COPING PROCESSES

The Concept of Coping

DF Coping refers to efforts to master, reduce, or tolerate the demands created by
stress.
People cope with stress in many ways. A number of researchers have attempted to
identify and classify die various coping techniques that people use in dealing with
stress. Carver, Scheier, and Weintraub (1989) found that they could sort their
participants' coping tactics into 14 categories, such as active coping, planning,
suppression of competing activities, acceptance, turning to religion etc.
Individuals have their own styles of coping. Most people come to rely on some strategies
more than others. An individual's coping strategies are influenced by situational
demands, and flexibility in coping is desirable. The need for flexibility may explain why
people's coping strategies show only moderate stability across varied situations.
Coping strategies vary in their adaptive value. When we say that someone "coped with
her problems," we imply that she handled them effectively. In reality, coping processes
range from the helpful to the counterproductive.
Coping with the disappointment of not getting a promotion by plotting to sabotage your
company's computer system would be a negative way of coping. Coping patterns
therefore, tend to be helpful or maladaptive.
No coping strategy can guarantee a successful outcome. Furthermore, the adaptive value
of a coping technique depends on the situation
Common Coping Patterns of Limited Value.
"Recently, after an engagement of 22 months, my fiancee told me that she was in love
with someone else, and that we were through. I've been a wreck ever since. I can't study
because I keep thinking about her. I think constantly about what I did wrong in the
relationship and why I wasn't good enough for her. Getting drunk is the only way I can
get her off my mind. Lately, I've been getting plastered about five or six nights a week.
My grades are really hurting, but I'm not sure that I care."
This young man is going through a difficult time and does not appear to be handling it
very well. He's blaming himself for the breakup with his fiancee. He's turning to alcohol
to dull the pain that he feels, and it sounds like he may be giving up on school. These
coping responses are going to make his problems worse.
In this section, we'll examine some relatively common coping patterns that tend to be
less than optimal - giving up, aggression , self- indulgence, blaming yourself, and
defense mechanisms. Some of these coping tactics may be helpful in certain
circumstances, but more often than not, they are counter productive
Giving Up
When confronted with stress, people sometimes simply give up and withdraw. This
response of apathy and inaction tends to be associated with the emotional reactions of
sadness and dejection. Seligman has developed a model of this giving-up syndrome. In
Seligman's original research, animals were subjected to electric shocks they could not
escape. The animals were then given an opportunity to learn a response that would
allow them to escape the shock. However, many of the animals became so apathetic
they didn't even try to learn the escape response. When researchers made similar
 manipulations with human subjects using inescapable noise, as the stressor, they
observed parallel results.
This syndrome is referred to as learned helplessness. DF Learned helplessness is
passive behavior produced by exposure to unavoidable aversive events. Unfortunately,
this tendency to give up may be transferred to situations in which one is not really
helpless. Some people routinely respond to stress with fatalism and resignation,
passively accepting setbacks that might be dealt with effectively.
Seligman originally viewed learned helplessness as a product of conditioning. However,
research with human participants has led Seligman and his colleagues to revise their
theory. Their current model proposes that people's cognitive interpretation of aversive
events determines whether they develop learned helplessness. Specifically, helplessness
seems to occur when individuals come to believe that events are beyond their control.
This belief is particularly likely to emerge in people who exhibit a pessimistic
explanatory style. Among other things, such people tend to attribute setbacks to
personal inadequacies instead of situational factors.
Giving up is not a highly regarded method of coping. Carver refers to this method of
coping as behavioral disengagement, and found that it is associated with increased
distress. Furthermore, many studies suggest that learned helplessness can contribute to
depression. However, giving up could be adaptive in some instances. For example, if
you were thrown into a job that you were not equipped to handle, it might be better to
quit rather than face constant pressure and diminishing self-esteem.
Striking Out at Others
A young man, aged 17, cautiously edged his car into traffic on the Corona Expressway in
Los Angeles . His slow speed apparently irritated the men in a pickup truck behind him.
Unfortunately, he angered the wrong men-they shot him to death. During that same
weekend there were six other roadside shootings in the Los Angeles area. All of them
were triggered by minor in cidents or ''fender benders." Frustrated motorists are
attacking each other more and more frequently, especially on the overburdened
highways of Los Angeles.
Incidents of "road rage" illustrate that people often respond to stressful events by striking
out at others with aggressive behavior. Aggression is any behavior intended to hurt
someone, either physically or verbally. Snarls, curses, and insults are much more common
than shootings or fistfights, but aggression of any kind can be problematic. Dollard et al.,
1939, proposed the frustration-aggression hypothesis, which held that aggression is
always due to frustration. Research has verified a causal link between frustration and
aggression. People often lash out aggressively at others who had nothing to do with their
frustration, especially when they can't vent their anger at the real source of their
frustration. Thus, you'll probably suppress your anger rather than lash out verbally at a
police officer who gives you a speeding ticket. Twenty minutes later, however, you might
be downright brutal in rebuking a waiter who is slow in serving your lunch. This
diversion of anger to a substitute target was noticed long ago by Sigmund Freud, who
called it displacement. Unfortunately, research suggests that when people are provoked,
displaced aggression is a common response.
Freud theorized that behaving aggressively could get pent-up emotion out of one's
system and thus be adaptive. He coined the term catharsis to refer to this release of
emotional tension. There is some experimental evidence to support Freud's theory of
catharsis. In a widely cited study, Hokanson and Burgess (1962) found that the
opportunity to aggress physically or verbally after frustration led to a smaller increase in
participants' blood pressure. Given the potential negative effects of emotional arousal, this
study suggests that expressing aggression may have some adaptive value.
 However, after reviewing additional research by Hokanson and others, Carol Tavris
(1982, 1989) concludes that aggressive behavior does not reliably lead to catharsis. She
asserts, "Aggressive catharses are almost impossible to find in continuing relationships
because parents, children, spouses and bosses usually feel obliged to aggress back at you;
and indirect, 'displaced' aggression does nothing but make you angrier and more upset".
Thus, the adaptive value of aggressive behavior tends to be minimal. Hurting someone,
especially an irrelevant someone, is not likely to alleviate frustration. Moreover, the
interpersonal conflicts that often emerge from aggressive behavior may produce
additional stress. And lead to loss of empathy and social support.
Indulging Yourself
Stress sometimes leads to reduced impulse control, or self-indulgence. For instance, after
