4 Work and

Simple Machines
M
achines enable people to
accomplish many different
tasks, from eating a meal to
building a skyscraper. In this picture,
machines such as cranes and trucks
are being used to help construct
buildings. In this chapter, you will
learn about work and what simple
machines are. You also will learn
how simple machines make doing
work easier.

What do you think?

Science Journal Look at the picture
below with a classmate. Discuss what
you think this might be or what is
happening. Here’s a hint: The other
six legs are just as hairy. Write down
your answer or best guess in your
Science Journal.

96 ◆ M
 EXPLORE T
wo of the world’s greatest structures were built
using different tools. The Great Pyramid at Giza in

ACTIVITY Egypt was built nearly 5,000 years ago using blocks of
limestone moved into place by hand with ramps and
levers. In comparison, the Sears Tower in Chicago was
built in 1973 using tons of steel that were hoisted into place by gasoline-pow-
ered cranes. How do machines such as ramps, levers, and cranes change the
forces needed to do a job?

Compare forces
1. Place a ruler on an eraser. Place a
book on one end of the ruler.
2. Using one finger, push down on the
free end of the ruler to lift the book.
3. Repeat the experiment, placing the
eraser in various positions beneath
the ruler. Observe how much force is
needed in each instance to lift the book.

Observe
In your Science Journal, describe your observations. How did changing
the distance between the book and the eraser affect the force needed to
lift the book?

FOLDABLES
Reading &Study
& Study Making a Main Ideas Study Fold Make the following Foldable
Skills
to help you identify the main ideas or major topics of work and
simple machines.
Inclined Lever
1. Place a sheet of paper in front of you so the long side is at the [Link] Plane
the paper in half from the left side to the right side and then unfold.
2. Fold each side in to the centerfold line to divide the paper into fourths.
Fold the paper in half from top to bottom and unfold.
3. Through the top thickness of paper,cut along both of the middle fold
lines to form four tabs as shown. Label each tab Inclined Plane, Wheel Wheel and
Axle Pulley
and Axle, Lever, and Pulley as shown.
4. Before you read the chapter, fold your Foldable in half to make a book.
Title the book Work and define work under the title. As you read the
chapter, write information under the tabs about the four tools on your Foldable.

M ◆ 97
 SECTION

Work and Power

What is work?
What does the term work mean to you? You might think of
■ Recognize when work is done. household chores, a job at an office, a factory, a farm, or the
■ Calculate how much work is done. homework you do after school. In science, the definition of
■ Explain the relation between work work is more specific. Work is done when a force causes an
and power. object to move in the same direction that the force is applied.
Vocabulary Can you think of a way in which you did work today? Maybe
work it would help to know that you do work when you lift your
power books, turn a doorknob, raise window blinds, or write with a
pen or pencil. You also do work when you walk up a flight of
stairs or open and close your school locker. In what other ways
If you understand work, you can do you do work every day?
make your work easier.
Work and Motion Your teacher has asked you to move a box
of books to the back of the classroom. Try as you might, though,
you just can’t budge the box because it is too heavy. Although
you exerted a force on the box and you feel
tired from it, you have not done any work. In
order for you to do work, two things must
occur. First, you must apply a force to an
object. Second, the object must move in the
same direction as your applied force. You do
work on an object only when the object moves
as a result of the force you exert. The girl in
Figure 1 might think she is working by holding
the bags of groceries. However, if she is not
moving, she is not doing any work because she
is not causing something to move.

Why don’t you do work

when you hold a baby?

Figure 1
This girl is holding bags of groceries,
yet she isn’t doing any work. Why?

98 ◆ M CHAPTER 4 Work and Simple Machines

 Figure 2
To do work, an object must move
in the direction a force is applied.
The boy’s arms do work when
Force they exert an upward force on
the basket and the basket moves
Force upward. The boy’s arms still
exert an upward force on the
basket. But when the boy walks
forward, no work is done by his
arms.
Motion

Motion

Applying Force and Doing Work Picture yourself lifting

the basket of clothes in Figure 2A. You can feel your arms exert-
ing a force upward as you lift the basket, and the basket moves
upward in the direction of the force your arms applied. There- You may feel tired after
fore, your arms have done work. Now suppose you carry the pushing against a wall
even though the wall
basket forward, as in Figure 2B. You can still feel your arms
doesn’t move. Muscles in
applying an upward force on the box to keep it from falling, but your body contract when
now the box is moving forward instead of upward. Because the you push. This contraction
direction of motion is not in the same direction of the force is caused by chemical reac-
applied by your arms, no work is done by your arms. tions in your muscles that
cause molecules to move.
Force in Two Directions Sometimes only part of the force As a result, work is done
inside your body when you
you exert moves an object. Think about what happens when you push. Research how a
push a lawn mower. You push at an angle to the ground as shown muscle contracts and
in Figure 3. Part of the force is to the right and part of the force describe what you learned
is downward. Only the part of the force that is in the same direc- in your Science Journal.
tion as the motion of the mower—to the right—does work.

Figure 3
Forward force When you exert a force at an
angle, only part of your force
Total does work—the part that is
force in the same direction as the
Downward motion of the object.
force

Motion M ◆ 99
 Calculating Work
Work is done when a force makes an object move. More
work is done when the force is increased or the object is moved
a greater distance. The work done can be calculated from this
equation:
Work  force  distance
In SI units, force is measured in newtons and distance is
measured in meters. The unit for work is the joule, named in
honor of the nineteenth-century scientist James Prescott Joule.

