracy of a computer is consistently high and the degree of accuracy of a
particular computer depends upon its design.
 Diligence. Unlike human beings, a computer is free from boredom, tiredness, lack of
concentration, etc., and hence can work for hours without creating any error and without
grumbling.
 Versatility. A computer is capable of performing almost any task provided that the task can be
reduced to a series of logical steps. A computer can be used to calculate spreadsheet, store data,
process text, listen music etc.
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 Power of Remembering. A computer can store and recall huge amount of information because of
its secondary storage capability.
 No I.Q. A computer is not a magical device. It can only perform tasks that a human being can. The
difference is that it performs these tasks with unthinkable speed and accuracy. It possesses no
intelligence of its own. Its I.Q. is zero. It has to be told what to do and in what sequence. Hence,
only the user can determine what tasks a computer will perform.
 No Feelings. Computers are devoid of emotion. They have no feelings and no instincts because
they are machines. Computers cannot make judgments on their own. Their judgment is based on
the instructions given to them in the form of programs that are written by us.

1.6 Classification of Computers: Computers can be categorized broadly by their application, the
type of data they process and their size.

Classification of
computers

Purpose Data Handling Functionality

Super

Analog Hybrid Micro Mini

Mainframe

General Specific Digital

Desktop Portable

1.6.1 Classification According to Purpose:

General-purpose computers can be used for different purposes. We need only have appropriate
software to use a general-purpose computer to perform a particular task. For example, the personal
computers (PCs) currently in wide use are general-purpose computers.

Special-purpose computers are specifically designed to perform one particular task. A computer that
guides a missile is, for example, a special-purpose computer.

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1.6.2 Classification According to the type of Data-Handled Techniques:

Analog computers: Process data that vary continuously with time, such as variations in temperature,
speed, chemical composition of petroleum products, or current flowing through a conductor. Used for
scientific & engineering purpose

Digital computers: Process digital data. All the PCs currently in wide use are digital computers.

Hybrid Computers: Incorporate the measuring feature of an analog computer and counting feature of
digital computer. For computational purposes, these computers use the analog components and for the
storage of intermediate results, digital memories are used. So they process both analog and digital
data.

1.6.3 Classification according to Functionality:

Supercomputers: Supercomputers are the most powerful and expensive computers; they are used for
problems requiring complex calculations. The CRAY and CYBER are typical examples of the
supercomputers. They can process a great deal of information and make extensive calculations very,
very quickly. They are the fastest, costliest and most powerful computers available today.

Mainframe computers: These are mainly found in large organizations. They can serve hundreds or
thousands of users, handling massive amounts of input, output and storage. They are used as e-
commerce servers handling transactions over the Internet. They are housed in special rooms, as they
require special power and environmental control. Mainframes are the second largest (in capability &
size) of the computer family. Mainframe allows its user to maintain a large information storage at a
centralize location and be able to access and process this data from different computers located at
different locations.

Minicomputers: A mini computer is a small digital computer, which normally is able to process and
store less data than a mainframe but more than a microcomputer. Generally Minis perform many of the
tasks that a mainframe can, but on a reduced scale. These are used as desktop devices that are often
connected to a mainframe in order to perform auxiliary operations. These are multi-user computers
designed to meet the computing needs for several people simultaneously in a small to medium size
business environment.

Workstations are powerful single-user computers used for tasks that require a great deal of number-
crunching power, such as product design and computer animation. They are often used as network
and Internet servers.

Micro Computers: A micro computer is a small, low cost digital computer, which usually consists of
a microprocessor, a storage unit, an input channel and an output channel, all of which may be on one
chip inserted into one or several PC Boards. The microcomputer is generally the smallest of the
computer family. Originally these were designed for individual users only, but nowadays they have
become a powerful tool for many businesses that, when networked together, can serve more than one
user. Microcomputers include desktop, laptop and hand held models such as PDAs (Personal Digital
Assistants).

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 Chapter-2

DATA REPRESENTATION

2.1 Number System:

Number systems have been around for thousand of years. It defines a set of values used to represent
the quantity, and other special characters. Number systems are basically of two types: Non positional
and positional number systems. In a non positional number system, special symbols or characters are
used to indicate the values. It is very difficult to perform arithmetic with such a numbers as it has no
symbol for zero. In a positional number system, the value of each digit in a number is defined not only
by the symbol but also by the symbol’s position. These symbols are called digits. Positional number
systems have a base or radix. The base or radix tells the number of symbols used in the system.
The number system we use in our day-to-day life is called the decimal number system. In this system,
the base is equal to 10 because there are ten symbols or digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9).
Computers use the binary number system. We have two symbols or digits (0, 1) that we can use in
this system. The smallest unit of data is called it (Binary digit) and is represented by an on (1) or off
(0) state of a switch. The octal number system with its eight symbols 0,1,2,3,4,5,6 and 7 is a base 8
system. Hexadecimal is another number system having base as 16.

Types of Number system

Number System Radix Value Set of Digits Example

Decimal r = 10 (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9) (25)10

Binary r=2 (0,1) (11001)2
Octal r=8 (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7) (31)8
Hexadecimal r = 16 (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,AB,C,D,E,F) (19)16

2.1.1 Conversion between Number Systems:

Internally computers use binary numbers for data representation whereas externally it uses decimal
numbers. However, any number in one number system can be represented in any other number system.