a stressful day, some people head for the something chocolate or a spending spree. Others
respond by indulging in drinking, smoking, gambling, and drug use.
Moos and Billings ( 1982) list developing alternative rewards as a common response to
stress. It makes sense that when things are going poorly in one area of your life, you may
try to compensate by pursuing substitute forms of satisfaction. There is evidence relating
stress to increases in eating (Greeno & Wing, 1994), smoking (Cohen & Lichtenstein,
1990).
A manifestation of this coping strategy is the tendency to immerse oneself in the online
world of the Internet. Young (1998) has described this syndrome as Internet addiction,
which consists of spending an inordinate amount of time on the Internet and inability to
control online use. People who exhibit this syndrome tend to feel anxious, depressed, or
empty when they are not online . Their Internet use is so excessive, it interferes with their
functioning at work, at school, or at home, leading victims to start concealing the extent
of their dependence on the Internet. Some people exhibit pathological Internet use for one
particular purpose, such as online sex or online gambling, whereas others exhibit a
general, global pattern of Internet addiction. The syndrome does not appear to be rare.
Internet addiction is not limited to shy, male computer whizzes.
There is nothing inherently maladaptive about indulging oneself as a way of coping with
life's stresses. If a hot fudge sundae or some new clothes can calm your nerves after a
major setback, who can argue? However, if a person consistently responds to stress with
excessive self-indulgence, obvious problems are likely to develop. Excesses in eating may
produce obesity. Excesses in drinking and drug use may endanger one's health and affect
work quality. Excesses in spending may create havoc in one's personal finances. Given
the risks associated with self-indulgence, it has rather marginal adaptive value.
Blaming Yourself
Unrealistically negative self-evaluation was a fairly typical response to frustration. When
confronted by stress, frustration and pressure , people often become highly self-critical.
The tendency to engage in negative self-talk in response to stress has been noted. Albert
Ellis calls this phenomenon "catastrophic thinking" and focuses on how it is rooted in
irrational assumptions. Aaron Beck (1976, 1987) analyzes negative self-talk into specific
tendencies. He asserts that people often
(1) unreasonably attribute their failures to personal shortcomings, (2) focus on negative
feedback from others while ignoring favorable feedback, and ( 3) make unduly
pessimistic projections about the future.
Ellis and Beck agree that self-blame tends to be counterproductive. According to Ellis,
catastrophic thinking causes, aggravates, and perpetuates emotional reactions to stress that
are often problematic. Beck marshals evidence that negative self-talk can contribute to the
development of depressive disorders.
Using Defensive Coping
 Defensive coping is a common response to stress. The concept of defense mechanisms
was originally developed by Sigmund Freud. This concept has gained acceptance from
psychologists who have added to the list of defense mechanisms .
THE NATURE OF DEFENSE MECHANISMS
DF Defense mechanisms are largely unconscious reactions that protect a person
from unpleasant emotions such as anxiety and guilt. A number of strategies fit this
definition . For example, Laughlin (1979) lists 49 different defenses. Five defenses that
people use with some denial of reality(smoking is not injurious), fantasy(imagining a
success which one has not got), intellectualization (isolation), undoing (trying to
magically dispel unacceptable desires) overcompensation (making up for frustration in
one area by overgratification in another).
What do defense mechanisms defend against? Defense mechanisms shield the
individual from the emotional discomfort elicited by stress. Their main purpose is to
reduce their intensity. Foremost among the emotions guarded against are anxiety, anger,
guilt and dejection. People are especially defensive when the anxiety is due to some
threat to their selfesteem. They also use defenses to prevent dangerous feelings of anger
from exploding into acts of aggression.
How do they work? Defense mechanisms work through self-deception. They
accomplish their goals by distorting reality so it does not threaten. Let's say you're doing
poorly in school and are about to fail. You might use denial to block awareness of the
possibility that you could fail. This might temporarily fend off anxiety. You might resort
to fantasy, about how you will salvage adequate grades by getting spectacular scores on
the upcoming final exams, when the objective fact is that you are hopelessly behind in
your studies. Thus, defense mechanisms work by bending reality in self-serving ways.
Freud originally assumed that defenses operate entirely at an unconscious level.
However, other theorists to include maneuvers that people may be aware of. Thus,
defense mechanisms operate at varying levels of awareness, al though they are largely
unconscious. Are they normal? Definitely. Everyone uses defense mechanisms on a fairly
regular basis. They are entirely normal patterns of coping. The notion that only neurotic
people use defense mechanisms is inaccurate .
CAN ILLUSIONS BE HEALTHY?
Generally, defense mechanisms are poor ways of coping. First, defensive coping is an
avoidance strategy, and avoidance rarely provides a genuine solution to problems.
Holahan and Moos (1985, 1990) have found that people who exhibit relatively high
resistance to stress use avoidance strategies less than people who are frequently troubled
by stress. Second, defenses such as denial, fantasy, and projection represent "wishful
thinking;' which is likely to accomplish little. In fact, in a study of how students coped
with the stress of taking the Medical College Admissions Test (MCAT), Bolger (1990)
found that students who engaged in a lot of wishful thinking experienced greater increases
in anxiety than other students as the exam approached. Third, a repressive coping style
has been related to poor health, because repression often leads people to delay facing up
to their problems. For example, if you were to block out obvious warning signs of cancer
or diabetes and fail to obtain needed medical care, your defensive behavior could be fatal.
Although defensive behavior tends to be relatively unhealthy, some defenses are
healthier than others, and defense mechanisms can sometimes be adaptive For example,
overcompensation for athletic failures could lead you to work extra hard in the classroom.
And creative use of fantasy is sometimes the key to helping people deal effectively with a
temporary period of frustration, such as a period of recovery in the hospital.
Most theorists used to regard accurate contact with reality as the hallmark of sound
mental health. However, Shelley Taylor and Jonathon Brown (1988, 1994) suggest that
"illusions" maybe adaptive for mental health and well-being. First, note that "normal"
people tend to have overly favorable self-images. In contrast, depressed subjects exhibit
less favorable but more realistic self-concepts. Second, normal subjects overestimate
the degree to which they control chance events. In comparison, depressed participants are
less prone to this illusion of control. Third, normal individuals are more likely than
depressed subjects to display unrealistic optimism in making projections about the future.
Colvin and Block (1994) have expressed consider able skepticism about the idea that
illusions are adaptive. They make a pretty eloquent case for the traditional view that
accuracy and realism are healthy. Moreover, they report data showing that overly
favorable self- ratings are correlated with maladaptive personality traits (Colvin, Block, &
Funder, 1995). Research by Robins and Beer (2001) suggests that illusions may yield
short-term benefits but be counterproductive in the long run.

