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Red Spider Mite (Tetranychus urticae Koch) Infestation

on Brinjal/Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) and
Environmental Sustainability

Chapter · December 2021

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Chapter 20

Red Spider Mite (Tetranychus

urticae Koch) Infestation
on Brinjal/Eggplant
(Solanum melongena L.)
and Environmental Sustainability
Sunil Kumar Ghosh1 and Wajid Hasan2
1
Department of Agricultural Entomology, BCKV (Ag. University), AINP on
Acarology, Directorate of Research, Kalyani, Nadia – 741235, West Bengal
2
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Jehanabad, BAU, Bihar

Eggplant or brinjal (Solanum melongena L.) crop is susceptible to various insect and mite pests
of which red spider mite, Tetranychus urticae (Tetranychidae: Acarina) is the most predominant.
Tetranychus urticae was most active during May i.e., 22-24 Standard Meteorological Week (SMW) and
September-October i.e., 40-43 SMW. Highest mite population (22.87/leaf) was recorded on 42nd SMW
(first week of October). Sudden fall of population was found in last week of June because of heavy rains.
The mite population always recorded higher on the upper canopy (52.75 per cent population) of the plant
as compared with the middle (30.64 per cent population) and lower canopy (16.61 per cent population).
This result implies that mites were most densely populated in the young and new leaves of eggplant.
The mite population had significantly positive correlation with temperature, minimum and average
relative humidity where as non-significant positive correlation with maximum relative humidity and
weekly total rainfall. Among the seven treatments evaluated microbial toxin- avermectin resulted in
the best suppression of mite population (87.10 per cent suppression), closely followed by chemical
insecticide, fenazaquin and mixed formulation of botanical pesticide, azadirachtin with botanical
300 | Hi-tech Crop Production and Pest Management

extract, Spilenthes (79.24 per cent and 70.66 per cent suppression). Spectophotometric scanning of
crude methanolic extract of Spilanthes flower showed strong absorbance wave length between 645-675
nm. Considering the level of peaks of wave length the flower extract contain some important chemicals
of which polysulphide compounds are important and responsible of pest control. azadirachtin and
botanical extract individually did not produce good results (moderate mite suppression) but when
azadirachtin is used as a mixture with botanical extracts provided better results recording more than
65 per cent suppression. Microbial toxin, plant extracts and botanical insecticide are biopesticides
having less or no hazardous effects on human health and the environment, and therefore, they can be
incorporated in IPM programmes and organic farming.

