QUALITY CONTROL
THE NEED FOR INSPECTION
Every part of every element of every building is tested, unwittingly, by the occupant simply by
using it. The breakdown of any part can be attributed either to a bad design or to the finished
product not being in accordance with the specified design. It is to cover this latter possibility that
careful inspection is required throughout the construction process.
Inspection should be carried out with care and at the right time. Correcting work which is found
to be defective after completion, can be many times the original cost. Thus all materials must be
thoroughly checked and inspected when they first arrive on site.
On the other hand, workmanship must receive constant supervision to ensure that one stage is
correct before proceeding to the next.
MINIMISATION OF WASTE
Wastage of materials occurs on all building sites. In some cases, it cannot be avoided. In other
cases, measures to protect it cost more than the materials saved. But in most instances, careful
attention to the handling and storage can reduce the loss.
Dealing with materials has three phases, in each of which there is a potential for wastage:-
1. Delivery: unless properly packed, loaded and held, materials can be damaged in transit.
2. Storage and protection: incorrect storage and inadequate protection can result in materials
which were correct when delivered being unusable when required or, worse still, failing to
perform satisfactorily after installation.
3. Issuance and conveyance: the over-issue of materials gives rise to inevitable waste when
the surplus is discarded. Casual horizontal or vertical transportation is a very obvious
source of material damage and loss.
TESTING AND STORING CONCRETE MATERIALS
Sand and coarse aggregate
Sand and the coarse aggregate used for concrete and mortar, being natural materials, are subject to
variations and to the presence of harmful impurities but quick and easy on-site tests and proper
storage can help to avoid any possible trouble in the future.
A sample of sand rubbed between the palms of the hand will readily reveal the presence of clay or
silt which will be left on the skin. The process of rubbing will detect the sharpness of the grains.
If sand is dirty, a fairly accurate measure of the amount of impurities can be achieved on site by
the following method:
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The percentage or nature of impurities or the character of the grains are better determined in a
laboratory.
Sand must also be within the specified limits of grading of size of grains. Grains too large will not
interlock with the aggregate properly. Grains too small as to be of the nature of dust will tend to
replace the cement. This can be checked on site by spreading a sample very thinly on a board and
examining it visually and if considered not in accordance with the specification, precise laboratory
tests (sand gradation tests) must be done.
Coarse aggregate also must be clean and properly graded, both of which can be tested in the same
way as sand. While it is spread out on the board, the size of the largest and smallest particles can
be checked against the specified size.
It is advisable to keep part of the tested aggregate and sand for comparison with later deliveries
not only with respect to maintenance of standards but also for consistency of colour especially for
material for mortar, plaster or fair faced concrete.
The samples taken should be representative of the aggregate pile. The quartering procedure on the
next page may be used. An alternative method of reducing the sample quantity is by using a riffle
box. A riffle box is a device that whereby the aggregate poured into the top is separated by
transverse fins and each division directs the aggregate to the right and the left alternately, so that
half arrives in one collecting box and half in the other. One half is returned to the heap and the
process repeated with the other half until the required size sample is reached.
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Essentials of storage are to
keep different aggregate
types and/or sizes separate.
They should be stored on a
clean, hard, free draining
surface and the aggregates
should be clean and free of
leaves and rubbish.
Storage of both must be related to the mixer position and the facilities for delivery. It must also be
arranged so as not to interfere with the transportation of the wet concrete.
Cement
Cement will deteriorate in damp conditions or if left for some time. It is stored in such a way as to
ensure that the condition of the cement is as it was when it left the cement works.
The material usually arrives
on site in bags and must be
stored off the ground,
preferably on a boarded
platform. The cement should
be well covered with
waterproof sheeting. The
cement must be contained
within a weatherproof shed
especially if the storage is to
be for more than a few days.
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Storage of bags must be arranged that they are used in the order of delivery. For precise analysis,
facilities of a laboratory are required to test that the type of cement delivered is as specified and
described. It is however, prudent to examine the labels to check that the correct type has been
delivered.
Water
Water is a key ingredient of concrete and mortar and must be carefully controlled. Impurities in
the final mix will have an adverse effect either on the strength of the concrete or on its appearance
or on both. The water source, especially in remote sites must be carefully investigated for its purity.
