256 5.9 Chapter 5 — DC-DC Converters (v1 positive and ij, positive), forward regenerative braking (v,, positive and i, nega- live), reverse direction (v, negative and iz negative), and reverse regenerative braking (v, negative and i, positive) Key Points of Section 5.8 * With proper switch control, the four-quadrant converter can operate and control flow in any of the four quadrants. For operation in the third and fourth quad- rants, the direction of the load emf E must be reversed internally. SWITCHING-MODE REGULATORS De converters can be used as switching-mode regulators to convert a de voltage, nor- mally unregulated, to a regulated dc output voltage. The regulation is normally achieved by PWM at a fixed frequency and the switching device is normally BJT, MOSFET, or IGBT. The elements of switching-mode regulators are shown in Figure 5.16. We can notice from Figure 5.2b that the output of de converters with resistive load is discon- tinuous and contains harmonics. The ripple content is normally reduced by an LC filter. Switching regulators are commercially available as integrated circuits. The designer can select the switching frequency by choosing the values of R and C of fre~ quency oscillator. As a rule of thumb, to maximize efficiency, the minimum oscillator period should be about 100 times longer than the transistor switching time; for example, if a transistor has a switching time of 0.5 us, the oscillator period would be S0us, which gives the maximum oscillator frequency of 20 kHz. This limitation is due to a switching loss in the transistor. The transistor switching loss increases with the switching frequency and as a result the efficiency decreases. In addition, the core loss of inductors limits the high-frequency operation. Control voltage v, is obtained by comparing the output voltage with its desired value. The v,, can be compared with a sawtooth voltage v, to generate the PWM control signal for the de converter. There are four basic topologies of switching regulators [33, 34]: 1. Buck regulators 2. Boost regulators . Buck—boost regulators 4. Ciik regulators Input De output S—|_ cropper v v| 1 —+| Control FIGURE 5.16 Elements of sitching-mode regulators, G- —_____Atmrliier_ Reference =5.9.1 5.9 Switching-Mode Regulators 257 Buck Regulators In a buck regulator, the average output voltage V, is less than the input voltage, V,—hence the name “buck,” a very popular regulator (6, 7]. The circuit diagram of a buck regulator using a power BJT is shown in Figure 5.17a, and this is like a step- down converter. Transistor Q; acts as a controlled switch and diode Dy, is an uncon- trolled switch. They operate as two single-pole-single-through (SPST) bidirectional switches. The circuit in Figure 5.17a is often represented by two switches as shown in Figure $.17b. The circuit operation can be divided into two modes. Mode 1 begins when transistor Q; is switched on at = 0, The input current, which rises, flows through fil- ter inductor L, filter capacitor C, and load resistor R. Mode 2 begins when transistor Qz is switched off at ¢ = %. The freewheeling diode D,, conducts due to energy stored in the inductor, and the inductor current continues to flow through L, C, load, and diode Dy. The inductor current falls until transistor Q, is switched on again in the next cycle. The equivalent circuits for the modes of operation are shown in Figure 5.17¢. ‘The waveforms for the voltages and currents are shown in Figure 5.17d for a continu- ous current flow in the inductor L. It is assumed that the current rises and falls linearly. In practical circuits, the switch has a finite, nonlinear resistance. Its effect can generally be negligible in most applications. Depending on the switching frequency, filter induc- tance, and capacitance, the inductor current could be discontinuous. ‘The voltage across the inductor L is, in general, di at =k Assuming that the inductor current rises linearly from J; to J; in time 1), Ar V,-VaL (8.52) or Ar -V, = -L— (5.54) b or AIL = (5.55) 2a (555) where AI = b — his the peak-to-peak ripple current of the inductor L., Equating the value of AJ in