What is the SI unit for work?

Work and Distance Suppose you give a book a push and it

slides across a table. To calculate the work you did, the distance in
the above equation is not the distance the book moved. The dis-
tance in the work equation is the distance an object moves while
the force is being applied. So the distance in the work equation
is the distance the book moved while you were pushing.

Math Skills Activity

Calculating Work
Example Problem
A painter lifts a can of paint that weighs 40 N a distance of 2 m.
How much work does she do? Hint: to lift a can weighing 40 N,
the painter must exert a force of 40 N.
Solution
This is what you know: force  40 N
distance  2 m
This is what you need to know: work
This is the equation you need to use: work  force  distance
Substitute the known values into the equation: work  40 N  2 m  80 J
Check your answer by dividing it by the distance.
Did you calculate the same force that was given?

Practice Problem
As you push a lawn mower, the horizontal force is 300 N. If you
push the mower a distance of 500 m, how much work do you do?

For more help, refer to the Math Skill Handbook.

100 ◆ M CHAPTER 4 Work and Simple Machines

What is power?
What does it mean to be powerful? To understand power,
imagine two weightlifters lifting the same weight and suppose
they lift the weight the same distance. Because they exert the same
upward force and move the weight the same distance, each does
the same amount of work.
Suppose one weightlifter lifted the weight in 3 s, while the
other struggled to lift it in 10 s. You might say that the first Research Visit the
weightlifter is stronger, because she lifted the weight in less time. Glencoe Science Web site at
You could also say that she is more powerful. In science, power is [Link] for
how quickly work is done. Something has more power or is more more information about
powerful if it can do more work in a certain amount of time. James Watt and his steam
[Link] out why the unit
Calculating Power Power can be calculated by dividing the of power was named after
amount of work done by the time needed to do the work. Power this inventor. Summarize
can be calculated by this formula: your findings in a brief report.
work done
Power  
time needed
In SI units, the unit of power is the watt, in honor of James
Watt, a nineteenth-century British scientist who invented a
practical version of the steam engine.

Math Skills Activity

Calculating Power
Example Problem
You do 200 J of work in 12 s. How much power did you use?
Solution
This is what you know: work done  200 J
time needed  12 s
This is what you need to find: power
This is the equation you need to use: power  work done/time needed
Substitute the known values into the equation: power  200 J/12 s  17 watt
Check your answer by dividing it by the work done. Did you calculate
the same time that was given?

Practice Problem
In the course of a short race, a car does 500,000 J of work in 7 s.
What is the power of the car during the race?

For more help, refer to the Math Skill Handbook.

SECTION 1 Work and Power M ◆ 101

 Work and Energy If you push a chair and make it move, you
do work on the chair. You also change the energy of the chair.
Recall that when something is moving it has energy of motion,
or kinetic energy. By making the chair move, you increase its
kinetic energy.
Measuring Work You also change the energy of an object when you do work
and Power and lift it higher. An object has potential energy that increases
Procedure when it is higher above Earth’s surface. By lifting an object, you
1. Weigh yourself on a scale. do work and increase its potential energy.
2. Multiply your weight in
pounds by 4.45 to convert
your weight to newtons. Power and Energy When you do work on an object you
3. Measure the vertical height increase the energy of the object. Where does this energy come
of a ramp or stairway. from? Because energy can never be created or destroyed, if the
WARNING: Make sure the object gains energy then you must lose energy. When you do
ramp or stairway is clear of work on an object you transfer energy to the object, and your
all objects. energy decreases. The amount of work done is the amount of
4. Time yourself walking
slowly and quickly up the energy transferred. So power is also equal to the amount of
ramp or stairway. energy transferred in a certain amount of time.
Analysis energy transferred
Power  
1. Calculate and compare the time needed
work done and power used
in each case. Sometimes energy can be transferred even when no work is
2. How would the work done done, such as when heat flows from a warm to a cold object. In
and power used change if fact, there are many ways energy can be transferred even if no
your weight were twice as work is done. Power is always the rate at which energy is trans-
large?
ferred, or the amount of energy transferred divided by the time
needed.

Section Assessment
1. What conditions must be met for work to
be done? 6. Comparing and Contrasting Which example
2. How much work was done to lift a 1,000-kg involves more power: 200 J of work done in 20 s
block to the top of the Great Pyramid, or 50 J of work done in 4 s? Explain your answer.
146 m above the ground? For more help, refer to the Science Skill
3. How is power related to work? Handbook.
4. How much power, in watts, is needed to 7. Solving One-Step Equations A 7,460-W
cut a lawn in 50 min if the work involved is engine is used to lift a beam weighing 9,800 N
100,000 J? up 145 m. How much work must the motor do
5. Think Critically Suppose you are pulling to lift this beam at constant speed? How much
a wagon at an angle. How can you make more work must be done to lift it 290 m? For
your task easier? more help, refer to the Math Skill Handbook.

102 ◆ M CHAPTER 4 Work and Simple Machines

 Building the Pyramids

I magine moving 2.3 million blocks of limestone,

each weighing more than 1,000 kg. That is
exactly what the builders of the Great Pyramid at
Work Done Using Different Ramps
Distance (cm) Force (N) Work (J)
Giza did. Although no one knows for sure exactly
how they did it, they probably pulled the blocks
most of the way. What could they have done to
make their work easier?