What exactly is an illusion? It is not easy to precisely determine whether a participant's

selfconcept is overly favorable. Mental health and well-being are difficult to quantify.
Thus, the contradictory findings on this issue are partly at tributable to researchers
defining illusions and mental health in different ways.
To summarize, some personal illusions may help some people deal with some of life's
difficulties. But Taylor and Brown would be the first to stress that they are talking about
modest illusions, not wholesale distortions of reality. Roy Baumeister (1989) theorizes
that it's all a matter of degree and that there is an "optimal margin of illusion." According
to Baumeister, extreme self-deception is maladaptive, but small illusions may often be
benefi relatively healthful. No strategy of coping can guarantee a successful outcome.
Even the healthiest coping responses may turn out to be ineffective in some cases. Thus,
the concept of constructive coping conveys a healthy, positive connotation, without
promising success.
Constructive coping does not appear to depend particularly on one's academic
intelligence. Seymour Epstein (1990) has shown an interest in "why smart people think
dumb." His interest was stimulated in part by a course that he teaches in which students
keep daily records of their most positive and negative emotional experiences, for class
discussion. Commenting on these discussions, Epstein says, "One cannot help but be
impressed, when observing students in such a situation, with the degree to which some
otherwise bright people lead their lives in a manifestly unintelligent and self-defeating
manner" (Epstein & Meier, 1989, p. 333).
The Nature of Constructive Coping.
DF The term constructive coping refers to efforts to deal with stressful events that
are judged to be
[Link] coping involves confronting problems directly. It is task-relevant and
action oriented. It involves a conscious effort to rationally evaluate your options in an
effort to solve your problems.
2. Constructive coping is based on reasonably realistic appraisals of your stress and
coping resources. A little self-deception may sometimes be adaptive, but excessive self-
deception and highly unrealistic negative thinking are not.
[Link] coping involves learning to recognize and manage potentially disruptive
emotional reactions to stress.
4. Constructive coping involves learning to exert some control over potentially harmful
or destructive habitual behaviors. It requires the acquisition of some behavioral self-
control.
Constructive coping techniques can be divided into three broad categories: appraisal-
focused coping, problem-focused coping, and emotion focused coping .
Appraisal-Focused Constructive Coping
Hjghly subjective feelings color perception of threat to one's well-being. Dealing with
stress involves altering your appraisal of threatening events.
Ellis's Rational Thin king
Albert Ellis (1977, 1985, 1996) is a prominent theorist who believes that people can
short-circuit their emo tional reactions to stress by altering their appraisals of stressful
events. Eilis's insights about stress appraisal are the foundation for his widely used system
of therapy. Rational-emotive therapy is an approach to therapy that focuses on
altering clients' patterns of irrational thinking to reduce maladaptive emotions and
behavior. Ellis maintains that you feel the way you think. He argues that problematic
emotional reactions are caused by negative self-talk, which he calls catastrophic think ing.
Catastrophic thinking involves unrealistic appraisals of stress that exaggerate the
magnitude of one's problems. Ellis uses a simple A-B-C sequence to explain his ideas.
Activating event. The A in Ellis's system stands for the activating event that produces the
stress. The activating event may be any potentially stressful transaction. Examples might
include an automobile accident, the cancellation of a date, a delay while waiting in line at
the bank, or a failure to get a promotion you were expecting.
Belief system. B stands for your belief about the event. This represents your appraisal of
the stress. Ac cording to Ellis, people often view minor setbacks as disasters, engaging in
catastrophic thinking as a result of irrational appraisal, "How awful this is. I can't stand it!
Things never turn out fairly for me. I'll be in this line forever. I'll never get promoted."A
rational appraisal would be this is unfortunate but I will find someone mature.
Consequence. C stands for the consequence of your negative thinking. When your
appraisals of stressful events are highly negative, the consequence tends to be emotional
distress. Thus, you feel angry, outraged, anxious, panic-stricken, disgusted, or dejected.
Ellis asserts that most people do not understand the importance the importance of phase
B in this three-stage sequence. They unwittingly believe that the activating event (A)
causes the consequent emotional turmoil (C). However, Ellis maintains that A does not
cause It only appears to do so. Instead, Ellis asserts that B causes C. Emotional distress is
actually caused by one's catastrophic thinking in appraising stressful events.
According to Ellis, it is common for people to turn inconvenience into disaster and make
"mountains out of molehills." For instance, imagine that someone stands you up on a
date that you were eagerly looking forward to. You might think, "Oh, this is terrible. I'm
going to have another rotten, boring weekend. People always mistreat me. I'll never find
anyone to fall in love with. I must be a crummy, worthless person." Ellis would argue
that such thoughts are irrational. He would point out that it does not follow logically
from being stood up that you (1) must have a lousy week
end, (2) will never fall in love, or (3) are a worthless person.
TH E ROOTS OF CATASTROPHIC THINKING
Ellis ( 1994, 1995) theorizes that unrealistic appraisals of stress are derived from the
irrational assumptions that people hold. He maintains that if you scrutinize your
catastrophic thinking, you will find that your reasoning is based on an unreasonable
premise, such as "I must have approval from everyone" or "I must perform well in all
endeavors." These faulty assumptions, which most people hold unconsciously, generate
catastrophic thinking and emotional turmoil. To facilitate emotional selfcontrol, it is
important to learn to spot irrational assumptions and the unhealthy patterns of thought that
they generate
Four particularly common irrational assumption.
 1. I must have love and affection from certain people. Everyone wants to be liked
and loved. There is nothing wrong with that. Ifyou stop to think about it, that's
clearly unrealistic. Once individuals fall in love, they tend to believe that their
future happiness depends absolutely on the continuation of that one, special
re lationship. They believe that if their current love rela tionship were to end,
they would never again be able to achieve a comparable one. This is an
unrealistic view of the future. Such views make the person anxious.
2. I must perform well in all endeavors. We live in highly competitive society. We