Introduction
Eggplant or brinjal (Solanum melongena L.) is one of the most common vegetable
crops grown in India and other parts of the world. In the sub-Himalayan region
of north east India eggplant is cultivated at a commercial scale but insect and mite
pest damage constitutes a limiting factor for its successful production (Ghosh, 2020).
Pests control by using pesticides causes damage to the natural suppression of the
pests by killing parasites and predators like spider (Ghosh et al., 2006a), Menochilus
sexmaculatus Berliner (Ghosh et al., 2007), Coccinella septempunctata (Chakraborty and
Ghosh,2010; Ghosh, 2016). Among the various insect pests causing limitations, shoot
and fruit borer, Leucinodes orbonalis Guen. has become an alarming pest in eggplant/
brinjal growing areas including West Bengal (Ghosh and Senapati,2001a; Ghosh and
Senapati,2009; Ghosh,2014). The other important Lepidopteran pests in West Bengal
are Brinjal leaf roller (Eublema olivacea Walk.) and Brinjal stem borer (Euzophera
particella Rag). The important Hemipteran pests causes heavy damage are Aphid
(Aphis gossypii Glov.) (Ghosh et al., 2004a, Ghosh,2019 a), Jassid (Amrasca biguttula
biguttula Ishida) (Ghosh, and Senapati 2003), Thrips (Thrips tabaci Lin.) (Ghosh et
al., 2005) and Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci Genn) (Ghosh et al., 2004b). The important
Coleopteran pests are Hadda or spotted leaf beetle (Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata
Fabr.) (Ghosh, and Senapati 2001b), Flea beetle (Phyllotreta spp.) (Ghosh et al., 2006b)
and Blister beetle (Mylabris pustulata) (Ghosh, 2020). Mite (Tetranychus cinnabarinus
Boisd.) also causes heavy damage to eggplant (Ghosh and Chakraborty, 2014;
Ghosh, 2019 b). The crop is susceptible to various insect and mite pests of which
red spider mite, Tetranychus sp. (Tetranychidae : Acarina) is most predominant. In
Bihar, mites are reported to causes losses to the extent from 36.8 per cent to 83.2 per
cent in different vegetable crop. Losses of vegetable production was found from
2 to 35 per cent in eastern part of the India due to mites infestation. The outbreak
of this pest is assumed to be the consequences of frequent and indiscriminate use
of toxic chemicals, especially pyrethroid insecticides by the vegetable growers.
Moreover, warm and dry weather is favourable for the multiplication and spread
of this pest. In India, it has been reported as one of the important pests of vegetable
crops (Gupta, 1985). Anitha and Nandihali (2008) reported that incidence of mite on
summer crop was commenced from 16th standard week (2.12 mites/3leaves) and
peak infestation on 2nd week of May (14.61 mites/3leaves), and on kharif crop peak
during 4th week of October (29.25 mites/3leaves). Weekly population counts on mites
showed non-significant positive correlation (p=0.05) with temperature, maximum
relative humidity, total rainfall and significant positive correlation with minimum
Red Spider Mite (Tetranychus urticae Koch) Infestation on Brinjal/Eggplant | 301

and average relative humidity (Ghosh, 2013). The first sight of infestation by red
spider mite is usually chlorotic, stippled appearance on the leaves. As the mites
feed on the underside of the leaves, they remove leaf cell contents, including the
chlorophyll. Without the chlorophyll, those empty cells appear whitish or bronze.
Heavily infested leaves turn completely pale, dry up, and fall off.
The control of this pest through the use of synthetic pesticides during the fruit
bearing stage is rather difficult as the fruits are harvested at frequent intervals,
and there is every possibility that, if spray applications are made, harvested fruit
would contain toxic residues that may cause health hazards. Biopesticides are often
preferred and over synthetic one to overcome this problem. These pesticides are safe
to animals and plant life and are biodegradable with sufficient action. Kumar et al.
(2007) reported that methanolic extract of neem and karanj at 1 per cent concentration
proved 78.6 and 71.9 per cent control of Tetranychus sp. in laboratory condition
respectively. Direct contact toxicity of neem product has been demonstrated against
termites and aphids (Srivastava, 2003). The mite mortality per cent on chilli crop was
found high from Propergite 57 EC @ 1.5 ml/lit which was at par with the treatments
Prophenophos 50 EC and Fenazaquin 10 EC (Bala and Ghosh, 2016). Ten days after
spraying dicofol was found to be the most effective acaricide against Aceris tulipae on
garlic and very low population (1.40 mites per sq. cm.) was found in this treatment
closely followed by ethion (3.0 mites per sq. cm.) and fenazaquin (5.08 mites per sq.
cm) treated plot as compared to untreated control (6.78 mites per sq. cm.). (Bala et
al., 2015). Azadiractin-rich neem formulations, viz., Neem Azal (10,000 ppm) and
Neem Gold (10,000 ppm) were effective against cotton whitefly, aphids, jassids
and spotted boll worm. Dicofol treatment resulted in the best suppression of mite
population on brinjal/eggplant crop (83.16 per cent suppression), closely followed
by mixed formulation of botanical pesticide, azadirachtin and chemical pesticide,
dicofol (71.41 per cent suppression) (Ghosh and Chakraborty, 2014).). Four days after
spraying, dicofol treatment was found most effective (86.35 per cent suppression)
very closely followed by mixed formulation of botanical pesticide, azadirachtin and
chemical pesticide, dicofol (73.42 per cent suppression) against this mite (Ghosh and
Chakraborty, 2014). Acharya et al. (2002) studied the efficacy of new insecticides
imidacloprid, abamectin and reported the new molecules evaluated were safer to
lady bird beetles. Azadiractin individually did not produce good results (moderate
mite suppression) but when used as a mixture with low dose of (1.5 ml/L) of
chemical insecticide, propergite provided better results recording more than 85
per cent suppression (Ghosh, 2013). Documentation of the population abundance
and spatial distribution of this pest in vegetables and selection of newer acaricides
would open up new scope for our farmers to combat spider mites in vegetable
cultivation. The objective of this study was to determine the efficacy of microbial
toxin, the plant extracts against red spider mite, Tetranychus sp. infesting eggplant
and to formulate suitable control measure.