What You’ll Investigate 4. Arrange a notebook so that one end is on the

How is the force needed to lift a block related to stack of books and the other end is on the
the distance it travels? table. Measure the length of the notebook and
record this length as distance in the second
Materials row of the data table under Distance.
wood block thin notebooks 5. Measure the force needed to pull the block up
tape meterstick the ramp. Record the force in the data table.
spring scale several books 6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 using a longer notebook
ruler to make the ramp longer.
Goals 7. Calculate the work done in each row of the
■ Compare the force needed to lift a block with data table.
the force needed to pull it up a ramp.

Safety Precautions Conclude and Apply

1. How much work did you do in each case?
2. What happened to the force needed as the
Procedure length of the ramp increased?
1. Stack several books together on a tabletop to 3. How could the builders of the pyramids have
model a half-completed pyramid. Measure designed their task to use less force than they
the height of the books in centimeters. would lifting the blocks straight up? Draw a
Record the height on the first row of the data diagram to support your answer.
table under Distance.
2. Use the wood block as a model for a block of
stone. Use tape to attach the block to the
spring scale.
3. Place the block on the table and lift it straight
up the side of the stack of books until the top Add your data to that found by other groups.
of the block is even with the top of the books. For more help, refer to the Science Skill
Record the force shown on the scale in the Handbook.
data table under Force.

ACTIVITY M ◆ 103
 SECTION

Using Machines
What is a machine?
Did you use a machine today? When you think of a machine
■ Explain how a machine makes you might think of a device, such as a car, with many moving
work easier. parts powered by an engine or an electric motor. But if you used
■ Calculate the mechanical advan- a pair of scissors or a broom, or cut your food with a knife, you
tages and efficiency of a machine. used a machine. A machine is simply a device that makes doing
■ Explain how friction reduces
efficiency.
work easier. Even a sloping surface can be a machine.

Vocabulary
input force Mechanical Advantage
output force Even though machines make work easier, they don’t decrease
mechanical advantage the amount of work you need to do. Instead, a machine changes
efficiency
the way in which you do work. When you use a machine, you
exert a force over some distance. For example, you exert a force
to move a rake or lift the handles of a wheelbarrow. This force is
Machines can’t change the amount of
work you need to do, but they can
called the effort force, or the input force. The work you do on
make doing work easier. the machine is equal to the input force times the distance over
which your force moves the machine. The work that you do on
the machine is the input work.
The machine also does work by exerting a force to move an
object over some distance. A rake, for example, exerts a force to
move leaves. Sometimes this force is called the resistance force
because the machine is trying to overcome some resistance. This
force also can be called the output force. The work that the
machine does is the output work. Figure 4 shows how a
machine transforms input work to output work.
When you use a machine, the output work can never be
greater than the input work. So what is the advantage of using a
machine? A machine makes work easier by changing the
amount of force you need to exert, the distance over which the
force is exerted, or the direction in which you exert your force.

Figure 4
No matter what type of Machine
machine is used, the output
work is never greater than Input work Output work
the input work.

104 ◆ M CHAPTER 4 Work and Simple Machines

Changing Force Work is equal to force times distance. If
work stays the same, what happens to force if you exert a force
over a longer distance? You can exert a smaller force. Some
machines make work easier by allowing you to exert a smaller
force over a longer distance.
The mechanical advantage of a machine compares the input
force to the output force. Mechanical advantage is the number Research Visit the
of times the input force is multiplied by a machine. Glencoe Science Web site at
[Link] for
output force
Mechanical advantage   more information about early
input force types of tools and how they
For example, suppose that using a pulley system takes you took advantage of simple
only 300 N to lift a piano that weighs 1,500 N. To lift the piano, machines. Design a poster
the pulley system exerts an upward force of 1,500 N to overcome relating several ancient tools
the downward pull of gravity. This is the output force. The force to the simple machines you
you exert on the pulley system in the input force, which is have studied.
300 N. So the mechanical advantage of the pulley system is five.

What is the mechanical advantage of a

machine?

Math Skills Activity

Calculating Mechanical Advantage
Example Problem
To pry the lid off a paint can, you apply a force of 50 N to the handle of a screwdriver.
What is the mechanical advantage of the screwdriver if it applies a force of 500 N to the lid?
Solution
This is what you know: output force  500 N
input force  50 N
This is what you need to find: mechanical advantage
This is the equation you need to use: mechanical advantage  output force/input force
Substitute the known values: mechanical advantage  (500 N) / (50 N)  10.
Check your answer by multiplying it by the input force. Do you calculate the
same output force that was given?

Practice Problem
To open a bottle, you apply a force of 50 N to a bottle opener. The
bottle opener applies a force of 775 N to the bottle cap. What is the
mechanical advantage of the bottle opener?

For more help, refer to the Math Skill Handbook.

SECTION 2 Using Machines M ◆ 105

Figure 5
When you rake leaves,
you move your hands a
short distance but the end
of the rake moves over a
longer distance. Some-
times it is easier to exert
your force in a certain direc-
tion. This boy would rather
pull down on the rope to lift
the flag than to climb to the
top of the pole and pull up.

Changing Distance Some machines allow you to exert your

force over a shorter distance. In these machines, the output force
is less than the input force. The rake in Figure 5A is this type of
machine. You move your hands a small distance at the top of the
handle, but the bottom of the rake moves a greater distance as it
moves the leaves. The mechanical advantage of this type of
machine is less than one because the output force is less than the
input force.

Changing Direction Sometimes it is easier to apply a force in

a certain direction. For example, it is easier to pull down on the
Figure 6 rope in Figure 5B than to pull up on it. Some machines enable
Machines are useful because you to change the direction of the input force. In these machines
they can increase force, neither the force nor the distance is changed. The mechanical
increase distance, or advantage of this type of machine is equal to one because the
change the direction in output force is equal to the input force. The three ways machines
which a force is applied. make doing work easier are summarized in Figure 6.