[Link] Conversion of Decimal to Binary: The method which is used for the conversion of decimal
into binary, is often called as the remainder method. This method involves the following steps:

1. Begin by dividing the decimal number by 2 ( the base of binary number system)
2. Note the remainder separately as the rightmost digit of the binary equivalent.
3. Continually repeat the process of dividing by 2 until the quotient is zero and keep writing the
remainders after each step of division (these remainders will either be 1 or 0).
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 4. Finally, when no more division can occur, write down the remainders in reverse order (last
remainder written first)

Example: Determine the binary equivalent of (36)10

Remainder
2 36
2 18
2 9
2 4
2 2
2 1
0
0
Least significant bit
0
1
0

1
Most Significant bit
Taking remainder in reverse order, we have 100100. Thus binary equivalent of 36 is 100100.

2.1.1.2Conversion of Binary to decimal:

In the binary to decimal conversion, each digit of the binary number is multiplied by its weighted
position, and each of the weighted value is added together to get the decimal number.

Example: Determine the decimal equivalent of (11010)2

Binary Number 1 1 0 1 0
4 3
Weight of each bit 2 2 22 21 20
4 3
Weighted Value 2 X1 2 X1 22 X 0 21 X 1 20 X 0
Solved Multiplication 16 8 0 2 0

Sum of Weight of all bits = 16+8+0+2+0

= 26
Thus the decimal equivalent of 11010 is 26.

2.2 Unit of Data Representation:

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 When data is stored, processed, or communicated within the computer system, it is “packed” in
units. Arranged from the smallest to the largest, the units are called bits, bytes, and words.
These units are based on the binary number system where large numbers can be conveyed
using only two digits, 0 and 1. Information to be processed or stored in a computer is first
assigned a binary number using only these two digits.

2.2.1 Bit
The smallest unit is the bit, a contraction of the more descriptive phrase binary digit.
Computers use binary number system. We have two symbols or digits (0,1) that we can use in
this system. Each binary digit (bit) is represented by an on (1) or off state of a switch.

2.2.2Byte
Bits are small units and can convey only two possible states; they can be organized into larger
units to convey more information. This larger unit is called a byte and is the basic unit of
information in a computer system. It usually contains 8 bits. Since each bit has two states and
there are 8 bits in a byte, the total amount of information that can be conveyed is 2 8 or 256
possible combinations. These combinations can represent letters, numbers, and symbols such
as +,-,? etc… Most reference to computer’s memory processing, storage, and communication
use the byte as a unit of measurement. The number of bytes is usually given to indicate the
size of memory like 128,000 bytes or 128K bytes. The K is used to indicate a magnitude of
1000. As memory increase, the K (for Kilobyte) is replaced by an M (for Megabyte) to
indicate a magnitude of 1,000,000. For example, you can say that the computer’s memory is
1,000,000 bytes, 1000 kilobytes, or begin to encounter the next level of magnitude, the
Gigabyte, or 1 billion bytes.
When referring to bytes in this way, the numbers are rounded off. Bytes are calculated by
raising the number 2 to various powers. For example, the number 2 raise to tenth power is
1024. This is rounded off to 1000 (or 1k) for most discussions. But 1KB exactly mean 1024B

2.2.3 Words
It refers to the number of bits that a computer processes at once. Although bytes speed the
transmission of messages, they can be conveyed even faster by sending more than one byte at a
time, two bytes, or four bytes. Generally, however, word length is given in bits, so the
equivalent word length is 8 bits, 16 bits, or 32 bits. The larger word length a computer has, the
more powerful it is.

2.3 Binary Coding:

As we have already discussed binary number system is used by the computer system to represent data
in the computer understandable form. Numeric data (consists of only numbers 0,1,2….9) is not the
only form of data, which is handled by the computers. Alphanumeric data (it is a string of symbols of
the letters A,B,C….Z or the digits 0,1,2….9) and some special characters such as =,-,+,*,/,(,) etc. are
also required to be processed by the computer. There are a lot of ways to represent numeric,
alphanumeric and special characters in computer’s internal storage area. The following are the most
commonly used coding standards:
 Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
 American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)
 Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC)
 Unicode
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2.3.1 The Binary Coded Decimal (BCD):
Based on the binary number system, BCD coding system represents numeric character (0-9) by
a combination of four bits. Binary equivalents of the decimal digits (0-9) are given in the chart
below.

Decimal Binary Decimal Binary

0 0000 5 0101
1 0001 6 0110
2 0010 7 0111
3 0011 8 1000
4 0100 9 1001

In the BCD system, the digit in each position of a decimal number is represented by four bits
and is converted as a separate entity. For example, 13 is represented in BCD as
1 3
0001 0011
256 is represented as:
2 5 6
0010 0101 0110

2.3.2 ASCII: American Standard Code for Information Interchange

The ASCII code is the basis for the internal coding scheme of most computer system. The BCD
system uses only four bits which are inadequate to represent all 10 numeric characters (digits),
alphabetic characters (upper and lowercase) and many special characters such as $,?,%, etc.. The
ASCII code uses eight bits, which is four bits more than BCD system, so as to represent 2 8
alphanumeric characters. For example,

Character B8 B7 B6 B5 B4 B3 B2 B1
? 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
F 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
H 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0

Where B1 stands for bit 1,

B2 stands for bit 2, And so on.
With the ASCII code table, all eight bits (called a byte) are needed to represent a single
character.

2.3.3 EBCDIC: Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code

EBCDIC uses 8 bits for each character, it is possible to represent 256 different characters or bit
combinations. This provides a unique code for each decimal value 0 to 9, each upper case and
lower case letter and for a variety of special characters. Since it is an 8=bit code, each group of the
eight bits makes up one alphabetic, numeric, or special character and is called a byte.

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2.3.4 Unicode:
This code was standardized to accommodate special symbols such as Greek characters α, β, γ etc.
It uses 16 bits to represent each character or symbol. Thus, 2 16 distinct symbols can be represented
with Unicode. Virtually every character of every language can be represented by using this code.