Host Range of Mite

Large populations are often accompanied by fine webbing. Host plants are
many and include strawberries, melons, beans, tomatoes, eggplant, ornamental
302 | Hi-tech Crop Production and Pest Management

flowers, trees and most houseplants. T. telarius is a polyphagous pest and is known
to feed on 183 species of plants including cucurbits, brinjal, ladysfinger on which
it is occasionally it is very serious.

Biology and Life Cycle of Mite

The mite is active from March to October and passes the winter as a gravid
female. Most mite species overwinter as eggs on the leaves and bark of host plants.
As the season warms up in March, it spins webs on the undersurface of the leaves of
various host plants and lays 60-80 eggs. After mating, females continuously produce
as many as 300 eggs over a couple of weeks. Parthenogenesis (reproduction without
fertilization) is common. The eggs are spherical attached to fine silk webbing and
hatch in 2-6 days. The emerging larvae are light brown and have three pairs of legs.
They feed underneath the webs and, within 3-4 days, change into nymphs which
have four pairs of legs. The nympgs grow to maturity in two stages within 4-9 days
and the adult follows the second nymphal stage. The adults live for 9 to 11 days
with individual females living an average of two months. The life cycle is composed
of the egg, the larva, two nymphal stages (protonymph and deutonymph) and the
adult. The length of time from egg to adult varies greatly depending on temperature.
The life cycle during the active period is completed in 9-19 days. There are several
overlapping generations per year. In Punjab, India, the mite is believed to complete
32 generations in a year. Hot, dry weather favors rapid development of these pests.

Nature of Symptoms and Damage

Many species of the spider mite (family: Tetranychidae), attack both indoor
and outdoor plants. They can be especially destructive in greenhouses. These are
minute, polyphagous insects found in large colonies on the underside of the leaves
covered with fine silky webs and feed by piercing leaf tissue and sucking up the plant
fluids. Feeding marks show up as light dots on the leaves. White streaks appear on
the leaves as a result of their feeding. These streaks coalesce and appear as white
patches. The entire affected leaf becomes discoloured and gets withered. As feeding
continues i.e. in case of heavy infestation the leaves turn yellow, and may dry up
and drop off. Large populations can severely defoliate plants. The damage is more
during warm and dry season. In case of severe infestation it may be found all over
the leaf surface. Characteristic blotching of leaves may be seen due to removal of
plant sap and green matters on account of feeding. The damage is caused by both
the nymphs and adults. A large number of webs are formed on the leaves giving
an unhealthy appearance. All the active stages usually feed on the underside of the
leaves by sucking cell sap. The webbing interferes with plant growth. There is a
poor setting of the fruits and the yield is considerably reduced as the plants become
weak and photosynthetic activity is seriously hampered.