are taught that victory brings happiness. Consequently, we feel that we must
always win. For example, many sports enthusiasts are never satisfied unless
they perform at their best level. However, by definition, their best level is not
their typical level, and they set themselves up for inevitable frustration.
3. Other people should always behave competently and be considerate of me.

People are often angered by others' stupidity and selfishness. For example,
you may become outraged when a mechanic fails to fix your car properly or
when a salesperson treats you rudely. It would be nice if others were always
competent and consider ate, but you know better-they are not! Yet many peo
ple go through life unrealistically expecting others' efficiency and kindness.
4. Events should always go the way I like. Some peo ple simply won't tolerate

any kind of setback. They as sume that things should always go their way. For
example, some commuters become tense and angry each time they get stuck
in a rush-hour traffic jam. They seem to believe that they are entitled to coast
home easily every day, even though they know that rush hour rarely is a
breeze. Such expectations are clearly unrealistic and doomed to be violated.
Yet few people recognize the obvious irrationality of the assumption that
underlies their anger.

REDUCING CATASTROPHIC THINKING

How can you reduce your unrealistic appraisals of stress? Ellis asserts that you must learn
(1) how to detect catastrophic thinking and (2) how to dispute the irrational assumptions
that cause it. Detection involves acquiring the ability to spot unrealistic pessimism and
wild exaggeration in your thinking. Examine your self-talk closely. Ask yourself why
you're getting upset. Force yourself to verbalize your concerns, covertly or out loud. Look
for key words that often show up in catastrophic thinking, such as should, ought, never,
and must.
Disputing your irrational assumptions requires subjecting your entire reasoning process to
scrutiny. Try to root out the assumptions from which your conclusions are derived. Most
of us are unaware of these assumptions. Once they are unearthed, their irrationality may
be quite obvious. If your assumptions seem reasonable, ask yourself whether your
conclusions follow logically. Try to replace your catastrophic thinking with more low key,
rational analyses. These strategies should help you to redefine stressful situations in ways
that are less threatening. Strangely enough, another way to defuse such situations is to
turn to humor.

Humor as a Stress Reducer

A number of years ago, the Chicago area experienced its worst flooding in about a
century. Thousands of people saw their homes wrecked when two rivers spilled over their
banks. As the waters receded, the flood vic tims returning to their homes were subjected
to the inevitable TV interviews. A remarkable number of vic tims, surrounded by the
ruins of their homes, joked about their misfortune. When the going gets tough, it may pay
to laugh about it. In a study of coping styles, McCrae (1984) found that 40% of his
subjects reported using humor to deal with stress.
In analyzing the stress-reducing effects of humor, Dixon (1980) emphasizes its impact on
the appraisal of stress. Finding a humorous aspect in a stressful situation redefines the
situation in a less threatening way. Dixon notes that laughter can also discharge pent-up
emotions. These dual functions of humor may make joking about life's difficulties a
particularly useful coping strategy.
Empirical evidence showing that humor moderates the impact of stress has been
accumulating over the last 25 years (Lefcourt, 2001). For instance, in one influential
study, Martin and Lefcourt (1983) found that a good sense of humor functioned as a
buffer to lessen the negative impact of stress on mood. People may benefit from not
taking themselves seriously. If persons do not have an inflated sense of self-importance,
then defeats, embarrassments, and even tragedies should have less pervasive emotional
consequences for them.
Positive Reinterpretation
When you

overwhelmed by life's difficulties,

Stressed.
Difficulties you might
recogniz -
No matter how terrible your problems seem, you probably know someone who
has even bigger troubles. That is not to say that you should derive satisfaction
from others' misfortune
However, comparing your own plight with others' even tougher struggles can help you put
your problems in perspective. Research suggests that this strategy of making positive
comparisons with others is a common coping mechanism that can result in improved
mood and self-esteem. Moreover, this strategy does not depend on knowing others who
are clearly worse off. You can simply imagine yourself in a similar situation with an even
worse outcome (example: two broken legs after a horse- riding accident instead of just
one). One healthy aspect of positive reinterpretation is that it can facilitate calming
reappraisals of stress without the necessity of distorting reality.
Another way to engage in positive reinterpretation is to search for something good in a
bad experience. Distressing though they may be, many setbacks have positive elements.
After experiencing divorces, illnesses, firings, financial losses, and such, many people
remark that "I came out of the experience better than I went in;' or "I grew as a person.".
The challenge is to recognize these positive aspects while you are still struggling with the
setback, so that it becomes less stressful.

