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Focus groups
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Focus groups
• Focus groups ( sometimes called focus group
interviews) take place in a group setting.
• Focus groups are not recommended for studying
sensitive topics that people will be reluctant to
discuss in public.
(Qu & Dumay, 2011)
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Focus groups (Continued)
• A key characteristic is the interaction between members of the group (Cameron,
2005).
• Focus groups typically consist of 8-12 people (ideal 4-8), with a moderator who
focuses the discussion on relevant topics in a nondirective manner.
• The smaller the group, the less information we gather.
• On the other hand, having more than 10 people in the group make it crowded
and difficult for all members to participate and interact.
• Multiple focus groups should be conducted in order to gather sufficient amount
of data, opinion, and views on the study (Oun & Bach, 2014).
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Focus groups (Continued)
•Focus group advantages
❑Convenience
❑Time and expenses savings
❑Because the researcher ( sometimes called facilitator or moderator)
takes a less active role in guiding the discussion, less bias is introduced
by the researcher than in individual interviews.
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Sample on paper utilised interviews and
focus groups
• Surgeons' aims and pain assessment strategies when managing
paediatric post-operative pain: A qualitative study (Interview study).
• "I couldn't even talk to the patient": barriers to communicating with
cancer patients as perceived by nursing students (Focus group study).
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Observation
7
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Observation (observing in the field)
• Simply…..
Observation in qualitative research involves "going
into the field"--describing and analysing what has
been seen (Mays & Pope, 1995)
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Observation (Continued)
• Observation in qualitative research is one of the oldest and most fundamental
research methods approaches.
• Traditionally, observation has been extensively used in the social sciences
including psychology and medical settings.
• When using questionnaires and interviews sometimes a social desirability
approach impacts on participants' responses, where they say what they think the
researcher wants to hear rather than what they actually believe or do. This makes
it hard to find out what is really happening in practice (Twycross & Shorten, 2016).
• Observation involves collecting data using one’s senses, especially looking and
listening in a systematic and meaningful way”(McKechnie, 2008).
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Observation (Continued)
• Observation sometimes referred to as unobtrusive method
o Unobtrusive measures allow for data collection and analysis to be completed without the researcher intruding in the research context.
o Their advantage is that they do not disturb the naturally occurring processes that are the subject of the research. In particular, because the informants
are not aware of the research that is going on, their behaviour and self-descriptions are not modified by the researcher's presence or activities .
o Other names for these techniques are ‘non-reactive’ or ‘indirect’ methods.
• The research setting for participant observation is the study informants’ own daily
environment rather than a setting assigned by researchers (Spradley, 2016).
• Observation provides an enormous amount of data to be captured and analysed.
• One approach to helping with collection and analysis is to digitally record observations to
allow for repeated viewing (Meriläinen, Kyngäs, & Ala-Kokko, 2010).
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Observation (Continued)
• Observation’ is more than just recording of data from the environment.
• When we observe, we are active, not passive collectors of data like a
tape recorder or video camera.
• Observation seeks to find out “what is going on here?
• Data collected in observational studies can be qualitative, quantitative or
both.
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Why Use Observation to Collect Data?
• They provide researchers with ways to check for nonverbal expression of feelings,
determine who interacts with whom, grasp how participants communicate with
each other, and check for how much time is spent on various activities.
• Participant observation allows researchers to check definitions of terms that
participants use in interviews, observe events that informants may be unable or
unwilling to share.
• Help researchers observe situations informants have described in interviews,
thereby making them aware of distortions or inaccuracies in description provided
by those informants (Kawulich, 2005)
. March 2022 12
Why Use Observation to Collect Data? (Continued)
• Makes it possible to collect different types of data. Being onsite over a
period of time familiarizes the researcher to the community, thereby
facilitating involvement in sensitive activities to which he/she generally
would not be invited.
• It helps the researcher to develop questions that make sense in the native
language or are culturally relevant.
• It gives the researcher a better understanding of what is happening in the
culture.
• Enables the researcher to collect both quantitative and qualitative data
through surveys and interviews.
(Bernard, 2017)
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Two types of observations
• Non- participant observation. Researcher is not part of the activity
taking place, but simply observes. May be identified as
observer/researcher (Observers adopt a detached role)
• Participant observation. Researcher takes part in community,
organization, or activity. Researcher attempts to learn what it is like
to be part of the community, organization, or participate in the
activity ( i.e. observer participates in the activities being observed).