Seasonal Incidence of Mite

The two spotted spider mite prefers the hot, dry weather of the summer
and fall months, but may occur anytime during the year. Overwintering females
hibernate in ground litter or under the bark of trees or shrubs. The outbreak of this
Red Spider Mite (Tetranychus urticae Koch) Infestation on Brinjal/Eggplant | 303

pest is assumed to be the consequences of frequent and indiscriminate use of toxic

chemicals, especially pyrethroid insecticides by the vegetable growers. Moreover,
warm and dry weather is favourable for the multiplication and spread of this pest.
Studies were conducted in the Instructional Farm of Uttar Banga Krishi
Viswavidyalaya (State Agricultural University) at Pundibari, Coochbehar, West
Bengal, India for two years (2010-11). Analysis of pooled mean data for the two
years on mite infestation on brinjal revealed that the pest was active throughout
the growing period (Figure 20.1). However, population appeared during January-
February and remained very low up to middle of April and thereafter increased
gradually with the rise of temperature. Pest population reached high (19.19 mites/
leaf) during 23rd SMW (last week of May) and thereafter started decline with the
onset of monsoon and heavy rainfall, and this tendency was continued up to 36
SMW (last week of August). After rainy season, again pest population increased
and reached highest population (22.87/leaf) on the 42nd SMW (first week of October)
when the average temperature, average relative humidity and weekly total rainfall
were 28.65oc, 79.88 per cent and 23.80 mm. respectively. However, mite was most
active during May i.e., 22-24 SMW and September-October i.e., 40-43 SMW. There
was a sudden fall of population was found with the heavy rains (weekly total
201.95 mm) during monsoon in 25th SMW (last week of June) and continued up to
end of August.

Figure 20.1: Incidence of Mite as Influenced by Temperature and RH.

The mite population always recorded higher on the upper canopy (52.75
per cent population) of the plant as compared with the middle (30.64 per cent
population) and lower canopy (16.61 per cent population). This result implies that
304 | Hi-tech Crop Production and Pest Management

mites were most densely populated in the young and new leaves of eggplant. The
incidence of mite population always remained higher on the upper canopy of the
plant (Ghosh, 2013). The mite population had significantly positive correlation with
temperature, minimum and average relative humidity where as non-significant
positive correlation with maximum relative humidity and weekly total rainfall.
Table 20.1: Correlation Co-efficient between Mite (Tetranychus sp.) and
Weather Parameters

Environmental Correlation Co-efficient of Regression

Parameter Co-efficient (r) Determination (R2) Equation
Temperature Maximum 0.408** 0.166 Y = 0.206x + 29.66
o
C
Minimum 0.424** (-)0.179 Y = 0.390x + 18.96
Difference (-)0.338* 0.114 Y = (-)0.184x + 10.69
Average 0.434** 0.186 Y = 0.298x + 24.30
Relative Maximum 0.045 0.002 Y = 0.055x + 82.83
Humidity Minimum 0.382** 0.146 Y = 0.685x + 68.74
(per cent)
Average 0.264* 0.069 Y = 0.371x + 75.78
Weekly rainfall Total 0.229 0.052 Y=1.566x+54.75

*: Significant at 5 per cent level of significance; **: Significant at 1 per cent level of significance.

Management of Mite
Safe control of mite in agricultural field is the burning topic of the days. We
should follow the Integrated Pest Management (IPM) which include cultural
method, mechanical method, biological control including biopesticides, genetic
method and lastly pesticide control. We should always try to avoid much use of
pesticides for environmental safety.

Cultural Control
Proper irrigation and clean cultivation are essential to keep the pest population
under control. Water stress makes both trees and garden plants more susceptible
to mite infestations. Make sure your plants are properly watered. Monitor fields
weekly from June through August. Look for plants with yellowish leaves or
defoliated plants. Examine plant leaves for webbing, especially on older leaves in
the middle of the plant with symptoms. For spring-planted fields that are pruned
in early July, treat after pruning for better coverage. Dust on leaves, branches, and
fruit encourages mites. A mid-season hosing (or two!) to remove dust from trees
is a worthwhile preventative. Spider mites are wind surfers. They disperse over
wide areas riding their webbing on the breezes. Careful containment and disposal
of infested plants is crucial.