PROBLEM FOCUSED COPING

Problem focused coping includes efforts to remedy or conquer the stress-producing
problem itself.
Using Systematic Problem Solving
In life's problems, the most obvious course of action is to tackle the problems head-on. A
general outline of how to engage in systematic problem solving is given.
CLARIFY THE PROBLEM
Clarify the nature of the problem. Sometimes the problem will be obvious. Or it may be
difficult to pin down. You need to arrive at a specific concrete definition of your
[Link] common tendencies typically hinder people's efforts to get a clear picture
of their problems. First, they often describe their problems in vague generali ties ("My
life isn't going anywhere" or "I never have enough time"). Second, they tend to focus
too much on negative feelings, thereby confusing the conse quences of problems (I’m
so depressed all the time") with the problems
themselves.
GENERATE ALTERNATIVE COURSES OF ACTION
Notice that we did not call these alternative solutions. Many problems do not have a
readily available solution that will completely resolve the problem. If you think in terms
of getting a complete solution, you may prevent yourself from considering many
worthwhile courses of action. Instead, it is more realistic to search for alterna tives that
may produce some kind of improvement in your situation.
You need to avoid the temptation to go with the first alternative. Vari ous lines of
evidence suggest that it is wiser to engage in brainstorming about a problem.
Brainstorming is generating as many ideas as possible while withhold ing criticism
and evaluation. You generate alternatives without paying any attention to their apparent
practicality. This approach facilitates creative expression of ideas.
EVALUATE YOUR ALTER NATIVES AND SELECT A COURSE OF ACTION
Start evaluating possibilities. There are no simple criteria for judging the relative merits
of your alternatives. First, ask yourself whether each alternative is a realistic plan. What is
the probability that you can successfully execute the intended course of action? Think of
obstacles. Avoid both foolish optimism and unnecessary pessimism.
Second, consider risks associated with each alternative. The "solution" is sometimes
worse than the problem . Assume you can successfully implement your intended course of
action, what are the possible negative consequences? Finally, compare the desirability of
the probable outcomes of each alternative. After eliminating the unrealistic possibilities,
list the probable consequences (both good and bad) associated with each alternative. Then
review and compare the desirability of these potential out comes. In making your
decision, you have to ask yourself "What is important to me? Which outcomes do I value
the most?"
TAKE ACTION WHILE MAINTAINING FLEXIBILITY
In implementing your plan, try to maintain flexibility. Few choices are truly irreversible.
Monitor results closely and be willing to revise your strategy.
In evaluating your course of action, try to avoid the simplistic success/ failure dichotomy.
You should look for improvement. If your plan doesn't work out too well, consider
whether it was un dermined by any circumstances that you could not have anticipated .
Finally, remember that you can learn from your failures. Even if things did not work out,
you may now have new information that will facilitate a new attack on the problem.
Seeking Help
Social support can be a powerful force that helps buffer the deleterious effects of stress
and that has positive effects of its own. Social support is not a stable, external resource
available to different people in varying degrees. In reality, social supports fluctuate over
time and evolve out of individuals ' interactions with others. Some people have more
support than others, because they have personal character istics that attract more support
or because they make more effort to seek support.
In trying to tackle problems directly, it pays to keep in mind the value of seeking aid from
friends, family, co-workers, and neighbors. Because of potential embarrassment, many
people are reluctant to acknowledge their problems and seek help from others. What
makes this reluctance so lamentable is that others can provide a great deal of help in many
ways.
Using Time More Effectively
If you constantly feel that you have too much to do, and too little time to do it or you feel
overwhelmed by your responsibilities at work, at school, and at home or you feel like
you're always rushing around, trying to meet an impossible schedule then you're
struggling with time pressure . You may be able to make your life less stressful by
learning sound time-management strategies.
Mackenzie (1997), points out that time is a non renewable resource . It can't be stockpiled
like money. You can't turn back the clock. The rich or poor, gets an equal share of time-24
hours per day. Some people spend time much more wisely than others. Some of the ways
in which people let time slip through their fingers without accomplishing much are:
THE CAUSES OF WASTED TIME
Wasted time is time devoted to unnecessary, unimportant, or unen joyable activities.
There are many reasons for this:

Inability to set or stick to priorities. Time consul tant Alan Lakein (1996) emphasizes
that it's often tempting to deal with routine, trivial tasks ahead of larger and more difficult
tasks. Thus, students working on a major term paper often read their mail, do dishes, fold
laundry, reorganize the desk, instead of concentrating on the paper. Routine tasks are easy,
and working on them allows people to rationalize their avoidance of more important
tasks. Unfortunately, they often use up too much time on trivial pursuits, leaving their
more important tasks undone.
Inability to say no. Other people are constantly making demands on our time. They want
us to exchange gossip, go out to dinner, cover their hours at work, help with a project. We
can't do everything that everyone wants us to. However, some people just can't say no to
others' requests for their time. Such people end up fulfilling others' priorities instead of
their [Link], McDougle ( 1987) concludes, "Perhaps the most suc cessful way to
prevent yourself from wasting time is by saying no"
Inability to delegate responsibility. Some tasks should be delegated to others-
secretaries, children, and so on. People have diffi culty delegating work to others.
Barriers to delegation include unwillingness to give up any control, lack of confidence in
subordinates, fear of being disliked, the need to feel needed, and the attitude that "I can do
it bet ter myself ".

Inability to throw things away. Some people are pack rats who can't throw anything into
the wastebasket . Their desks are cluttered with piles of mail, newspapers, magazines,
reports, and books. Their filing cabinets overflow with old class notes or ancient memos.
At home, their kitchen drawers bulge with rarely used utensils, their closets bulge with
old clothes that are never worn, and thei attics bulge with discarded junk. Pack rats waste
time in at least two ways. First, they lose time looking for things that are lost amongst all
the chaos.
Second, they end up reshuffling the same paper, rereading the same mail, resorting the
same reports, and so on.