On many sites, water is stored in a large drum or tank. Avoid using as a bath for washing of tools,
which may leave behind clay, silt or calcium salts all of which are harmful to the finished concrete.
HANDLING AND TESTING CONCRETE
Mixing
Maintenance of the correct proportions, by whatever method is used for measuring them, is very
important to ensure not only that the design strength is achieved but that it is consistent throughout
the structure. The quantity of water also affects the finished quality and strength of the concrete.
The more the water, the less the strength. Concrete which is to be pumped must have higher
workability than a mix intended to be moved by a dumper. This can be measured by use of the
slump test.
Maximum slump values (Source: CMH Barrit, 1994)
Type of concrete Sump in mm
Vibrated, high strength and mass concrete 0-25
Hand compacted mass concrete 25-50
Vibrated, normally reinforced 25-50
Vibrated, heavily reinforced 50-100
Hand compacted normally reinforced 50-100
Hand compacted, heavily reinforced 100-150
Conveyance and placing
If wet concrete is improperly handled, the constituents of the mix can segregate, the heavier
aggregate settling to the bottom and the lighter sand and cement rising to the top. This is due to
excessive shaking or vibration during transport and by dropping the concrete into position.
The right amount of vibration of the mix in position will release air trapped in the deposited
concrete. Optimal compaction of concrete increases its density, resistance to chemical attack,
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resistance of penetration of water vapor and frost and its strength. Vibration is best carried out by
means of:-
Mechanical vibrators such as vibrating pokers in the mix.
External vibrators clamped to or held against the outside of the formwork.
Beam vibrators used for compacting horizontal slabs.
Testing concrete
The slump test is
used to determine the
water/cement ratio
and workability of
the wet mix. Series of
slump tests on each
batch will
demonstrate the
degree of
consistency.
To test the concrete in its finished state, it is necessary to take samples from the concrete to be
placed in each part of the work. Form each sample into a cube and test the compressive strength
of the cube in a crushing machine. Tests can be carried out before the work is begun, on a sample
mix of the sand, aggregate and cement which the builder is proposing to use, or on a works cube
which is a sample of concrete taken from the fresh mix. The curing conditions for the concrete
samples must be similar to the mass concrete as much as possible.
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One test cube is to be tested at the age of 7 days. If at 7 days, the cube fails to attain the strength
specified for that age, another cube from the same concrete may be tested at 28 days. If it still falls
short of the specified value, the contractor may then test core samples taken from the actual
concrete work as carried out to see whether the required strength has been achieved in the main
mass.
Non-destructive testing of concrete (also called in-place or in-situ tests) is also possible on
hardened concrete. Changes over time and in different exposures can thus be monitored.
i) Rebound hammer test
The commonest is the rebound hammer test-attributed to Ernst Schmidt after he devised the impact
hammer in 1948. It works on the principle of an elastic mass rebounding off a hard surface.
Varying surface densities will affect impact and the propagation of stress waves. These can be
recorded on a numerical scale known as rebound numbers.
It has limited application to
smooth surfaces only. False
results may occur where there
are local variations in the
concrete such as a large piece of
aggregate immediately below
the impact surface. Rebound
hammers can be graphically
plotted to correspond with
compressive strength.
ii) Penetration or Windsor probe test
It is a measure of the penetration of a steel alloy rod, fired by a predetermined amount of energy
into concrete. In principle, the depth of penetration is inversely proportional to the concrete
compressive strength. Several recordings are necessary to obtain a fair assessment and some can
be discarded particularly where the probe cannot penetrate some dense aggregates. The advantage
over the rebound hammer is provision of test results at a greater depth (up to 50mm).
iii) Pull out test
This is not entirely nondestructive as there will be some surface damage, albeit easily repaired.