Mechanical Control
Collection and burning of severely infested plant parts reduce further
multiplication of mites. Prune leaves, stems, and other infested parts of plants well
Red Spider Mite (Tetranychus urticae Koch) Infestation on Brinjal/Eggplant | 305

past any webbing and discard in trash (and not in compost piles). Don’t be hesitant
to pull entire plants to prevent the mites spreading to its neighbors. Overwintering
mites may be reduced in numbers by the destruction of weeds such as pokeweed,
Jerusalem oak, Jimson weed, wild blackberry, wild geranium and others. Use the
Bug Blaster to wash plants with a strong stream of water and reduce pest numbers.

Biological Control and Predatory Mites

Though predaceous mites are not as effective in controlling pest mites in crops
such as eggplant with hairy leaves. spider mites are commonly attacked by predator
mites. Five species are commercially available, Phytoseiulus persimilis, Mesoseiulus
longipes, Neoseiulus californicus, Galendromus occidentalis andAmblyseius fallicus.
Predatory mites can be distinguished from spider mites because of their longer legs.
The front pair of legs is often extended forward. They are more active and move
about at a fast pace. They are often red or orange in color. Predatory mites such as
Phytoseiulus persimilis Athias-Henriot and several species of Amblyseius, especially
A. womersleyi Schicha and A. fallacies Garman can be used to control spider mites.
They are more effective under protective structures and in high humidity conditions.

Biopesticide and Pesticidal Control

Insecticidal soap, neem oil, or botanical insecticides can be used to spot treat
heavily infested areas. On fruit trees, horticultural oil should be applied early in
the season or late in the fall to destroy overwintering eggs.
Horticultural oil: A self-emulsifying concentrate, Bonide All Seasons
Horticultural Spray Oil kills insect eggs and soft bodied adults by smothering
them. Works great indoors or out on aphids, whitefly, mites and scale, and can
be used as a dormant spray (no leaves) or delayed dormant (green tip) spray. A
superior type parafinic oil, Bonide All Seasons Spray Oil degrades rapidly and has
almost no toxicity. Highly recommended for use on fruit trees, shade trees, shrubs,
ornamentals, roses and vegetables. Includes a spreader/sticker.
Management strategies must take into account the fast development time of
this pest, especially during warm weather when eggs are laid continuously. Just
targeting the adults will do little good if eggs and larvae survive. Repeat treatments
are almost always necessary.

Experiment for Bio-control

Studies were conducted in the Instructional Farm of Uttar Banga Krishi
Viswavidyalaya (State Agricultural University) at Pundibari, Coochbehar, West
Bengal, India for two years (2010-11).
Among the seven treatments evaluated microbial toxin- avermectin resulted
in the best suppression of mite population (87.10 per cent suppression), closely
followed by chemical insecticide, fenazaquin and mixed formulation of botanical
pesticide, azadirachtin with botanical extract, Spilenthes (79.24 per cent and 70.66
per cent suppression). Spectophotometric scanning of crude methanolic extract
of Spilanthes flower showed strong absorbance wave length between 645-675
nm. Considering the level of peaks of wave length the flower extract contain
306 | Hi-tech Crop Production and Pest Management

some important chemicals of which polysulphide compounds are important and

responsible of pest control. azadirachtin and botanical extract individually did not
produce good results (moderate mite suppression) but when azadirachtin is used
as a mixture with botanical extracts provided better results recording more than
65 per cent suppression. Microbial toxin, plant extracts and botanical insecticide
are biopesticides having less or no hazardous effects on human health and the
environment, and therefore, they can be incorporated in IPM programmes and
organic farming.