Inability to accept anything less than perfection. Some people have difficulty finishing
projects because they expect them to be flawless. They can't let go. They dwell on minor
problems and keep making microscopic changes. They are caught in what Emanuel (
1987) calls the "paralysis of perfection."They end up , redoing the same work over and
over.

THE PROBLEM OF PROCRASTINATiON

Another time-related problem is procrastination-the tendency to delay tackling tasks
until the last minute. Almost everyone procrastinates on occasion. For ex ample, about
70%-90% of college students procrasti nate before beginning academic assignments
(Knaus, 2000). However, research suggests that about 20% of adults are chronic
procrastinators (Ferrari, 2001). Procrastination is more likely when people have to work
on aversive tasks or when they are worried about their performance being evaluated
Although many people rationalize their delaying tactics by claiming that "I work best
under pressure,” the empirical evidence sug gests otherwise. Studies show that
procrastination tends to have a negative impact on the quality of task [Link]?
Late starters may often under estimate how much time will be required to complete a task
effectively, or they experience unforeseen delays and then run out of time because they
didn't allow any "cushion." Another consideration is that waiting until the last minute may
make a task more stressful-and performance often suffers under conditions of high stress.
Moreover, performance may not be the only thing that suffers when people procras tinate.
Studies indicate that as a deadline looms, procras tinators tend to experience elevated
anxiety and increased health problems Why do people procrastinate? Personality factors
that contribute to procrastination include low conscien tiousness ,low self-efficacy and
excessive per fectionism. The type of
irrational thinking described by Albert Ellis also seems to foster procrastination , as does a
strong fear of failure . Roy Baumeis ter (1997) argues that procrastination is one of many
types of self-defeating behavior in which people choose courses of action that yield short-
term gains in spite of their long-term costs. In the case of procrastination the short-term
payoff is the avoidance of an unpleasant task, whereas the long-term costs consist of
impaired performance and increased stress
TIME-MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES
What's the key to better time management? Most peo ple assume that it's increased
efficiency-that is, learn ing to perform tasks more quickly. Improved efficiency may help a
little, but time-management experts maintain that efficiency is overrated. They emphasize
that the key to better time management is increased effec tiveness--that is, learning to
allocate time to your most important tasks. This distinction is captured by a widely quoted
slogan in the time-management literature: "Ef ficiency is doing the job right, while
effectiveness is doing the right job." Let's look at the experts' sugges tions about how to
use time more effectively

1. Monitor your use of time. The first step toward better time management is to
monitor your use of time to see where it all goes This requires keeping a
written record of your activities. At the end of each week, you should
analyze how your time was allocated. Based on your personal roles and
responsibilities, create categories of time use such as studying, child care,
housework, commuting, work at the office, work at home, eating, and
sleeping. For each day, add up the hours allocated to each category. Record
this informa tion on a summary sheet. Two weeks of record keeping should
allow you to draw some conclusions about where your time goes. Your
records will help you make informed decisions about reallocating your time.
 When you begin your time-management program, these records will also
give you a baseline for comparison, so that you can see whether your
program is working.
2. Clarify your goals. You can't wisely allocate your time. unless you decide

what you want to accomplish with your time. Ask yourself, "What are my
lifetime goals?" Write down all the goals that you can think of, even
relatively frivolous things like going deep-sea fishing. Some of your goals
will be in conflict. You have to wrestle with your goal conflicts. Figure out
which goals are most important to you, and order them in terms of priority.
These priorities should guide you as you plan your activities on a daily,
weekly, and monthly basis.
3. Plan your activities using a schedule. People resist planning because it takes

time, but in the long run it saves time. Thorough planning is essential to
effective time management At the beginning of each week, you should make
up a list of short-term goals. This list should be trans lated into daily "to do"
lists of planned activities. To avoid the tendency to put off larger projects,
break them into smaller, manageable components, and set dead lines for
completing the components. Your planned ac tivities should be allocated to
various time slots on a written schedule. Schedule your most important
activi ties into the time periods when you tend to be most en ergetic and
productive.
4. Protect your prime time. The best-laid plans can quickly go awry because of

interruptions. There isn't any foolproof way to eliminate interruptions. The

trick is to announce to your family, friends, and co-workers that you're
blocking off certain periods of "quiet time" when visitors and phone calls
will be turned away. Of course, you also have to block off periods of
"available time" when you're ready to deal with everyone's problems.
5. Increase your efficiency. Although efficiency is not the key to better time

management, it's not irrele vant. Time-management experts do offer some

sugges tions for improving efficiency, including the following
6. Handle paper once. When memos, letters, re ports, and such arrive on your

desk, they should not be stashed away to be read again and again be fore you
deal with them. Most paperwork can and should be dealt with immediately.
7. Tackle one task at a time. Jumping from one problem to another is inefficient.

Insofar as possi ble, stick with a task until it's done. In scheduling your
activities, try to allow enough time to complete tasks.
8. Group similar tasks together. It's a good idea to bunch up small tasks that are

similar. This strategy is useful when you're paying bills, replying to let ters,
returning phone calls, and so forth
9. Make use of your downtime. Most of us endure a lot of "downtime;'

waiting in doctors' offices, sitting in needless meetings, riding on buses

and trains. In
These situations you might be able to get your easier work done.

Improving Self-Control
Self-discipline and self-control are the key to handling many of life's
problems effectively. All forms of stress described can create
challenges to your self-control. Whether you're struggling with the
frustration of poor grades in school, constant conflicts about your
overeating, pressure to do well in sports, or downhill changes in
finances that require readjustment, you will need reasonable self-
control if you expect to make much progress.
For many people, however, satisfactory self-control is difficult to
achieve. Fortunately, the last several decades have produced major
advances in the technology of self-control. These advances have
emerged from research on behavior modification, an approach to
controlling behavior that utilizes the principles of learning and
conditioning.