Larger force Smaller force

applied over a applied over a
Input force shorter distance Input force longer distance
Increases Increases
force distance

Force
applied over same
distance in a
Input force Changes different direction
direction
of force

106 ◆ M CHAPTER 4 Work and Simple Machines

Efficiency
A machine doesn’t increase the input work. For a real
machine, the output work done by the machine is always less Chemical reactions that
than the input work that you do on the machine. Remember enable your muscles to
that anytime two surfaces slide past each other, friction resists move also produce heat
their motion. In real machines some input work is always used that helps maintain your
to overcome friction, so the parts of the machine can move. body temperature. When
you shiver, rapid contrac-
The ability of a machine to convert the input work to output tion and relaxation of mus-
work is called the machine’s efficiency. Efficiency is described as cle fibers produces a large
a percent. amount of heat that helps
raise your body tempera-
output work
Efficiency    100% ture. This causes the effi-
input work ciency of your muscles to
decrease as more energy is
An ideal machine has an efficiency of 100 percent. The effi- converted into heat.
ciency of a real machine is always less than 100 percent, because
some work is converted into heat by friction. When friction is
reduced, the efficiency of a machine increases.

Why is the efficiency of a real machine less than

100 percent?

Math Skills Activity

Calculating Efficiency
Example Problem
Using a pulley system, a crew does 7,500 J of work to load a box that requires
4,500 J of work. What is the efficiency of the pulley system?
Solution
This is what you know: work output  4,500 J
work input  7,500 J
This is what you need to find: efficiency
This is the equation you need to use: efficiency  output work/input work  100%
Substitute the known values: efficiency  (4,500 J)/(7,500 J)  100%  60%
Check your answer by multiplying it by the work input.
Do you calculate the same work output that was given?

Practice Problem
You do 100 J of work in pulling out a nail with a claw hammer.
If the hammer does 70 J of work, what is the hammer’s efficiency?

For more help, refer to the Math Skill Handbook.

SECTION 2 Using Machines M ◆ 107

 Friction To help understand friction, imagine pushing a heavy
box up a ramp. As the box begins to move, the bottom surface of
Figure 7 the box slides across the top surface of the ramp. Neither surface
Lubrication can reduce the is perfectly smooth—each has high spots and low spots, as
friction between two surfaces. shown in Figure 7.
As the two surfaces slide past each other, high spots on
the two surfaces come in contact. At these contact points,
Surface
shown in Figure 7A, atoms and molecules can bond
together. This makes the contact points stick together. The
attractive forces between all the bonds in the contact
Surface points added together is the frictional force that tries to
keep the two surfaces from sliding past each other.
To keep the box moving, a force must be applied to
Two surfaces in contact can stick break the bonds between the contact points. Even after
together where the high spots on each these bonds are broken and the box moves, new bonds
surface come in contact. form as different parts of the two surfaces come into con-
tact. So as you keep pushing the box, part of the force
Surface that you exert is used to break the bonds that keep form-
ing between the contact points.
Oil
Friction and Efficiency One way to reduce friction
between two surfaces is to add oil. Figure 7B shows how
oil fills the gaps between the surfaces, and keeps many of
Surface
the high spots from making contact. Because there are
Adding oil or another lubricant fewer contact points between the surfaces, the force of
separates the surface so that fewer friction is reduced. More of the input work then is con-
high spots make contact. verted to output work by the machine.

Section Assessment
1. What are three ways in which machines
make work easier? 6. Comparing and Contrasting How does the
2. How can you find the mechanical advan- efficiency of an ideal machine compare with that
tage of a machine? of a real machine? For more help, refer to the
3. You do 150 J of work on a machine and the Science Skill Handbook.
machine does 90 J of work as a result. What 7. Using an Electronic Spreadsheet On a com-
is the efficiency of the machine? puter, create a spreadsheet that calculates work
4. Explain how friction reduces the efficiency from force and distance. Input a value for work
of machines. and then input several different force values.
5. Think Critically Can a machine be useful How does the distance change if the work stays
even if its mechanical advantage is less the same and the force decreases? For more
than one? Explain and give an example. help, refer to the Technology Skill Handbook.

108 ◆ M CHAPTER 4 Work and Simple Machines

 SECTION

Simple Machines
What is a simple machine?
What do you think of when you hear the word machine?
Many people think of machines as complicated devices such as ■ Distinguish among the different
cars, elevators, or computers. However, some machines are as simple machines.
simple as a hammer, shovel, or ramp. A simple machine is a ■ Describe how to find the mechani-

machine that does work with only one movement. The six sim- cal advantage of each simple
machine.
ple machines are the inclined plane, lever, wheel and axle, screw,
wedge, and pulley. A machine made up of a combination of Vocabulary
simple machines is called a compound machine. A can opener simple machine screw
compound machine lever
is a compound machine. The bicycle in Figure 8 is a familiar inclined plane wheel and axle
example of another compound machine. wedge pulley

Inclined Plane
Ramps might have enabled the ancient Egyptians to build Simple machines make up all
machines.
their pyramids. To move limestone blocks weighing more than
1,000 kg each, archaeologists hypothesize that the Egyptians
built enormous ramps. A ramp is a simple machine known as an
inclined plane. An inclined plane is a flat, sloped surface. Less
force is needed to move an object from one height to another
using an inclined plane than is needed to lift the object. As the
inclined plane becomes longer, the force needed to move the
object becomes smaller.