Chapter-3

COMPUTER SYSTEM

3.1 Introduction:
A Computer system is a group of hardware components and associated software, designed and
assembled to perform a specific function or group of functions. It is a complete, working computer
that includes not only the computer, but also any software and peripheral devices that are necessary to
make the computer function. In general a complete computer system includes four distinct parts: Data,
Users, Hardware and Software.

3.2 Data
Data are raw facts which the computer can manipulate and process into information that is useful to
people. Computer data is digital, or in the form of digits or numbers. Data may be simple numbers for
mathematical calculations, text such as names and addresses or more complex structures such as
pictures or drawings. The instructions that make up the program define what data is to be processed, in
what form and at what time. The computer reads and stores all data as numbers.

Data can be semi information that need to be processed more and generates complete information.
Information is the out put of the computer that can be used by human beings to do some decisions.

3.3 Users
The users are the people operating the computers.

3.4 Hardware
The term hardware embraces the physical components of the system that you can touch and fill:

1 The box which contains the printed circuit boards, power supply, etc.
2 The display screen, keyboard and mouse for user interaction.
3 The peripheral devices such as disks and printers.
The internal electronic circuits of modern computers are made up from a number of integrated circuit
chips and other components. An integrated circuit chip is a small packaged device a few centimeters
square which contains complex electronic circuits. The heart of the modern computer is the
microprocessor which is an integrated circuit chip containing the central processing unit (the basic
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control and processing circuits) of a small computer system. A complete microcomputer system
contains a microprocessor plus memory, input/output devices, power supplies, etc. However, before
the computer hardware can perform a task (for example add numbers or read a character from a
keyboard), it requires a program to tell it what to do.

3.5 Software
Software comprises the programs that tell the hardware what to do. A program is a sequence of
instructions stored in the memory of the computer system. The central processing unit fetches an
instruction, decodes it and then executes the required operation (e.g. to add two numbers). When an
instruction has been executed the next instruction is fetched, decoded and executed, etc. A program
may be very simple, for example, to calculate the average of ten numbers, or very complex, as would
be required to draw a television quality picture on a display screen.

 The Hardware and Software components of computer systems are described at the next two
chapters in detail.

Chapter-4

COMPUTER HARDWARE

4.1 Introduction:
Computer hardware is one component of computer system which is the physical components of the
computer. It is the part of the computer or any accessory attached to the computer called “peripheral”
which you can touch or feel. The computer case, monitor, keyboard, mouse, printer, modem and
scanner all constitute hardware.

4.2 The Computer Physical Setup:

When you look at a computer Monitor
externally, it simply consists of
the system unit and the most Printer
common peripheral devices, System Unit
namely the monitor, keyboard,
mouse and (optionally) printer.

4.2.1 The Computer Case Keyboard

The computer case houses all the
Mouse
major components of the
computer. On the front end of the case may be found on/off switch, reset button (optional), status
indicators (power and HDD indicators) and openings to floppy disk drives, CD–ROM drives and tape
cassettes. On the rear end of the case are found ports for connecting peripheral devices with the PC
and a power socket for connecting the PC to the electrical power source.

4.2.2 Expansion Slots and Cards

Expansion cards are small circuit boards that are used to upgrade a computer. These include:
enhanced graphics cards, modems, networking cards, sound cards, etc. Expansion cards are inserted

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into expansion slots in the motherboard (a board into which most of the basic components of the
computer are built).
i) PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) is a local bus system that allows devices to be inserted
quickly and easily (plug–and–play compatible). Most of the computers today come with PCI slots and
cards.
ii) AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) is a new platform bus specification that enables high
performance graphics capabilities, especially 3D graphical display applications.
iii) USB (Universal Serial Bus) defines a class of hardware that makes it easy to add serial devices to
your computer. It provides an instant, no-hassle way to connect a new digital joystick, a scanner, a set
of digital speakers, a digital camera or a PC telephone to their computer. To install a USB device, plug
the cord from the device into any USB Port on your computer.

4.2.3 Power Supplies

Power supply converts normal household electricity, alternating current (AC), into electricity that can
be used by the computer, direct current (DC). It also lowers the voltage level. In Ethiopia, the normal
household voltage is 220V/50Hz AC. The capacity of a power supply is measured in watts (W). A
power supply of 150–200 W is large enough for most computers.

4.3 Operational Setup of Computer:

The hardware part of a computer system is composed of a number of interacting parts. The central
element in the system is the CPU. Connected to the CPU are a number of peripherals (such as the
keyboard, display monitor, and printer), which are used to get data into and out of the computer and to
store data and programs.
All what a computer does is that takes input (of various forms), processes it (according to some set of
instructions), and produces an output (of various forms). The internal architecture design of
computers differs from one system model to another. However the basic organization remains the
same for all computer systems. A block diagram of the basic computer organization is shown in the
fig. It displays the four major building blocks or functional units of a digital computer system namely
input unit, output unit, central processing unit and storage unit.