Harmful Effect of Chemical Insecticides

Since the discovery of DDT as an insecticide in 1939 by Dr. Paul Muller, there
has been a great expansion in the use of chemicals for pest control. Pesticides
during manufacturing, transportation, storage and actual use enter in the abiotic
and biotic components of the environment through air, water and soil and disturb
the ecosystem, causing great disaster sometimes. Miss Rachel Carson published an
epoch-making book “Silent Spring” in the year 1962 awakened the people referring
the forceful account of the danger of pesticides. These days the pollution of the
environment is a problem of great importance and is of everybody’s concern. The
pesticides may accumulate in the environment and contaminate all the systems i.e.
air, water, soil, plants animals etc. by being transported from one system to another.
Although they are protecting the crops from pests for boosting up the agricultural
produce but bring out ecological disturbance and environmental pollution. A variety
of insecticides like BHC, aldrin, dieldrin, heptachlor, chlordane, toxaphene, methyl
parathion, phorate etc. are being used in our country for the control of termite, white
grub, cutworm, root borer etc. It is found that the pesticides disturb the microbial
activity of the soil, adverse effect on the earth worm and may harm the predatory
mites and carabid beetles. They may have adverse effect on some invertebrates that
were responsible soil fertility. The uptake of insecticide residues by some crops
adversely affects our health. The people around vicinity of pesticide factories even
upto 5-7 km area badly feel off flavor and such suffocated environment ultimately
results in different kind of diseases among the residents. The contamination of air
during application of pesticides may also take place which could pose serious health
hazards, if the concentration in air raised above the thresh hold values. Different
doses of pesticides at different dose levels are being used on the different types of
crops against noxious pest all over the country for the last four decades. Saxena et al.
(1990) reported that the residue of malathion was found more than the permissible
limits in tomato, okra, cauliflower, brinjal and beans. Gupta et al. (1985) reported
that above 60 per cent samples of potato, brinjal, cabbage, cauliflower okra and
cucurbits were containing the residues of organophosphatic insecticides more
than the permissible level. Water has been found contaminated with pesticides
by different ways. In order to destroy unwanted plants, insects and fishes etc. the
deliberate use of pesticide is being done due to which water is contaminated. Water
has also been found to be contaminated with pesticides through run off from fields,
through sewage disposal, through the effluents of industries using pesticides,
through dead and decayed plants treated with pesticides. In UK the presence of
insecticides was reported in rain water. Fresh rain water on the mountain top of the
Red Spider Mite (Tetranychus urticae Koch) Infestation on Brinjal/Eggplant | 307

Himalaya was found possessing pesticide residues. Commonly cultivated crops,

vegetables and fruit plants have been found to be affected with injudicious use of
pesticides right from germination through growth to harvest. The application of
pesticides may bring the resurgence of the target pests against which the chemicals
are applied, the outbreak of some unimportant pests. The pesticides are also harmful
to beneficial fauna such as honey bees and natural enemies like parasites, predators
and pathogens of the pests etc. As a result of pesticide pollution several diseases
may develop in human beings and domestic animals.

Importance of Biopesticides for Pest Control in Vegetable Field

In view of the harmful effects of chemical pest control, several alternatives
have been explored to control the insect pests. In more recent times, there is a
renewed interest in eco-friendly approaches to pest management and the rationale
for biological approaches is irrefutable. In a broader sense, biopesticides include
pesticides of biological origin.

Botanical Extracts
Botanical pesticides are either naturally occurring plant materials or products
derived rather simply from such plant materials. They are water extracts or organic
solvent extracts of insecticide components of plants. Plant substances are produced
as byproducts of major biochemical pathways and chemically, they include
alkaloids, terpenoids and phenols as well as a number of other compounds. These
chemicals repel approaching insects, deter feeding and oviposition on the plants,
disrupt behaviour and physiology of insects in various ways and even prove toxic
to different developmental stages of many insects (Dhaliwal and Arora, 2006).
The use of plants as pesticides has been practiced since times immemorial. The
Hindu book, the ‘Rig Veda’ written in India in 2000 BC, makes a mention of the
use of poisonous plants for pest control. Crude botanical pesticides have been
used for several countries and were known in tribal or traditional indigenous
technologies around the world before being introduced to Europe. Those with long
histories of traditional use include neem in India, rotenone in East Asia and South
America, pyrethrum in Persia, and sabadilla in Central and South America. Neem
(Azadirachta indica) tree is indigenous to India and is a storehouse of large number
of pesticidally active tetranortriterpenes, commonly called limonoids, among which
azadirachtin, salanin and nimbin are the most active. The most abundant neem
constituent, azadirachtin is considered an excellent botanical pesticide because
of its biodegradability, demonstrated low toxicity to vertebrates, environmental
safety, and safety to non-target. Its multi-pronged effects against insects including
repellent, antifeedant, oviposition deterrent, molting or growth disruption, sterilant,
ovicidal and oviposition deterrent, etc. help to an effective control of a variety of
farm and household insect pests and pathogens infesting agricultural plantation and
cash crops. Several commercial formulations of neem like Neem Gold, Neemazal,
Econeem, Neemark, Neemcure and Azatin among now available in many countries
including the United States, India, Germany and several Latin American countries.
Inadequate stability, problems in large-scale production, lack of effective delivery
system, poor self life, diminished residual toxicity under field condition, non-
308 | Hi-tech Crop Production and Pest Management