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Types of observation
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Participant observation
• Marshall & Rossman (1989)
• “The systematic description of events, behaviors, and artifacts in the social
setting chosen for study" (p.79).
• Observations enable the researcher to describe existing situations using the five
senses, providing a "written photograph" of the situation under study
• A process enabling researchers to learn about the activities of the people under
study in the natural setting through observing and participating in those
activities.
• “The process of learning through exposure to or involvement in the day-to-day
or routine activities of participants in the researcher setting”
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Participant observation- Methodology
• The researcher assumes a role in the setting or group being
studied.
– Often the researcher actually takes on the role being
studied;
• Becoming a firefighter
• Enrolling in flight training school
• Working in a mental hospital (or passing as a patient)
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In both types of observation, the researcher attempts to learn about
context in which behavior takes place. Context includes:
• Physical surroundings.
• Other people in the setting.
• The interactions among different people in the
setting.
• The social, cultural, political, or economic context
in which the behavior occurs and why it occurs
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Styles of observation
• Unstructured observation – describing what occurs. Researcher usually
does not have a preconceived idea about what would occur.
❑ The most common type
❑ Uses the researcher’s words for thick description of phenomena or events (Mulhall, 2003).
• Structured observation. Starting with an operational definition of what
you want to measure – and counting only the behavior or situation that
“fits” the definition
❑ Uses a template to record tabulations of specific behaviours that can be measured and analysed statistically
(Callahan & Bertakis, 1991).
• Mix of both- unstructured and structured
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Researchers record what they
see, hear, smell, and taste using:
• Field notes. Written record of what is
observed, impressions, reactions, and
hypotheses about what has happened.
• Photos of people and setting may be added to
analysis.
• Audio-tape and video-tape are also used to
document what researchers find.
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An example of field note taken during triage
nurse observation
‘7am Saturday. I followed Andrew as he moved through each clinical area on his way
to triage. I asked about this behaviour. He explained, it’s important to know the
number of patients in each area and which beds are free. Arriving at triage, the night
nurse was directing a patient to the waiting room. Andrew asked about the shift.
Looking out into the waiting room, eight people sat on chairs. Some were watching the
television, others rested with their eyes closed, of which two had draped around them
hospital blankets. Andrew listened, mainly nodding, as the nurse discussed each
patient: how long they had waited, why they came to the ED, if the Triage Nurse had
done anything to speed up their care, and the rate that patients were seen. The Triage
Nurses, turned back towards the computer and brought up a different screen that
appeared labelled Patient Expect. Doctors entered the details and conditions of
expected ED patient arrivals into this screen. Expected patients appeared listed on the
computer screen. The information provided on this screen sometimes assisted Triage
Nurses to determine their activities.
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How Does One Conduct an Observation?
• Conducting observations involves a variety of activities and
considerations for the researchers:
- Ethics.
- Establishing rapport.
- Selecting key informants.
- The processes for conducting observations.
- Keeping field notes.
- Writing up one's findings.
(Kawulich, 2005)
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Ethics
• The researcher must take some of the field notes to reinforce that
what the researcher is doing is collecting data for research purposes.
• When the researcher meets community members for the first time,
he/she should be sure to inform them of the purpose for being there,
sharing sufficient information with them about the research topic.
This means that one is constantly introducing oneself as a researcher.
(Kawulich, 2005)
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Ethics (Continued)
• Another ethical responsibility is to preserve the anonymity
of the participants in the final write-up and in field notes
to prevent their identification.
(Kawulich, 2005)
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Maintaining ethics in naturalistic observation
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Overt versus covert observation
• Overt observation occurs when participants know they are being
observed and are aware of the purpose of the study (Couchman & Dawson,
1996).
• Covert observation means that participants are either unaware of
being observed or that the observer conceals the real reason for
observing them (Hammersley & Atkinson, 2007).
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All in all. Ethical issues that need considering when carrying out an
observational study… Adopted from (Twycross & Shorten, 2016)
Ethical issues Consideration
Covert versus overt data collection Covert methods involve deception, with researchers pretending to be someone they are not. This type of observation is
now considered unethical because it violates individuals' right to autonomy and their ability to decide whether they
want to be observed. Nowadays participants are normally told what the purpose of the research is.