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 Storage Unit

Secondary Storage

Program Inpu Output Information

and Data t Unit (Results)

Primary Storage

Indicates flow of
Control Unit instructions and
data

Arithmetic Logic Unit Indicates the

Central Processing Unit (CPU)
control exercised
by the control unit

Basic Organization of a Computer System

4.3.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU):

The CPU is the computing part of the computer; it is referred to as the brain of the computer. It
controls and manipulates the data to produce information. In a personal computer the CPU is usually a
single, fingernail-size “chip” called a microprocessor, with electrical circuits printed on it. The CPU
and other components necessary to make it work are mounted on a main circuit board called a
motherboard. The main components of a CPU are the Control Unit (CU) Arithmetic and Logic Unit
(ALU) and registers. The three components work together to provide the operational capabilities of the
computer.
 Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) – this is the part of the CPU that executes the computer's
commands by doing arithmetic or the logical comparisons. The data and instructions, stored in
the primary storage prior to processing are transferred as and when needed to the ALU, where
processing takes place. Intermediate results generated in the ALU are temporarily transferred
back to the primary storage until needed at a later time. Data may thus move from primary
storage to ALU and back again to storage many times before the processing is over.
 Control Unit (CU) - directs the operation of the entire system. It obtains instructions from the
program stored in main memory, interprets the instructions, and issues signals that cause other
units of the system to execute them. It acts as a central nervous system for the other components
of the computer system.
 Registers – The registers are special purpose, high speed temporary memory units. They hold
various types of information such as data, instructions, addresses and the intermediate results of
calculations. Essentially they hold the information that the CPU is currently working on.

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 Registers can be thought of as CPU’s working memory. The important registers within CPU are
Program Counter, Instruction Register, Accumulator, Memory Address Register, Memory
Buffer Register and Data Register.

4.4 Input Devices:

An input device is defined as an electronic device that allows the user to feed information (data) into
the computer for analysis, storage, and to give commands to the computer. Data and instructions are
entered into the computer’s main memory through an input device. Input devices capture information
and translate it into a form that can be processed and used by other parts of the computer.
Input devices can be classified into the following categories:
4.4.1 Keyboard: Keyboard is the standard input device. Using a keyboard, the user can type text and
execute commands. Keyboard is designed to resemble a regular typewriter with a few additional keys.
Data is entered into computer by simply pressing various keys. The number of keys in a typical
keyboard varies from 82 keys to 108 keys. The keys are arranged as follows:
a. Alphanumeric keys – used for typing, similar to that of a typewriter.
b. Numeric keypad – found at the right side of the keyboard, it is used for entering numbers
and moving the pointer.
c. Function keys – these are the twelve function keys, F1 – F12, at the first row of the
keyboard. They may be programmed to perform different tasks.
d. Modifier keys – include keys like Alt, Ctrl and Shift.
e. Cursor movement keys – found between the alphanumeric keys and numeric keypad, they
are used to move the cursor.
4.4.2 Pointing Devices: A pointing device is used to communicate with the computer by pointing to
location on the monitor screen. Such devices do not require keying of characters, instead the user can
move a cursor on the screen and perform move, click or drag operations. Some of the commonly
used pointing devices are mouse, trackball, joystick, light pen and touch screen.
i) Mouse: Mouse is a small hand held pointing device. Usually a mouse contains two or three buttons
for left clicking, right clicking and for scrolling. The mouse may be classified as a mechanical
mouse or an optical mouse, based o the technology it uses. A mechanical mouse uses a rubber ball
at the bottom surface, which rotates as the mouse is moved along a flat surface to move the
cursor. An optical mouse uses a light beam instead of a rotating ball to move the cursor. Some of
the common mouse actions are pointing, click, Right-click, Double-click, Drag and drop.

ii) Trackball – is similar to a mouse except the ball is

on top where it can be moved with the thumb.

iii) Track pad (or touchpad) – is a touch-sensitive pad that is used

to move the pointer by gliding your finger across its surface.

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iv) Touch screen – is a type of display screen device that is placed on the computer monitor in order
to allow the direct selection or activation of the computer when somebody touches the screen.

v) Integrated pointing device – is a small joystick built into the keyboard.

You can move it in the direction that you want to move the pointer.

4.4.3 Speech Recognition: Speech recognition is the technology by which sounds, words or phrases
spoken by humans are converted into digital signals, and these signals are transformed into coding
patterns where the meaning has been assigned. It is more generally called as sound recognition.

4.4.4 Digital Camera: Digital camera stores images digitally rather than recording them on a film.
Once a picture has been taken, it can be downloaded to a computer system and then manipulated with
an image editing software and printed.
4.4.5 Scanner: A scanner is a device that scans an image and transforms the image into ASCII code.
These images can be edited, manipulated, combined and printed. The common types of scanners are
hand held scanners and flat bed scanner.

 Other devices like devices for hand- include pens, and game controllers; optical input
devices- include bar code readers; audio devices- include microphones also used as input device.

4.5 Output Devices:

Output devices are peripheral devices through which processed data is made available for humans. An
output device is an electromechanical device, which converts machine readable data or the information
into human readable form. The computer output generated by output devices is of two forms: Hard
copy and soft copy. The printed form of output is referred as hard copy while the form of output which
is shown on a display screen or is in audio or voice form is referred as soft copy.
Based on the hard copy and soft copy outputs, the output devices are classified into tow types: Hard
copy output devices and soft copy output devices. Among the most extensively used output devices
are Video adapter cards, monitors and printers.

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 Output Devices

Hard Copy Soft Copy

Printers Plotters Microfilm Monitors Audio Projectors

Response

Output Devices of Computer

4.5.1 Monitors:
The monitor displays the output of the computer. Monitors are categorized by the colors they produce
and by the technology they use.
By the colors they produce, monitors are classified as follows:
 Monochrome - one color text/image on single color background, i.e. white on blue, or green on
black.
 Grayscale – shades of gray on a white background.
 Color – can display different colors, from 16 to 16 million colors.
By the technology they use, monitors are classified as follows:
 Cathode ray tube (CRT) – in these monitors, electrons are fired at phosphor dots on the
screen. The dots are grouped into picture elements called pixels, which glow when struck by
electrons. In color CRT monitors, each pixel contains a red, green and blue dot. These glow at
varying intensities to produce color images.
 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) – these screens use an entirely different technique. The screen is
still made of dots but is quite flat. LCD displays are made of two layers of a polarizing material
with a liquid crystal solution in between. An electrical signal makes the crystals line up in a way
that keeps light from going through entirely or just partly. A black screen has all the crystals
lined up so that no light gets through. A color LCD screen uses groups of 3 color cells instead of
3 phosphor dots. The signal for a picture cleverly lets just the right spots show their colors. Your
eye does the rest.
When comparing monitors, consider the following
 Size – the diagonal measurement of its face I inches. 17” is common.