availability of reliable standards and inadequate availability of the raw material are
some impediments in successful commercialization of neem pesticides. Polygonum
and Pongamia are such type of plants having insecticidal properties needed to be
conservation. Polygonum hydropiper, a well known weed in northeast India especially
in the foot hill of the Himalaya, locally known as “biskanthali” is widely used
indigenously in different tribal areas for pest control in vegetable field. Pongamia
pinnata, a medium sized tree is well known in terai region of West Bengal having
humid and subtropical climate. It is one of the few nitrogen fixing trees often
planted as an ornamental and shade tree. Pongamia oil and leaf extract is useful for
pest control in vegetable field.
More than 1000 species of plants have been reported to have chemicals in
leaves, stems, flowers, seeds and roots which have insecticidal properties. Various
scientists direct their attention to discover such type of plant toxicant which are eco-
friendly and play a better role in the control of pest. It is an important component
of IPM. Plant origin insecticides offer a great advantage by being compatible with
other low risk options such as pheromones, biopesticides and bioagents such as
entomopathogenic fungi and nematodes, predators and parasitoids, etc. which can
be integrated in IPM programmes.

Conclusion
The control of this pest through the use of synthetic pesticides during the fruit
bearing stage is rather difficult as the fruits are harvested at frequent intervals,
and there is every possibility that, if spray applications are made, harvested fruit
would contain toxic residues that may cause health hazards. Biopesticides are often
preferred and over synthetic one to overcome this problem. These pesticides are
safe to animals and plant life and are biodegradable with sufficient action. Plant
origin insecticides offer a great advantage by being compatible with other low risk
options such as pheromones, biopesticides and bioagents such as entomopathogenic
fungi and nematodes, predators and parasitoids, etc. which can be integrated in
IPM programmes.

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Chapter 21

Application of Nanoherbicides
in Weed Management:
A Recent Approach
N. Prathap Reddy*, R. Karthik and Rajap Shiva Kumar
Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture,
Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University,
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad – 500030, Telangana

The demand for food production is increasing to meet the needs of increasing global population.
Weeds are the plants which interact with the crop and effect the productivity. Herbicides are used
to control the weeds. The herbicides are to be used repeatedly to control the weeds and this repeated
use of herbicides cause problem to the environment, non target organisms and herbicide drifts also
harm the neighbouring crops. Some of the herbicides have long residual effect and limits the choice
of next crop in the rotation. In this situation the nanotechnology has shown potential for efficient
delivery of chemical and biological pesticides using nanosized preparations. Herbicides are loaded on
nanomaterials to increase the bioavailability and ensure better eradication of weeds. Nanoherbicides
can also helps to increase wettability and dispersion of formulations and restrict the movement of
herbicides to other areas. The nanoherbicides also have higher affinity to target plants due to higher
specific surface area. Different carrier systems like chitosan, alginate, poly epsilon caprolactone are
used for formulating the nanoherbicides. The nano herbicides plays an important role in exhausting
weed seed bank,degrading germination inhibitor, exhausting food reserve, slow release-season long
weed control and rapid degradation of herbicide residue.

Keywords: Weed management, Weed seed bank, Nanotechnology, Nanoherbicides.

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