EMOTION FOCUSED COPING

Describe the nature of emotional intelligence. Discuss the adaptive
value of releasing pent-up emotions and distracting yourself.
Discuss the importance of managing hostility and forgiving others'
transgressions.
Summarize the evidence on the effects of meditation. Describe the
requirements and procedure for Benson's relaxation response.
There are going to be occasions when appraisal-focused coping and
problem-focused coping are not successful in warding off emotional
tur moil. Some problems are too serious to be whittled down much by
reappraisal, and others simply can't be "solved." Moreover, even well-
executed coping strategies may take time to work before emotional
tensions begin to subside. Hence, it is helpful to be able to rec ognize
and modulate one's emotions.
According to some theorists, emotional intelligence is the key to being
resilient in the face of stress. The concept of emotional intelligence was
originally for mulated by Peter Salovey and John Mayer (1990). Emo tional
intelligence consists of the ability to monitor, access, express, and regulate
one's own emotions; the capacity to identify, interpret, and understand
others' emotions; and the ability to use this information to guide one's
thinking and actions. Emotional intelli gence includes four essential
components (Mayer & Sa lovey, 1997). First, people need to be able to
accurately perceive emotions in themselves and others and have the ability to
express their own emotions effectively. Second, people need to be aware of
how their emotions shape their thinking, memory, decisions and coping
behavior.
Third, people need to be able to understand and analyze their emotions,
which may often be complex and contradictory and may have important
social implications. Fourth, people need to be able to regulate their
emotions so that they can dampen negative emotions and make effective
use of positive emotions. Researchers are looking at the role of emotional
intelligence in everyday coping.
Releasing Pent-Up Emotions
Try as you might to redefine situations as less stressful, you no doubt still
go through times when you feel wired with stress-induced [Link]
this happens, there's merit in the commonsense notion that you should try
to release the emotions welling up inside. Why? Because the
physiological arousal that accompanies emotions can become
problematic. For example, research suggests that people who inhibit the
 expression of anger and other emotions are somewhat more likely than
other people to have elevated blood pressure . Moreover, research
suggests that efforts to actively suppress emotions result in increased
autonomic arousal
One interesting study looked at the repercussions of "psychological
inhibition" in gay men who conceal their homosexual identity (Cole et al.,
1996). Many gay individuals inhibit the public expression of their homo
sexuality to avoid stigmatization, discrimination, and even physical
assault. Although hiding one's gay identity may be a sensible strategy, it
entails vigilant inhibi tion of one's true feelings. To investigate the
possible effects of this inhibition, Cole et al. ( 1996) tracked the
incidence of cancer, pneumonia, bronchitis, sinusitis, and tuberculosis in
a sample of 222 HIV-negative gay and bisexual men over a period of five
years. They found that the overall incidence of these diseases was
noticeably higher among the men who concealed their homosexual
identity. The investigators speculate that psychological inhibition may be
detrimental to people's health.
If inhibition is bad, perhaps expression is good. James Pennebaker and
his colleagues have shown that talking or writing about traumatic events
can have beneficial effects. For example, in one study of college
students, half the subjects were asked to write three essays about their
difficulties in adjusting to college. The other half wrote three essays
about superficial topics. The participants who wrote about their personal
problems and traumas enjoyed better health in the following months than
the other subjects did (Pennebaker, Colder, & Sharp, 1990). A host of
subsequent studies have replicated the finding that emotional disclosure,
or "opening up," is associated with fewer visits to physicians and
improved mood, as well as enhanced immune functioning (Smyth, 1998;
Smyth & Pennebaker, 2001). Summarizing this research, Smyth and
Pennebaker (1999) assert that "when people put their emotional
upheavals into words, their physical and mental health seems to improve
markedly." They conclude that "the act of disclosure itself is a pow erful
therapeutic agent" (p. 70).
The research on emotional disclosure indicates that both writing and
talking about important personal issues can be beneficial . Thus, if you
can find a good listener, it may be wise to let your secret fears,
misgivings, and suspicions spill out in a candid conversation. Of course,
confiding in others about one's problems can be awkward and difficult.
Therein lies the beauty and appeal of the writing approach, which can be
kept private.
Distracting Yourself
Distraction involves diverting your attention from a problem by thinking
about other things or engaging in other activities. Substantial reliance on this
strategy was observed in a study of the coping efforts of 60 married couples
(Stone & Neale, 1984). If your stomach is churning over a snafu at work, it
may be a good idea to go out to a movie, take up your knitting, or head for
the bowling alley. Activities that require focused attention are
probably best when using this strategy.
Distraction can contribute to improved mood regulation (Hamilton &
Ingram, 2001), but the adaptive merits of distraction are open to debate.
 On the one hand, distracting yourself is probably inferior to problem -
focused coping that might yield a longer-lasting solution. On the other
hand, distracting yourself is clearly a better idea than self-indulgence,
lashing out at others, or getting bogged down in negative self-talk. Thus,
it ap pears to be a strategy that has modest, short-term value when more
direct tactics have failed to produce progress.