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  Resolution – number of pixels on the screen. This is important especially for graphics, page
layout and CAD.
o VGA (Video Graphics Array) monitors have resolution of 640 X 480 pixels.
o SVGA (Super VGA) monitors have resolutions ranging from 800 X 600 pixels to 1024 X
768 pixels or more.
 Refresh rate – indicates how often the picture is redrawn on the monitor. If the rate is low, the
picture will appear to flicker. Flicker is not only annoying but also causes eye strain and nausea.
So, a high refresh rate is desirable. 60 times per second is tolerable at low resolutions for most
people. 75 times per second or more is better and is necessary for high resolutions.
 Dot pitch – is the distance between phosphor dots that make up a single pixel. A dot pitch
of .28 is very common and .26 should be good for nearly all purposes, however it is measured.
When the same image is displayed on a monitor for a long time, it leaves a “shadow” or “screen
burn”. To avoid this effect, “screen saver” program that blanks out the monitor or displays a
moving image or text when not in use for a prolonged time, is used.
4.5.2 Video Adapter Cards: Video adapter cards convert information from the CPU into a format
used by the monitor and the monitor displays the information sent to it by the video adapter card. The
video adapter card can be built into the motherboard but, in most cases, it is installed as an expansion
card.
Video adapter and monitor standards ensure that your video adapter card and monitor are compatible
with all popular programs and operating systems. The following standards exist at the moment.
 VGA (Video Graphics Array), which is suitable for low–budget home and business applications. It
has a resolution of 640 X 480 pixels.
 SVGA (Super VGA), which is ideal for business applications, has greater resolution (800 X 600
pixels) than VGA and also supports true colors.
 XGA (eXtended Graphics Array), which is ideal for more graphic–intensive applications like
desktop publications and CAD/CAM, has a resolution of 1024 X 768 pixels.

Video adapter cards come with their own memory, separate from the computer’s main memory. The
amount of memory installed on the video adapter card determines the maximum number of colors that
can be displayed at a given resolution. For example, a video adapter card with 1MB video memory
can display up to 16.7 million colors at VGA resolution but only up to 256 colors at SVGA resolution.
At the moment, video adapter cards may come with up to 16MB video memory. The minimum
amount of video memory required for windows applications is 1MB.
4.5.3 Printers:
Printers are used to produce “hard copy” of documents, programs and data. Some printers use serial
communication (RS232 standard) while others use parallel communication to transfer information
from the PC to the printer. In serial communication, data is transferred one bit at a time while in the
case of parallel communication; one byte (8 bits) is transferred at one time.

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The printing method (the actual forming of characters) also varies. Based on the printing method used,
printers are categorized as impact printers and non-impact printers. Impact printers strike an inked
ribbon, pressing ink from the ribbon onto the paper while non-impact printers use different methods to
place ink on paper.
 Dot–matrix printers are common types of impact printers. The print head has an assembly of
tiny pins that are activated in a row and physically “hit” the paper through the ribbon to produce
the desired impression. Speeds are expressed in characters per second (cps) and vary between
180cps and 400cps. These printers are loud, inexpensive and slow. The quality of the printout
is not so good as that of inkjet or Laser printers. But, we can have carbon copies and printouts
on stencils from these printers.
 Inkjet printers are non-impact printers. Tiny particles of ink are electrically charged after
leaving the nozzle. The droplets are then guided to the right position on paper by electrically
charged deflection plates. The print quality is very good. We cannot use them with stencils nor
can we produce carbon copies using these printers. Inkjet printers are available for color or
black and white.
 Laser (Light Amplification by Simulated Emission of Radiation) printers are the most advanced
of all. In this printer the laser beam forms an image of the characters to be printed on to the
light sensitive drum. Ink then sticks to the character images and is transferred from the drum
and fused onto the paper. Laser printer speeds are specified in pages per minute (PPM), e.g.
6PPM, 12PPM or 24PPM.
Factors to be considered while selecting printers include: speed (measured in PPM or CPS), quality
(measured in dots per inch – dpi), initial cost, cost of operation and special features like support for
color and large page formats.
Other Output Devices: PC Projector – connects to a PC and is used to project images on a large
screen; Sound systems – multimedia PCs come with a sound card, speakers and a CD-ROM or DVD
drive. A sound card translates digital signals into analog that drive the speakers.

4.6 Storage Unit:

The data and instructions that are entered into the computer system through input units have to be
stored inside the computer before the actual processing starts. Similarly, the results produced by the
computer after processing must also be kept somewhere inside the computer system before being
passed on to the output units. Moreover, the intermediate results produced by the computer must also
be preserved for ongoing processing. The storage unit of a computer system is designed to cater to all
these needs. It provides space for storing data and instructions, space for intermediate results, and also
space for the final results.