Figure 8
Devices that use combinations
of simple machines, such as this
bicycle, are called compound
machines.

M ◆ 109
 Figure 9
Using an inclined plane, the force
needed to move the box to the
back of the truck is reduced com-
Weight = pared to lifting the box straight up.
1,500 N

Force = 300 N

1m
Force = 1,500 N 5m

Using Inclined Planes Imagine having to lift a box weigh-

ing 1,500 N to the back of a truck that is 1 m off the ground.
You would have to exert a force of 1,500 N, the weight of the
box, over a distance of 1 m, which equals 1,500 J of work. Now
suppose that instead you use a 5-m-long ramp, as shown in
Figure 9. The amount of work you need to do does not change.
You still need to do 1,500 J of work. However, the distance over
which you exert your force becomes 5 m. You can calculate the
force you need to exert by dividing both sides of the equation
Figure 10 for work by distance.
This chef’s knife is a wedge that work
slices through food. Force  
distance
If you do 1,500 J of work by exerting a force
over 5 m, the force is only 300 N. Because you
exert the input force over a distance that is five
times as long, you can exert a force that is five
times less.
The mechanical advantage of an inclined plane
is the length of the inclined plane divided by its
height. In this example, the ramp has a mechanical
advantage of 5.

Wedge An inclined plane that moves is called a

wedge. A wedge can have one or two sloping
sides. The knife shown in Figure 10 is an example
of a wedge. An axe and certain types of doorstop
are also wedges. Just as for an inclined plane, the
mechanical advantage of a wedge increases as it
becomes longer and thinner.

110 ◆ M CHAPTER 4 Work and Simple Machines

Figure 11
Wedge-shaped teeth The wedge-
help tear food. shaped teeth of
this Tyrannosaurus
Rex show that it
was a carnivore.

Your front
teeth help tear
an apple apart.

Wedges in Your Body You have

wedges in your body. The bite marks
on the apple in Figure 11A show how
your front teeth are wedge shaped. A wedge changes the direction
of the applied effort force. As your push your front teeth into the
apple, the downward effort force is changed by your teeth into a
sideways force that pushes the skin of the apple apart.
The teeth of meat eaters, or carnivores, are more wedge
shaped than the teeth of plant eaters, or herbivores. The teeth of
carnivores are used to cut and rip meat, while herbivores’ teeth
are used for grinding plant material. By examining the teeth of
ancient animals, such as the dinosaur in Figure 11B, scientists Figure 12
can determine what the animal ate when it was living. The thread around a screw is an
inclined plane. Many familiar
The Screw Another form of the inclined plane is a screw. A devices use screws to make work
screw is an inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder or post. easier.
The inclined plane on a screw forms the screw
threads. Just like a wedge changes the direction of
the effort force applied to it, a screw also changes
the direction of the applied force. When you turn
a screw, the force applied is changed by the threads
to a force that pulls the screw into the material.
Friction between the threads and the material
holds the screw tightly in place. The mechanical
advantage of the screw is the length of the inclined
plane wrapped around the screw divided by the
length of the screw. The more tightly wrapped the
threads are, the easier it is to turn the screw. Exam-
ples of screws are shown in Figure 12.

How are screws related to the

inclined plane?

SECTION 3 Simple Machines M ◆ 111

 Input Output
Figure 13 force force Mechanical 10 cm 1
The mechanical advantage of a = =
advantage 50 cm 5
lever changes as the position of 10 cm 50 cm
the fulcrum changes. The
mechanical advantage increases
as the fulcrum is moved closer to
Input Output
the output force.
force force Mechanical 50 cm
= =
advantage 10 cm 5
50 cm 10 cm

Figure 14 Lever
A faucet handle is a wheel and You step up to the plate. The pitcher throws the ball and you
axle. A wheel and axle is similar swing your lever to hit the ball? That’s right! A baseball bat is a
to a circular lever. The center is
type of simple machine called a lever. A lever is any rigid rod or
the fulcrum, and the wheel and
plank that pivots, or rotates, about a point. The point about
axle turn around it. How can you
increase the mechanical advantage which the lever pivots is called a fulcrum.
of a wheel and axle? The mechanical advantage of a lever is found by dividing the
distance from the fulcrum to the input force by the distance from
the fulcrum to the output force, as shown in Figure 13. When the
fulcrum is closer to the output force than the input force, the
mechanical advantage is greater than one.
Levers are divided into three classes according to the position
of the fulcrum with respect to the input force and output force.
Figure 15 shows examples of three classes of levers.

Wheel and Axle

Wheel Do you think you could turn a doorknob
easily if it were a narrow rod the size of a pencil?
It might be possible, but it would be difficult. A
doorknob makes it easier for you to open a door
Axle because it is a simple machine called a wheel and
Input axle. A wheel and axle consists of two circular
force objects of different sizes that are attached in such
a way that they rotate together. As you can see in
Figure 14, the larger object is the wheel and the
smaller object is the axle.
The mechanical advantage of a wheel and
axle is usually greater than one. It is found by
dividing the radius of the wheel by the radius of
Output force the axle. For example, if the radius of the wheel
is 12 cm and the radius of the axle is 4 cm, the
mechanical advantage is 3.