Gaining consent If collecting data in a hospital setting some researchers recommend gaining informed consent from all individuals
present on the ward on a regular basis.
Collecting data about a specific patient, informed consent should be obtained. For other people within the general area
a simple explanation that you are collecting data for a study along with obtaining their verbal consent, may be adequate
( REC: Research Ethics Committee will determine the approach).
What will you do if you see poor practice? Observation of practices that require improvement but are not dangerous or harmful (see below), without intervening,
would not be considered unethical.
What will you do if you see dangerous practice? The REC approving an observational study will expect a researcher to have identified the steps they will take if they
observe dangerous practice. For example, the researcher may arrange to discuss any dangerous practice she observed
with the ward manager. The ward manager would then take any necessary action.
Protecting participants anonymity Anonymity can be maintained by referring to participants using identifying codes.
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Gaining Entry and Establishing Rapport
• A key strategy in minimising the effect of the researcher's presence on behaviour is to establish rapport before starting data
collection (Twycross & Shorten, 2016).
• To assist in gaining permission from the community to conduct the study, the researcher may bring letters of introduction or other
information that will ease entry, such as information about one’s affiliation, funding sources, and planned length of time in the field. One
may need to meet with the community leaders. For example, when one wishes to conduct research in a school, permission must be granted
by the school principal and, possibly, by the district school superintendent.
❑ For example, if the study involves observing nurses, a first step might be to attend team meetings or ward handover on several
occasion as a way of getting to know the potential participants and building a relationship with them.
• "Hanging out" is the process through which the researcher gains trust and establishes rapport with participants.
• Hanging out involves meeting and conversing with people to develop relationships over an extended period of time.
• Three stages to the hanging out process.
- Moving from a position of formal.
- Ignorant intruder to welcome.
- Knowledgeable intimate.
(Kawulich, 2005)
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1. Moving from a position of formal
• The researcher is a stranger who is learning the social rules and
language, making herself/himself known to the community, so they
will begin to teach her/him how to behave appropriately in that
culture.
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2. Ignorant intruder to welcome.
• Researcher begins to merge with the crowd and stand out less as an
intruder.
• “Acquaintance" stage.
• The language becomes more familiar to the researcher, but he/she
still may not be fluent in its use.
(Kawulich, 2005)
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3. Knowledgeable intimate.
• The "intimate" stage.
• The researcher has established relationships with participants to the
extent that he/she no longer has to think about what he/she says.
• It sometimes involves the researcher's working with and participating in
everyday activities beside participants in their daily lives.
(Kawulich, 2005)
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Tips for collecting useful observation data
• Become familiar with the setting before beginning to collect data.
• keep the observations short at first to keep from becoming overwhelmed.
• Be honest, but not too technical or detailed, in explaining to participants what he/she
is doing.
• Pay attention, shifting from a "wide" to a "narrow" angle perspective, focusing on a
single person, activity, interaction, then returning to a view of the overall situation;
• Look for key words in conversations to trigger later recollection of the conversation
content.
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Each observation should provide you with answers
regarding……..
• Who do you observe?
• What do you observe?
• Where does the observation take place?
• When does it take place?
• How does it happen?
• Why does it happen as it happens? (Moser & Korstjens, 2018)
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An example of a research design using observation
Research Questions 1. How do members of operating teams interact and communicate?
2. What contributes to the communication climates in different operating theatres?
3. Do interprofessional values exist in theatre teams. If so, how do they impact on the
behaviour and interactions of operating theatre team members?
Research Site Operating theatres in general, vascular and orthopaedic surgery; compare one
metropolitan and one regional hospital site.
Participants surgeons, registrars, nursing staff Team leaders, theatre technicians, patients
Other key personnel Director of clinical services; director of medical services; theatre manager; patient
admissions manager; admissions staff; team leaders of each
theatre
Methods of data collection 1. Observations (approximately 40 hours in theatre across the two sites);
2. Field memo’s
3. Informal conversations with staff in the theatre and/or theatre suite (e.g. Change
rooms, staff room, corridors etc)
4. Conduct semi-structured interviews to follow up and clarify findings from
observations (include questions about medical jargon, differences in procedure
amongst team leaders etc)
Data analysis Coding of observation notes; field notes (which includes details of informal
conversations with staff; analytic memos; recording of personal experiences, context);
thematic analysis
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Challenges of observation
• Methodologically, the act of being observed may change the behaviour of the
participant (often referred to as the ‘Hawthorne effect’), impacting on the value
of findings (Barrett & Twycross, 2018)
❑ However, most researchers report a process of habituation taking place where, after a relatively short period of time, those
being observed revert to their normal behaviour.