The storage unit comprises of two types of storage:

4.6.1 Primary storage:

The primary storage, also known as main memory or RAM (Random Access Memory), stores data
and program code needed by the CPU. Contents of RAM change rapidly and often. RAM can hold
information only while the computer system is on. As soon as the computer system is switched off or
reset, the information held in the primary storage disappears. Additionally, the primary storage

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normally has limited storage capacity because it is very expensive. The primary storage of modern
computer systems is made up of semiconductor devices.
 RAM contains a large number of cells (or locations) in which are the data and instructions
stored. Each location is specified by an address.
 ROM (Read Only Memory) is a non-volatile memory whose contents cannot be changed
by the user and contains minimum instructions that the computer needs to get started

4.6.2 Secondary storage:

The secondary storage, also known as auxiliary storage, is used to take care of the limitations of the
primary storage. That is, it is used to supplement the limited storage capacity and the volatile
characteristic of primary storage. It is much cheaper than primary storage and it can retain information
even when the computer system is switched off or reset. The secondary storage is normally used to
hold the program instructions, data, and information of those jobs on which the computer system is not
working on currently, but needs to hold them for processing at a later time.
The physical material that actually holds data is called storage medium. The surface of floppy disk (or
the diskette) is storage medium. The hardware that writes data to or reads data from a storage medium
is called a storage device. A floppy disk drive is a storage device.

There exist two technologies for secondary storage: magnetic and optical. Floppy disk, hard disk,
magnetic tape is examples of magnetic storage. CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW are examples
of optical storage.
[Link] Magnetic storage devices – the medium contains iron particles, which can be polarized, i.e.
given magnetic charge in one of two directions. Each particle’s direction represents a 1 or a 0,
representing each bit of data that the CPU can recognize. A disk drive uses read/write heads
containing electromagnets to create magnetic charges on the medium.
o Formatting maps the disk’s surface and determines how data will be stored. During
formatting, the drive creates circular tracks around the disk’s surface, and then divides each
into sections called sectors. The OS organizes sectors into groups, called clusters, then tracks
each file’s location according to the cluster it occupies. Formatting also deletes any
information that exists on the disk.
o During formatting, the OS creates four areas on its surface.
 Boot sector – stores the master boot record, a small program that runs when you first start
the computer.
 File allocation table (FAT) – a log that records each file’s location and each sector’s
status.
 Root folder – enables the user to store data on disk in a logical way.
 Data area – the portion of the disk that actually holds the data.
i) Hard disk drive:
Inside the case of the hard disk drive are a set of rigid rotating disks, called platters, stacked on a
spindle. As the platters rotate at high speed, Read/Write heads move back and forth recording or
reading magnetic information on both sides of the platters.
The speed with which the heads can find data is called
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 “average access time”.
Hard disk drives are normally installed inside the
computer case although external hard disk drives, which
connect to the computer by a cable, are also available.
Hard disk drive is selected based on its storage capacity (measured in “Gigabytes” (GB)) and its
access time (measured in milliseconds (ms)). The larger the capacity and the smaller the access
time, the better. Today, it is not uncommon to have hard disks with capacity in excess of 200GB.
Operating system and application software normally reside in hard disk drives. Documents created
using application software may also be placed on hard disk drives.
Write-protect
ii) Floppy disk drive: Window

Floppy disk drives store information onto a removable media known as

diskettes or floppy disks. Floppy disk drives operate slower and have much
less capacity (1.44MB) than hard disk drives.
Diskettes store information on the magnetic surfaces of a thin, flexible disk
inside a protective plastic cover. 3 ½”, 1.44MB Diskette

Although some years back, we had two standards as far as physical size is
concerned, namely 3½” and 5¼”, the standard size these days is invariably 3½”. With respect to
the amount of information that a 3½” diskette can store, a few years back diskettes were coming
with sizes of 720KB and 1.44MB; now they come only with 1.44MB.
It is possible for someone to format a diskette, or write information on a diskette unintentionally
and important information could be lost in certain situations. To avoid such unintentional loss of
information, diskettes are write–protected. To write–protect a 3½” diskette, open the write–protect
window by sliding the plastic tab covering the window. We can read information that is stored in
write–protected diskettes, but we cannot write onto them.
Software used to come in floppies some years ago. Now, floppies are rarely used to carry software
unless the software happens to be very small. Floppies are mainly used to carry personal files, to
transfer information from one PC to another or as backup media for small files.
Previously, a good number of removable (floppy–like) drives have made their way into the
computer business, but nowadays it is out of the market (becoming obsolete). Their capacities
range from 100MB (Iomega Zip) to 1.5GB (SyQuest SyJet). Indeed, the larger capacity drives are
considered “portable equivalent of the hard drive”. They may be used to supplement the hard disk
drive, to carry private files, to transport personal files and core applications between home and
office and to backup important files.
iii) Magnetic Tape:
Information stored in a hard disk or floppy disk may be damaged for various reasons. To protect
against losing any of your files, you should make a backup copy of all your data. Small files
(1MB) can be backed up to a floppy disk. For larger files or groups of files, it is more convenient
to use CD–R/W or magnetic tape unit. Magnetic tape systems offer very slow data access, but
provide large capacities and low cost. Thus, they are particularly convenient if we want to backup
the entire hard disk.