112 ◆ M CHAPTER 4 Work and Simple Machines

 VISUALIZING LEVERS
Figure 15

L
evers are among the simplest of machines, and you prob-
ably use them often in everyday life without even realiz-
ing it. A lever is a bar that pivots around a fixed point
called a fulcrum. As shown here, there are three types
of levers—first class, second class, and third class. They differ
in where two forces—an input force and an output force—
are located in relation to the fulcrum.

Fulcrum In a first-class lever, the fulcrum is

Input force between the input force and the
output force. First-class levers, such First-class lever
Output
force as scissors and pliers, multiply force
or distance depending on where the
fulcrum is placed. They always change
the direction of the input force, too.

In a second-class lever, such

as a wheelbarrow, the out- Second-class lever
put force is between the
input force and the fulcrum.
Second-class levers always
multiply the input force but
don‘t change its direction.

In a third-class lever, such as a baseball

Third-class lever
bat, the input force is between the out-
put force and the fulcrum. For a third-
class lever,the output force is less than the
input force,but is in the same direction.

SECTION 3 Simple Machines M ◆ 113

 Output force
Output
Input force force

Axle

Wheel
Input force
Wheel
Axle

Figure 16
The waterwheel and ferris wheel
are examples of devices that rely on
a wheel and axle. How are they alike
and how are they different?
Using Wheels and Axles In some devices, the input force is
used to turn the wheel and the output force is exerted by the axle.
Because the wheel is larger than the axle, the mechanical advan-
tage is greater than one. So the output force is greater than the
input force. A doorknob, a steering wheel, and a screwdriver are
examples of this type of wheel and axle.
In other devices, the input force is applied to turn the axle and
the output force is exerted by the wheel. Then the mechanical
advantage is less than one and the output force is less than the
input force. A fan and a ferris wheel are examples of this type of
wheel and axle. Figure 16 shows an example of each type of wheel
Observing Pulleys and axle.
Procedure
1. Obtain two broomsticks.
Tie a 3-m-long rope to the
Pulley
middle of one stick. Wrap To raise a sail, a sailor pulls down on a rope. The rope uses a
the rope around both sticks simple machine called a pulley to change the direction of the
four times. force needed. A pulley consists of a grooved wheel with a rope or
2. Have two students pull the chain wrapped around it.
broomsticks apart while a
third pulls on the rope.
3. Repeat with two wraps of
Fixed Pulleys Some pulleys, such as the one on a sail, a window
rope. blind, or a flagpole, are attached to a structure above your head.
When you pull down on the rope, you pull something up. This
Analysis
1. Compare the results.
type of pulley, called a fixed pulley, does not change the force you
2. Predict whether it will be exert or the distance over which you exert it. Instead, it changes the
easier to pull the broomsticks direction in which you exert your force, as shown in Figure 17A.
together with ten wraps of The mechanical advantage of a fixed pulley is 1.
rope.
How does a fixed pulley affect the input force?

114 ◆ M CHAPTER 4 Work and Simple Machines

 A fixed pulley A movable A pulley sys-
changes the direction pulley multiplies tem uses several
of the input force. the input force. pulleys to increase
the mechanical
advantage.

Movable Pulleys Another way to use a pulley is to attach it Figure 17

to the object you are lifting, as shown in Figure 17B. This type Pulleys can change force and
of pulley, called a movable pulley, allows you to exert a smaller direction.
force to lift the object. The mechanical advantage of a movable
pulley is always 2.
More often you will see combinations of fixed and movable
pulleys. Such a combination is called a pulley system. The
mechanical advantage of a pulley system is equal to the number
of sections of rope pulling up on the object. For the pulley
system shown in Figure 17C the mechanical advantage is 3.

Section Assessment
1. Define simple and compound machines in
your own words. 6. Comparing and Contrasting How are a lever
2. Describe four different simple machines. and a wheel and axle similar? For more help,
3. Why can a machine with a mechanical refer to the Science Skill Handbook.
advantage less than one be useful? 7. Using Proportions You are designing a lever
4. How does the mechanical advantage of a to lift an object that weighs 500 N. The lever
wheel and axle change as the size of the exerts the output force 1 m from the fulcrum.
wheel increases? How far from the fulcrum must an effort force of
5. Think Critically The Great Pyramid is 250 N be applied to lift the object? Draw a dia-
146 m high. How long would a ramp from gram as part of your answer. Label the forces
the top of the pyramid to the ground need and distances. For more help, refer to the
to be to have a mechanical advantage of 4? Math Skill Handbook.

SECTION 3 Simple Machines M ◆ 115

Pulley Power
I magine how long it might have taken to build the Sears Tower in Chicago without
the aid of a pulley system attached to a crane. Hoisting the 1-ton I beams to a maxi-
mum height of 110 stories required large lifting forces and precise control of the
beam’s movement.
Construction workers also use smaller pulleys that are not attached to cranes to lift
supplies to where they are needed. Pulleys are not limited to construction sites. They
also are used to lift automobile engines out of cars, to help load and unload heavy
objects on ships, and to lift heavy appliances and furniture.

Recognize the Problem

How can you use a pulley system to reduce the force needed to lift a load?