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A number of circular bars of steel with
enlarged ends are cast into the concrete as
work proceeds. This requires careful
planning and location of bars with
corresponding voids provided in the
formwork. At the appropriate time, the bar
and a piece of concrete are pulled out by
tension jack. Although the concrete fails in
tension and shear, the pull out force can be
correlated to the compressive strength of
the concrete.
iv) Vibration test
A number of electronic tests have been devised, which include measurement of ultrasonic pulse
velocity through concrete. This applies the principle of recording a pulse at predetermined
frequencies over a given distance. The apparatus includes transducers in contact with the concrete,
pulse generator, amplifier, and time measurement to digital display circuit. For converting the data
to concrete compressive strength, see BS EN 12504-4: Testing concrete. Determination of
ultrasonic pulse velocity. A variation, using resonant frequency, measures vibrations produced at
one end of a concrete sample against a receiver or pick up at the other. The driving unit or exciter
is activated by a variable frequency oscillator to generate vibrations varying in resonance,
depending on the concrete quality. The calculation of compressive strength by conversion of
amplified vibration data is by formulae found in BS 1881-209: Testing concrete.
Reinforcement
Site or laboratory testing of reinforcement is not necessary as long as the reinforcement
manufacture process complies with the relevant standards. However, a tensile test as well as a
chemical composition may be carried out if the material source is in doubt.
Reinforcement steel should be stored in made-up cages in dry conditions and should be carefully
examined for loose rust, scale, oil or grease, any of which can prevent the adhesion of the steel to
the concrete and cause failure of the structural member.
Reinforcement cases must be accurately assembled and adequately fastened together with
galvanized steel wires. Cut ends of wire-ties must turn inwards otherwise they will be near enough
to the surface of the concrete to produce brown rust stains in exposed works. Accurate positioning
of all forms of reinforcement is essential to ensure that the stresses are correctly distributed and
that the steel is provided with an adequate cover of concrete. Spacers of either concrete or plastic
slotted onto or clipped to the bars are used to achieve accurate positioning. Supporting
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reinforcement on odd bits of brick and short ends of timber should not be allowed. A final check
to ensure that nothing has moved and no unwanted objects have found their way into the formwork
should be made immediately before casting of the concrete.
INSPECTING AND STORING BRICKS
Improper handling of facing bricks can damage the face thus impairing the appearance of the
finished wall. Carelessness with common bricks can give rise to invisible partial fractures which
can affect the strength of the finished work and can result in unnecessary wastage. Also incorrect
stacking of either does create an untidy site and even dangerous conditions for anyone in the area.
Bricks are to be packed so that there is no danger either of the stack falling over or a single brick
dropping onto a passer-by. Bricks that arrive on pallets or banded together with steel traps can be
stored as delivered until needed.
Bricks should be inspected for consistency within the limits of variation for that particular brick
and for consistency with previous deliveries. Soundness of bricks can be checked by striking a
sample brick with a trowel giving off a clear metallic ring for a well burnt brick. Sampling for
testing must be as representative as possible to avoid tests on isolated samples which can be
misleading.
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INSPECTING AND STORING BLOCKS
A block, can either be laid in mortar as a wall or used as a filler block in a reinforced concrete
floor (maxpans). Hollow clay blocks should be handled with much care to prevent damage and
waste and should be stacked on edge. Hollow clay blocks should be examined for uniformity in
colour and square-ness and absence of twisting or bowing.
INSPECTING AND STORING TIMBER
Timber, being a natural material, is subject to wide variation in quality and strength. Careful visual
inspection of the timber can eliminate the pieces likely to be weak.
Timber is frequently treated with a preservative against fungal attack or beetle infestation. Timber
to be painted should be primed before delivery to site. Timber should be stacked off the ground
and sheeted over to keep it as dry as possible.
INSPECTING AND STORING JOINERY
Careful inspection should be made to timber frames to check on damage caused in transit. Frames
should be stored on edge preferably in a dry shed but certainly off the ground and under a tarpaulin.
To reduce the risk of damage and moisture absorption, joinery should be delivered at the time it is
required.
INSPECTING AND STORING BOARDS
These consist of plywood, blockboard, chipboard and hardboard. Plywood is commonly available
as three-ply, 4, 6, or 9mm thick or five-ply 9 or 12mm thick. It is graded according to the quality
of the face veneer and by the bonding material used. Grade 1 is the best, suitable for work to be
polished. Grade 2 forms a base for good quality painted work. Grade 3 is for use where the surface
is hidden. Bonding agents used for permanent work include
Type WBP (weather and boil proof)
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Type BR(boil resistant)
Type MR(moisture resistant)
Type INT (interior) is only resistant to cold water not to microorganisms and should only
be used for temporary work.