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 Tape backup units are available as either internal or external models. Tapes must be formatted
before you can use them. Backed up information could be compressed, where compression ratios
vary for different types of data.
[Link] Optical Storage Devices – offer high-capacity storage medium. Optical drives use reflected
light to read data. The disk’s metal surface is covered with dents (pits) and flat spots (lands), which
cause light t be reflected differently. Light cannot be reflected back from pits (data = 0) and lands
reflect light back to its source (data = 1).
o CD–ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory) discs can hold large amounts of information
(text, graphics and hi–fi stereo sound), which cannot be altered. They are designed to last
indefinitely, but finger marks or scratches can damage the disk’s surface. CD–ROM drives
read programs and data stored on removable CD–ROM disks.
The first CD–ROM drives transferred data at 150KB per [Link] speed then doubled to
300KB (2X), then quad speed at 600KB (4X). Today, we have as much as 52X (78000 KBps).
A single CD–ROM can hold up to 650MB information. Time to retrieve information off the
CD–ROM is much slower than from a hard disc (5-15 MBps). Most of today's newer
CD─ROM’s can be used in multimedia applications.
CD–ROM drives are often installed inside the computer case although external units, which
connect to the computer by a cable, are also available.
o CD–R is a standard and technology allowing you to write to and read from a Compact Disc,
but not erase or change what you record. This technology is compatible with existing CDs, i.e.
you are able to read these discs in existing CD–players.
o CD–RW is rewritable CD–ROM technology. CD–R/W drives can also be used to write CD–R
discs, and they can read CD–ROMs. But, CD–R/W disks have a lower reflectivity than CD–
ROMs, and CD–ROM drives must be of the newer multiread variety in order to read them.
CD–R/W was initially known as CD–E (or CD–Erasable).
o Digital Video Disc (DVD), also called Digital Versatile Disc, is similar to CD–ROMs but able
to store far more music, video or data. DVDs are of the same physical size as today's CDs but
are able to store as much as 17GB, compared to the 650MB on today's CD–ROMs.
4.7 The Bus System:
In computer architecture, a bus is a subsystem that transfers data or power between computer
components inside a computer or between computers. Unlike a point-to-point connection, a bus
can logically connect several peripherals over the same set of wires. Each bus defines its set of
connectors to physically plug devices, cards or cables together. It includes:

 Data bus- transfer data from CPU to other components and vise versa
 Address bus - transfer the address of the ongoing executable data or instruction.
 Control bus - sends the control over each executable code and data

4.8 Factors that affect the processing speed of a computer include:

 Registers – these are the memory areas in the CPU that store data and instructions while the
CPU processes them. The size of the registers, also called word size, determines the amount of
data with which the computer can work at one time. Most PCs have 32-bit registers.

19
  RAM – has direct effect on system’s speed. The more the RAM size, the faster. These days,
PCs come with RAM sizes of 128MB – 512MB.
 System clock – sets the pace for the CPU by using a vibrating quartz crystal. A single “tick” of
the clock is the time required to turn a transistor off and back on. This is a clock cycle
measured in hertz (Hz). The faster the PC’s clock runs, the more instructions the PC can
execute each second. Today, PC clock speeds exceed 3GHz (3 X 109 Hz).
 Bus width – determines how many bits can be transmitted between the CPU and other devices.
The bus refers to the path between components of a computer. The larger the bus width, the
faster the computer.
 Cache memory – cache is a high speed memory that holds the most recent data and instructions
that have been loaded by the CPU. It is located directly on the CPU (L1 cache) or between the
CPU and RAM (L2 cache). Amount of cache memory has tremendous impact on the computer
speed. The larger the cache size, the faster the computer.
Chapter-5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
5.1 Introduction:
As we know, a computer can not think or perform on its own. It performs various operations only
when the user instructs it to do so. The user issues instructions and the CPU acts in accordance with
the instructions. Such a sequence of instructions written in a language that can be understood by a
computer is called a program. It is the program that controls the processing activity of computers, and
computer performs precisely what the programs want it to do. The term software refers to the set of
computer programs, procedures and associated documents. The sets of instructions which control the
sequence of operations are known as programs and collectively programs are called software.

5.2 Relationship between Software and Hardware:

Software refers to the computer programs that are loaded into a computer system and hardware refers
to all the visible devices, which are assembled together to build a computer system. It is the blending
of software and hardware that gives life to a computer system. Both are complementary to each other.

Application Software

System Software

Hardwar
e

5.3 Software Categories:

Computer software can be classified into two major categories: System software and Application
software. System software is the software is the software that is essential for computer to function.
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Application software is the additional software that a user chose accomplish a specific task. System
software helps the computer manage its own tasks and devices. System software can further be
classified as operating system, programming language and utilities:
Computer software

System software Application Software

System
System development
management
program

Operating Utilities High level Low level

system Device programming programming
driver language language

5.3.1 System Software:

System software is a set of one or more programs designed to control the operations and processing
capabilities of a computer system. In general, a computer’s system software performs one or more of
the following functions:
 Provides user interface
 Monitors the effective use of various hardware resources such as CPU, memory,
peripherals etc.
 Support the development and execution of other application software.
System software contributes to the control and performance of the computer system and permits the
user to use the system more conveniently.
Types of system software:
i) Operating System: The most important type of system software is the operating system.
An operating system is an integrated set of programs that controls the resources of a
computer system and provides its users with an interface. The basic functions of an
operating systems are:
a. Process Management: It handles the creation, deletion, suspension, resumption,
scheduling and synchronization of processes.
b. Memory Management: It handles allocation and deallocation of memory space as
required by various programs.
c. File Management: It is responsible for creation and deletion of files and directories. It
also organizes, stores, retrieves, names and protects all the files.
d. Device Management: It manages all the devices of the computer system such as
monitor, printer, disk etc.
e. Security Management: It protects system resources and information against
destruction and unauthorized use.
f. User Interface: It provides the interface between the user and the hardware.