Form a Hypothesis
Write a hypothesis about how pulleys can be combined to make a system of pulleys to
lift a heavy load, such as a brick. Consider the efficiency of your system.
Goals Possible Materials
■ Design a pulley system. single- and multiple-pulley systems
■ Measure the mechanical advantage nylon rope
and efficiency of the pulley system. steel bar to support the pulley system
meterstick
*metric tape measure
variety of weights to test pulleys
force spring scale
brick
*heavy book
balance
*scale
*Alternate materials

Safety Precautions
The brick could be dangerous if it falls.
Keep your hands and feet clear of it.
 Test Your Hypothesis
Plan
1. Decide how you are going to and use arrows to
support your pulley system. What indicate the direc-
materials will you use? tion of movement
2. How will you measure the effort for each section of
force and the resistance force? How rope.
will you determine the mechanical
advantage? How will you measure Do
efficiency? 1. Make sure your
3. Experiment by lifting small teacher approves
weights with a single pulley, double your plan before
pulley,and so on. How efficient are you start.
the pulleys? In what ways can you 2. Assemble the pul-
increase the efficiency of your ley system you designed. You might
setup? want to test it with a smaller weight
4. Use the results of step 3 to design a before attaching the brick.
pulley system to lift the brick. Draw 3. Measure the force needed to lift
a diagram of your design. Label the the brick. How much rope must you
different parts of the pulley system pull to raise the brick 10 cm?

Analyze Your Data

1. Calculate the ideal mechanical 3. Calculate the efficiency of your
advantage of your design. pulley system.
2. Calculate the actual mechanical 4. How did the mechanical advantage
advantage of the pulley system you of your pulley system compare with
built. those of your classmates?

Draw Conclusions
1. Explain how increasing the number of pul-
leys increases the mechanical advantage.
Show your design diagram to the class.
2. How could you modify the pulley system to
Review the design and point out good and
lift a weight twice as heavy with the same
bad characteristics of your pulley system.
effort force used here?
For more help, refer to the Science Skill
3. Compare this real machine with an ideal Handbook.
machine.

ACTIVITY M ◆ 117
 SCIENCE AND SCIENCE

Society ISSUES
THAT AFFECT
YOU!

Bionic Pe FNS uses a computer or microprocessor to

P
eople in need of transplants usually
receive human organs. But many peo- send electric impulses directly to these
ple’s medical problems can only be muscles. By sending the proper signals, the
solved by receiving artificial body parts. These muscles can be made to move. FNS can allow
synthetic devices, called prostheses, are used paralyzed people to walk to a certain extent
to replace anything from a heart valve to a and to maintain muscle control.
knee joint. Bionics is the science of creating The knowledge that muscles respond to
artificial body parts. A major focus of bionics electricity has helped create more effective
is the replacement of lost limbs. Through prostheses. One such prostheses is the myoelec-
accident, birth defect, or disease, people tric arm. This battery-powered device connects
sometimes lack hands or feet, or even whole muscle nerves in an amputated arm to a sensor.
arms or legs. For centuries, people have used
This color-enhanced
prostheses to replace limbs. In the past, dis- photo shows a motor
abled people used devices like peg legs or neuron (pink) joined to
skeletal muscle fibers.
artificial arms that ended in a pair of hooks.
These protheses didn’t do much to replace
lost functions of arms and legs.
But today, that’s changed, thanks to the
work of eighteenth-century scientists Luigi
Galvani and Alessandro Volta. Because of
their experiments, people began to realize
that muscles contract by means of electrical
impulses. This knowledge eventually led to
an invention called functional neuromuscular
stimulation (FNS). Some people are
paralyzed because nerves that send electric
impulses to certain muscles are destroyed.

118 ◆ M
Artificial limbs
can help
people lead
normal lives

ople
The sensor detects when the arm tenses,
then transmits the signal to an artificial
hand, which opens or closes. New pros-
thetic hands even give a sense of touch, as
well as cold and heat.
Today’s leg prostheses are also more People with leg prostheses
can participate in sports.
sophisticated. The latest models are
made of strong, lightweight titanium
rods built inside a lifelike plastic cover-
ing. They allow users to compete in
many sports, even tough ones like the
triathlon. In addition, new artificial feet
Myoelectric
let wearers sense when their weight is arms make
on their toes, heels, or the sides of their life easier for
people who
feet. This gives them better balance.
have them.
A recent experiment promises even
more amazing bionic technologies.
Researchers have trained rats to move a
robotic arm by using their brain signals
that normally control movement——and
without using their muscles at all. One
day, this research might produce devices
that allow paralyzed people to move artifi-
cial limbs just by brain power.

CONNECTIONS Research Use your school’s media center to find

other aspects of robotics such as walking machines or robots that perform
planetary exploration. What are they used for? How do they work? You could For more information, visit
take it one step further and learn about cyborgs. Report to the class. [Link]
Chapter 4 Study Guide

Section 1 Work and Power Section 3 Simple Machines

1. Work is done when a force exerted on an 1. A machine that does work with only one
object causes the object to move. movement is a simple machine. A com-
2. A force can do work only when it is exerted pound machine is a combination of simple
in the same direction as the object moves. machines.
Is work being done if this car is stuck? 2. Simple machines include the inclined plane,
lever, wheel and axle, screw, wedge, and pul-
ley. What type of simple machine is shown?

3. Wedges and screws are two types of inclined

planes. The mechanical advantage of an
inclined plane is its length divided by its
3. Work is equal to force times distance, and height.
the unit of work is the joule. 4. The mechanical advantage of a lever
4. Power is the rate at which work is done, and depends on the location of the fulcrum.
the unit of power is the watt. The mechanical advantage of a wheel and
axle depends on the radius of each circular
Section 2 Using Machines object.
1. A machine changes the size or direction of 5. Pulleys can be used to multiply force and
the input force or the distance over which it change direction. The mechanical advan-
is exerted. tage of a fixed pulley is one and of a single
2. The mechanical movable pulley, two.
advantage of a
machine is its
output force
divided by its After You Read
input force.
FOLDABLES
Reading &Study
& Study To help you review work and
What is the Skills simple machines, use the
mechanical Foldable you made at the
advantage of beginning of the chapter.
this machine?