Managing Hostility and Forgiving Others

Scientists have compiled quite a bit of evidence that hostility is related to
increased risk for heart attacks and other types of illness In light of this
reality, many experts assert that people should strive to learn how to manage
their feelings of hostility more effectively (Williams & Williams, 2001). The
goal of hostility management is not merely to suppress the overt expression
of hostility that may continue to see the beneath the surface, but to actually
reduce the frequency and intensity of one's hostile feelings. The first step
toward this goal is to learn to quickly recognize one's anger. A variety of
strategies can be used to decrease hostility, including reinterpretation of
annoying events, distraction, and the kind of rational
self talk advocated by Ellis (Williams & Williams, 1993). Efforts to
increase empathy and tolerance can also contribute to hostility
management, as can forgiveness, which has become the focus of a new
line of research in psychology.
We tend to experience hostility and other negative emotions when we feel
"wronged"-that is, when we believe that the actions of another person
were harmful, immoral, or unjust. Our natural inclination is ei ther to
seek revenge or to avoid further contact with the offender (McCullough,
2001) . Forgiving someone in volves counteracting these natural
tendencies and re leasing the person from further liability for his or her
transgression. Research suggests that forgiving is asso ciated with better
adjustment and well-being (Thoresen, Harris, & Luskin, 1999). For
example, in one study of divorced or permanently separated women
reported by McCollough (2001), the extent to which the women had
forgiven their former husbands was positively related to several measures
of well-being and inversely related to measures of anxiety and
depression. In another study, when participants were instructed to
actively think about a grudge they had nursed and to think about
forgiving the grudge, forgiving thoughts were associated with more
positive emotions and reduced physiological arousal (Witvliet, Ludwig,
& Vander Laan, 2001). Research also shows that vengefulness is
correlated with more rumination and negative emotion and with lower ife
satisfaction (McCullough et al., 2001).
Meditating
Meditation refers to a family of mental exercises in which a conscious
attempt is made to focus attention in a nonanalytical [Link] are many
approaches to meditation. In the US, the most widely practiced
approaches are those associated with yoga, Zen, and transcendental
meditation (TM). Although all three of these approaches are rooted in
those associated with yoga, Zen, and transcendental
meditation (TM). Although all three of these approaches are rooted in
Eastern religions like Hinduism and Buddhism , most Americans who
 practice meditation have a vague idea of its religious significance.
Meditation can calm inner emotional turmoil is of interest to
psychologists.
Most meditative techniques look deceptively simple. For example, in TM
a person is supposed to sit in a comfortable position with eyes closed and
silently focus attention on a mantra, a specially assigned Sanskrit word
that creates a resonant sound. This exercise in mental self-discipline is to
be practiced twice daily for 20 minutes. The technique has been
described as "diving from the active surface of the mind to its quiet
depths" (Bloom field & Kory, 1976, p. 49).
Advocates of TM claim that it can improve learning, energy level, work
productivity, physical health, mental health, and general happiness while
reducing tension and anxiety caused by stress .These are not exactly
humble claims. Moreover, TM advocates assert that they can back up
their claims with scientific evidence. Let's examine that evidence. What
are the physical effects of going into the meditative state? Some studies
suggest that changes occur in the electrochemical activity of the brain.
Most studies also find decreases in participants' heart rate, respiration
rate, oxygen consumption, and carbon dioxide elimi nation. Many
researchers have also observed increases in skin resistance and decreases
in blood lactate-physiological indicators associated with relaxation .
Taken together, these bodily changes sug gest that meditation can lead to
a potentially beneficial physiological state characterized by relaxation
and sup pression of arousal (Carrington, 1993; Fenwick, 1987).
These findings generated quite a bit of excitement in the 1970s. However
additional research using better experimental controls soon dampened
some of this en thusiasm. It turns out that these physical changes may
not be unique to meditation. A variety of systematic relaxation training
procedures may be able to produce similar results (Holmes, 1987;
Shapiro, 1984).
The findings on the psychological effects of meditation are also
promising but controversial. Some studies have found that meditation can
improve mood, lessen fatigue, reduce drug abuse, and enhance immune
responses. Studies also suggest that meditation is associated with
improved physical health (Orme-Johnson, 1987), superior mental health
(Alexander, Rainforth, & Gelderloos, 1991), and even increased
longevity among the elderly (Alexander et al., 1989). However, some
psychologists argue that at least some of these effects may be just as
attainable through systematic relaxation or other mental focusing proce -
dures (Holmes, 1984; Shapiro, 1987). At present, the evidence on this
issue is too inconsistent and fragmen tary to permit any solid conclusions
(Lehrer & Wool folk, 1993).
What's the bottom line? If you are troubled by chronic emotional tension,
learning to meditate may be an effective way to reduce your troublesome
arousal.
Using Relaxation Procedures
Ample evidence suggests that systematic relaxation procedures can
soothe emotional turmoil and reduce stress induced physiological
arousal. One study even sug gests that relaxation training may improve
the effectiveness of one's immune response (Kiecolt-Glaser et al., 1985).
 There are a number of worthwhile approaches to achieving beneficial
relaxation. The most prominent systems are Jacobson's (1938)
progressive relaxation (see McGuigan, 1993), Schultz and Luthe's (
1969) autogenic training (see Linden, 1993), and Benson's (1975;
Benson & Klipper, 1988) relaxation response. We'll discuss Benson's
approach because it is a simple one that virtu ally anyone can learn to
use.
After studying various approaches to meditation, Herbert Benson, a
Harvard Medical School cardiologist, concluded that elaborate religious
rituals and beliefs are not necessary to profit from meditation. He also
concluded that what makes meditation beneficial is the relaxation it
induces. After "demystifying" meditation, Benson (1975) set out to
devise a simple, nonreligious procedure that could provide similar
benefits. He calls his procedure the "relaxation response." According to
Benson, four factors are critical to effective practice of the relaxation
response:
1. A quiet environment. It is easiest to induce the relaxation response in a
distraction -free environment. After you become skilled at the relaxation
response, you may be able to accomplish it in a crowded subway.
Initially, however, you should practice it in a quiet, calm place.
2. A mental device. To shift attention inward and keep it there, you need to

focus it on a constant stimu lus, such as a sound or word that you recite
over and over. You may also choose to gaze fixedly at a bland ob ject,
such as a [Link] the case, you need to focus your attention on
something.
3. A passive attitude. It is important not to get upset when your attention

strays to distracting thoughts. You must realize that such distractions are
inevitable. When ever your mind wanders from your attentional focus,
calmly redirect attention to your mental device.
4. A comfortable position. Reasonable body com fort is essential to avoid
a major source of potential dis traction . Simply sitting up straight works
well for most people. Some people can practice the relaxation response
lying down, but for most people such a position is too conducive to
sleep.

Benson's deceptively simple procedure for inducing the relaxation

response is For full benefit, it should be practiced daily.