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 ii) Device Drivers: Device drivers are system programs, which are responsible for proper
functioning of devices. Every device or hardware, whether it is printer, monitor, mouse or
keyboard, has a driver program for support. Whenever a new device is added to the
computer system, a new device driver must be installed before the device can be used. In
modern operating systems, most hardware drivers such as keyboard driver, comes with the
operating system. For other devices like printer, a user must load the device driver of that
particular printer. A driver acts like a translator between the device and programs that use
the device.
iii) System Utilities: Utility programs or utilities are a set of programs that help users in
system maintenance tasks and in performing tasks of routine nature. Some of the tasks
commonly performed by utility programs include the following:
 Formatting hard disks or floppy disks.
 Reorganizing files on hard disk to conserve storage space.
 Taking back up of files stored on hard disk
 Checking the amount of available memory
 Checking the amount of available storage space on hard disk.
 Scanning the system for computer viruses.
iv) System Development Programs: System development programs consist of system
software, which are associated with the development of computer programs. These
program development tools allow programmers to write and construct programs that the
operating system can execute. Examples are computer languages, language translators,
linkers and loaders.
a. Programming Language: A programming language is a primary interface of a
programmer with a computer. A program is an ordered list of instructions that, when
executed, causes the computer to behave in a predetermined manner. A programming
language includes a series of commands, which are used in development of software.
Programming language are further divided into three categories namely, Machine
language, assembly language and high level language.
b. Language Translator: Computers only understand a language consisting of only 0s
and 1s called machine language. To ease the burden of programming entirely in 0s and
1s, a special programming language called high level programming languages were
developed that resembled natural languages like English. Therefore a tool was required
which could translate a program written in a programming language to machine
language. This program is referred to as language translator. It helps in converting
programming language to machine language. There are three types of translators.

Assemblers: - translate programs written in assembly language into machine

code which can be executed on the target computer.
Compilers: - translate programs written in a high level language into machine code,
which can be executed on the target computer. A compiler reads the source program
statement by statement, translates it into an equivalent machine code, and produces the
object program file, which is then executed without the presence of the compiler.
Interpreters: - these are another form of programs that translate programs written in a
high level language into machine code. Unlike a compiler, an interpreter reads one
statement of the source program, translates it and executes it immediately. It then goes
to the next statement until the source program is exhausted. As a result, it doesn’t
produce an executable object program file.

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 c. Linker: A linker is a system program that links together several object modules and
libraries to form a single, coherent program (executable)
d. Loader: Loader is a kind of system software, which is responsible for loading and
relocation of the executable program in the main memory. The functions of loader
include assigning load time space for storage, that is storage allocation and to assist a
program, to execute properly

5.3.2 Application Software:

The most often used software by a general user is the application software. It is used to accomplish
specific tasks rather than just managing a computer system. Application software may consist of a
single program such as Microsoft’s Notepad for writing and editing simple text. It may also consists of
a collection of programs called a software package, which work together to accomplish a task such as
a spreadsheet package. Application software may also include a larger collection of programs ( a
software suite), related but independent programs, which have a common user interface, such as
Microsoft Office Suite.
Application software are in turn controlled by system software, which manages hardware devices and
perform, background tasks for them. Fig. given below illustrates that application layer executes on the
system software layer, which lies on the hardware layer.

Application Software

System
Software

Hardware

Fig. Relationship of Application and System Software, and Hardware part of the computer

a. Word Processor: A word processor is a computerized typewriter, which permits the

electronic creation, editing formatting, filing and printing of text. Word processing is
probably the most Common application of microcomputers. The ease with which you
23
 can draft and revise memos, letters, reports, and other documents with a word
processing program increases both the speed and quality of your writing. You can
enter, edit, reorganize, format, and print text without retyping all of it and then correct
them. These features encourage you to revise and reorganize your material more
frequently, so you can express your ideas more clearly. Examples are MS Word,
WordPerfect etc.

b. Spreadsheet: A spreadsheet is an electronic worksheet displayed on the VDU. Until

recently, accounting, financial analysis, and other mathematical calculations were done
by entering numbers on pages of an accountant’s ruled ledger pad. Gathering data and
calculating subtotals from analysis took time. In addition, exploring what-ifs (called
“performing a sensitivity analysis”) to see how changes affect the numbers was
laborious. Compounding the problem was the likelihood of forgetting how you did the
analysis so that subsequent analyses took as much time as the original.
Today, the microcomputer and the electronic spreadsheet have taken all of the drudgery
out of analysis. It may take as much time to gather the data needed to analyze a
situation, but that is where the similarity between the old and the new methods ends.
You can quickly create a model of a situation on a spreadsheet by entering labels,
numbers, and formulas. Details are entered into the computer and recorded in
predesigned rows and columns to form a grid of cells The relationship of each cell in
the grid can be defined for performing specific computations. Using the program’s
built-in functions, you can perform complicated calculations such as net present value,
internal rates of return, and monthly payments on a loan. You can then use the
completed model to explore ‘what if’ questions. If you change any variable – for
instance the price, discount, or sales pattern the model will recalculate a new result
automatically and instantly.

You can save a spreadsheet model and use it again whenever you need it. Never again
will you forget how a specific analysis was done and how to reconstruct it from scratch
the next time you need to use it. You will find ways to modify your models so that they
can grow in power and simplicity. You can save each revision to provide the base for
the next step forward in your understanding and analysis. There ate many spreadsheet
programs available and more are sure to come. Each spreadsheet is slightly different
from the others.
Examples are Microsoft Excel, Lotus 1-2-3 etc.

c. Database Management System: A database software is a set of one or more programs

that enable users to create a database, maintain it( add, delete and update its records),
organize its data in desired fashion and to selectively retrieve useful information from
it. Database software is widely used today by both large and small organizations to
maintain employee data, customer data, asset data, accounting data etc. Examples are
dBase III Plus, FoxPro, MS Access, Oracle etc.
d. Graphic Software: Computer graphics is the technique of creating, editing, displaying,
and printing graphs, diagrams, charts, and images in a computer system. The old saying
that a picture is worth a thousand words applies to computer graphics. At a glance,
graphics can convey information that could be difficult or even impossible to put into
words.
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