120 ◆ M CHAPTER STUDY GUIDE

 Chapter 4 Study Guide

Complete the following concept map on simple machines.

Simple
Machines

Wheel and
Lever Pulley
axle

is a is a is a are

Rigid rod Two

Flat, sloped or plank that circular objects
surface rotates about a that rotate
fulcrum together

example example example example

Vocabulary Words Using Vocabulary

a. compound machine i. pulley Each phrase below describes a vocabulary
b. efficiency j. screw word. Write the vocabulary word that matches
c. inclined plane k. simple machine the phrase describing it.
d. input force l. wedge 1. percentage of work in to work out
e. lever m. wheel and axle
f. mechanical advantage n. work 2. force put into a machine
g. output force 3. force exerted on an object by a machine
h. power 4. two rigidly attached wheels
5. input force divided by output force
Study Tip
6. a machine with only one movement
Without looking back at your textbook, write a 7. an inclined plane that moves
summary of each section of the chapter after 8. a rigid rod that rotates about a fulcrum
you’ve read it. If you write it in your own words,
9. a flat, sloped surface
you will better remember it.
10. amount of work divided by time

CHAPTER STUDY GUIDE M ◆ 121

Chapter 4 Assessment
9. A ramp decreases which of the following?
A) height C) input force
Choose the word or phrase that best answers B) output force D) input distance
the question. 10. If a machine takes in 50 J and puts out 45 J,
1. Which of the following is a requirement for what is its efficiency?
work to be done? A) 0.9 percent C) 90 percent
A) Force is exerted. C) Force moves object. B) 1.1 percent D) 111 percent
B) Object is carried. D) Machine is used.
2. How much work is done when a force of
30 N moves an object a distance of 3 m?
A) 3 J C) 30 J 11. Explain why the output work for any
B) 10 J D) 90 J machine can’t be greater than the input
work.
3. How much power is expended when 600 J
of work are done in 10 s? 12. A doorknob is an example of a wheel and
A) 6 W C) 600 W axle. Explain why turning the knob is easier
B) 60 W D) 610 W than turning the axle.
4. Which is an example of a simple machine? 13. What is the mechanical advantage of a
A) baseball bat C) can opener 6-m long ramp that extends from a
B) bicycle D) car ground-level sidewalk to a 2-m high porch?
5. What is mechanical advantage? 14. How much input force is required to lift an
A) input force/output force 11,000-N beam using a pulley system with a
B) output force/input force mechanical advantage of 20?
C) input work/output work 15. Would a 9 N force applied 2 m from the
D) output work/input work fulcrum lift the weight? Explain.
6. What is the ideal mechanical advantage of a 9N
machine that changes only the direction of
the input force?
A) less than 1 C) 1
B) zero D) greater than 1 3m

7. A wheel with a radius of 20 cm is attached

to an axle with a radius of 1 cm. What is the
output force if the input force on the wheel
is 100 N?
16. Measuring in SI At the 1976 Olympics,
A) 5 N C) 500 N
Vasili Alexeyev shattered the world record
B) 200 N D) 2,000 N
for weight lifting when he lifted 2,500 N
8. Which of the following is a form of the from the floor to a point over his head 2 m
inclined plane? above the ground. It took him about 5 s to
A) pulley C) wheel and axle complete the lift. How much work did he
B) screw D) lever do? What was his power?

122 ◆ M CHAPTER ASSESSMENT

 Chapter 4 Assessment

17. Predicting Suppose a lever is in balance.

Would this arrangement be in balance on the Test Practice
Moon, where the force of gravity is less?
Explain. At state fairs, participants often com-
pete in pulling a 250-pound rock to a
18. Making and Using Graphs A pulley system 50-meter height by using a simple pulley
has a mechanical advantage of 5. Make a system. Each participant gets three tries to
graph of the possible combinations of input reach the 50-meter height.
force and output force.
19. Solving One-Step Equations If you put Top Four Competitors
8,000 J of work into a machine with an effi- Participant Bud Charley Maxine Joey
ciency of 60 percent, what is the work output? Attempt 1 35 m 18 m 38 m 43 m
20. Recognizing Cause and Effect The diagram Attempt 2 28 m 23 m 35 m 38 m
below shows a force exerted at an angle to Attempt 3 42 m 30 m 36 m 21 m
pull a sled. How much work is done if the
sled moves 10 m horizontally?
Study the table and answer the following
questions.
Total 1. According to this information,
force = 50 N Vertical which of the participants pulled the
part = 30 N
250-pound rock to the highest average
height?
A) Bud C) Maxine
Horizontal B) Charley D) Joey
part = 40 N
2. According to the table, the competitor
who did the least amount of total work
overall was _____ .
21. Identifying Levers You have levers in your F) Bud H) Maxine
body. Your muscles and tendons provide the G) Charley J) Joey
input force. Your joints act as fulcrums. The 3. According to the table, which of the
output force is used to move everything from following is true about the amount of
your head to your hands. Describe and draw work done by Joey over his three
any human levers you can identify. attempts, compared to the other top
four competitors?
A) The range is the smallest
TECHNOLOGY B) The range is the largest
C) The average is the lowest
Go to the Glencoe Science Web site at D) The average is the highest
[Link] or use the
Glencoe Science CD-ROM for additional
chapter assessment.

CHAPTER ASSESSMENT M ◆ 123