❑ As participants grow accustomed to the observer's presence, their behaviour will more closely resemble normal, everyday
behaviour (Briggs, Askham, Norman, & Redfern, 2003).
• The dependability of the process on the observer understanding and judgment.
• The observer may miss a critical moment while notes have been taking, or being
distracted by another factor in the setting (Oun & Bach, 2014).
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Samples on participant observation papers (further
reading)
• Participant Observation BY DL Jorgensen.
• Using participant observation in pediatric health care settings: ethical challenges
and solutions.
• Do physicians clean their hands? Insights from a covert observational study.
• Tensions in ethnographic observation: overt or covert?
• Some strategies to address the challenges of collecting observational data in a busy
clinical environment.
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References
Barrett, D., & Twycross, A. (2018). Data collection in qualitative research: Royal College of Nursing.
Bernard, H. R. (2017). Research methods in anthropology: Qualitative and quantitative approaches:
Rowman & Littlefield.
Briggs, K., Askham, J., Norman, I., & Redfern, S. (2003). Accomplishing care at home for people with
dementia: using observational methodology. Qualitative Health Research, 13(2), 268-280.
Bryman, A. (2016). Social research methods: Oxford university press.
Callahan, E. J., & Bertakis, K. D. (1991). Development and validation of the Davis Observation Code.
Family medicine, 23(1), 19-24.
Cameron, J. (2005). Focusing on the focus group. Qualitative research methods in human geography,
2(8), 116-132.
Couchman, W., & Dawson, J. (1996). Nursing and Health Care Research: A Practical Guide: the Use
and Application of Research for Nurses and Other Health Care Professionals: Bailliere Tindall.
Hammersley, M., & Atkinson, P. (2007). Ethnography: Principles in practice: Routledge.
Kawulich, B. B. (2005). Participant observation as a data collection method. Paper presented at the
Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung/Forum: Qualitative Social Research.
Lune, H., & Berg, B. L. (2017). Qualitative research methods for the social sciences. Pearson.
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References (Continued)
Mays, N., & Pope, C. (1995). Qualitative research: observational methods in health care settings. Bmj, 311(6998), 182-184.
McCann, T. V., & Clark, E. (2005). Using unstructured interviews with participants who have schizophrenia. Nurse researcher, 13(1).
McKechnie, L. E. (2008). Observational research. The SAGE encyclopedia of qualitative research methods, 1, 573-575.
Meriläinen, M., Kyngäs, H., & Ala-Kokko, T. (2010). 24-hour intensive care: an observational study of an environment and events. Intensive and
Critical Care Nursing, 26(5), 246-253.
Moser, A., & Korstjens, I. (2018). Series: Practical guidance to qualitative research. Part 3: Sampling, data collection and analysis. European
Journal of General Practice, 24(1), 9-18.
Mulhall, A. (2003). In the field: notes on observation in qualitative research. Journal of advanced nursing, 41(3), 306-313.
Musante, K., & DeWalt, B. R. (2010). Participant observation: A guide for fieldworkers: Rowman Altamira.
Oun, M. A., & Bach, C. (2014). Qualitative research method summary. Qualitative Research, 1(5), 252-258.
Patton, M. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods: Sage.
Qu, S. Q., & Dumay, J. (2011). The qualitative research interview. Qualitative research in accounting & management, 8(3), 238-264.
Spradley, J. P. (2016). Participant observation: Waveland Press.
Stuckey, H. L. (2013). Three types of interviews: Qualitative research methods in social health. Journal of Social Health and Diabetes, 1(02),
056-059.
Twycross, A., & Shorten, A. (2016). Using observational research to obtain a picture of nursing practice. Evidence-based nursing, 19(3), 66-67.
Zhang, Y., & Wildemuth, B. M. (2009). Unstructured interviews. Applications of social research methods to questions in information and library
science, 222-231.
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