To check quality, all boards must be marked on the back, near one edge with
The manufacturer’s name or mark
The country of manufacture
the grade of face and back veneer (e.g. 2-3)
Bonding agents used
Nominal thickness
Blockboard and laminboard which are very similar and are graded like plywood according to the
face veneers and bonding.
The veneers are in grades:-
Grade S (specially selected)
Grade 1 being suitable as an exposed face
Grade 2 as a backing or base for painting
Four types of wood chipboard are specified:
Type I, standard
Type II, flooring
Type III, improved moisture resistance
Type II/III, combined properties of II and III
The type of board is marked by a colored coding stripe, 25mm wide on diagonally opposite edges.
Black for type I, red for type II, green for type III and red/green for type II/III.
Hardboard is made in three grades: standard, super and tempered and is usually marked on the
back.
All boards must be stored flat, supported over the whole of their underside clear of the floor in a
dry warm store. If left on edge leaning against a wall, they will take on a bend which is difficult to
eradicate when fixing.
INSPECTING AND STORING PLASTERING MATERIALS
Plaster/mortar is made from lime, cement or gypsum, either singly or in careful combination and
with or without sand. Quality of sand is very important since this is one of the finishing trades.
Any blemishes which can occur due to the presence of impurities cannot be covered up. On
delivery, all materials, including the sand must be stored in a clean, dry, covered store, free from
contact with the ground.
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Delivery should be carefully timed to limit the period of on-site storage since the absorption of
any moisture will shorten setting times and may reduce the finished strength of the plaster.
Plasterboard is available in a range of lengths and widths, two thicknesses and with various features
such as foil or polythene film linings. Boards must be stacked horizontal on a large, flat, clean and
dry platform, under cover and to a height not exceeding 900mm.
INSPECTING AND STORING METALWORK
The main group of metal components found on a building site is structural steelwork. Delivery to
site will involve heavy vehicles and lifting gear which must be arranged in advance. Quality
assurance is that all steel members of British manufacture are marked in the web during rolling
with the name and trademark of the manufacturer. Primed steelwork should be examined for
damage to the paint film and any areas where the film is loose. Storage of steel members is
frequently in the open on site; they should be stacked on timber bearers.
Unprimed steelwork should be protected from the rain. Steel is also present on site in the form of
concrete reinforcement which is dealt with earlier. Other metals on site are mainly aluminium and
copper alloys.
INSPECTING AND STORING SANITARY WARE
Sanitary ware is usually delivered on site
carefully packed and liberally protected by
adhesive tape. So full inspection is quite
difficult yet the consequential costs of
replacing, say, a faulty bath can considerably
exceed the cost of the bath itself.
They should be stored in place of security as
they are expensive and can be easily stolen. A
room with a lockable door can be set aside for
the purpose since at this stage the building is
usually in the late stages of construction.
INSPECTING AND STORING PLUMBING GOODS
Materials used by the plumber for internal and external work should be inspected to ensure that
they are marked as being of the correct description and origin. These goods are attractive to thieves,
being small, light and valuable and in consequence must be stored in conditions of strict security,
accessible only to the foreman and the plumber.
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INSPECTING AND STORING ELECTRICAL GOODS AND IRONMONGERY
Inspection of the goods on delivery would be to see that all items comply with relevant standards,
are in accordance with the specification or schedule and are compatible with the rest of the items.
The electricians’ fittings and cable and joiner’s locks, bolts and handles are the class of items
which are subject to pilfering and must also be securely and separately stored.
QUALITY CONTROL OF WORKMANSHIP
The person doing the work is or should be an expert in his craft. The maintenance of good standards
of workmanship is something which is therefore expected. If the standards are not to the
expectations, then the supervisor has to come in. Since the supervisor may be less skilled than the
craftsman, it must be done with care and tact if it is to be successful. Craftsman, offended by an
implied or even stated criticism of his abilities, may end up not doing a good job. The issue then
becomes that of motivation of people which is one of management techniques.
There are many ways of checking the manner in which the work has been carried out, all based on
experience for example:-
The sneaky pencil mark to check on the number of coats of paint
Observation of one upright against another beyond
Running of the hand over a finished surface
Mainly the inspector must rely on his eye to detect failures or short-comings in the first place
which can be further checked by measurement or other appropriate tests.
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