Eqs. (5.52) and (5.54) gives — (Y= Va) _ Vito ar L L258 Chapter5 — DC-DC Converters Toad Control (a) Circuit diagram (b) Switch representation Mode 1 Mode 2 ° (©) Equivalent cixcuits FIGURE 5.17 Buck regulator with continuous i (@) Waveforms Substituting 4; = kT and f = (1 — k)T yields the average output voltage as V, = VA = By, n= Vi VY,5.9. Switching-Mode Regulators 259 Assuming a lossless circuit, V,l, = V,l, = kV,l, and the average input current 1, = kl (5.57) Peak-to-peak inductor ripple current. The switching period T can be ex- pressed as Ar Al AILYV, a = = (5.58 pT 8 VV Ow os) which gives the peak-to-peak ripple current as vaVe~ ve) Al = ——— (5.5: ia 559) or Vik(1~ k) => 5. Ar 7L (5.60) Peak-to-peak capacitor ripple voltage. Using Kirchhofi’s current law, we can write the inductor current iz as If we assume that the load ripple current Aj, is very small and negligible, Ai, = Ai. ‘The average capacitor current, which flows into for fy/2 + ty/2 = T/2, is AL i,-t ar) ‘The capacitor voltage is expressed as 1 % ral dt + v(t = 0) and the peak-to-peak ripple voltage of the capacitor is 1 far AIT Al [ Sat = — (8.61) io 4 ave BIC 8c Substituting the value of AJ from Eq. (5.59) or (5.60) in Eq. (5.61) yields Va(Ve ~ Va) “= “SLOP, (52) or Vjk(1 — k) AV, = (5.63) 8LCf*260 Chapter5 — DC-DC Converters Condition for continuous inductor current and capacitor voltage. If ,, is the average inductor current, the inductor ripple current AI = 2, Using Eqs. (5.56) and (5.60), we get Vs(1-k)K Ok, i 2h, = 2, which gives the critical value of the inductor L, as (A-k)R LaLa (5.64) If V; is the average capacitor voltage, the capacitor ripple voltage AV, = 2V,. Using Eqs. (5.56) and (5.63), we get V,(1 — k)k slope ORM which gives the critical value of the capacitor C, as 1-k 16Lf* ‘The buck regulator requires only one transistor, is simple, and has high efficiency greater than 90%. The di/dt of the load current is limited by inductor L.. However, the input current is discontinuous and a smoothing input filter is normally required. It provides one polarity of output voltage and unidirectional output current. It requires a protection circuit in case of possible short circuit across the diode path. Cae (5.65) Example 5.5 Finding the Values of LC Filter for the Buck Regulator ‘The buck regulator in Figure 5.17a has an input voltage of V, = 12V. The required average out- put voltage is V, = SV at R = 500 and the peak-to-peak output ripple voltage is 20 mV. The switching frequency is 25 kHz. If the peak-to-peak ripple current of inductor is limited to 0.8 A, determine (a) the duty cycle k, (b) the filter inductance L,, (¢) the filter capacitor C, and (d) the critical values of Zand C. Solution V, = 12V, AV, = 20mV, AI - 08, f = kHz, and V, = SV. a. From Eq. (5.56), V, = kV, and k = V,/V, = 5/12 = 0.4167 = 41.67% b. From Eq. (5.59), 5(12-5) 08 & 25,000 x 12 = 145.83 Ht ©. From Eq. (561), 08 c=. = 200 uF 8X 20 X 10 x 25,0005.9. Switching-Mode Regulators 261 From Eq, (5.64) tp,-G5HR OAT) 500 _ 5 g3 mt | From Eq, (5.64), we get Le = —G = <= 1 - 04167 I6Lf? 16 x 145.83 x 10% x (25 x 10°)? From Eq, (5.65), we get C, = O.4yF 5.9.2 Boost Regulators In a boost regulator [8, 9] the output voltage is greater than the input voltage—hence the name “boost.” A boost regulator using a power MOSFET is shown in Figure 5.18a. Transistor M; acts as a controlled switch and diode D,, is an uncontrolled switch. The circuit in Figure 5.18a is often represented by two switches as shown in Figure 5.18b. The circuit operation can be divided into two modes. Mode 1 begins when transistor. M, is switched on at t = 0. The input current, which rises, flows through inductor L and transistor Q;. Mode 2 begins when transistor M; is switched off at 1 = 1). The current that, was flowing through the transistor would now flow through L, C, load, and diode D,,,. The inductor current falls until transistor M; is turned on again in the next cycle. The energy stored in inductor L is transferred to the load. The equivalent circuits for the modes of operation are shown in Figure 5.18c. The waveforms for voltages and currents are shown in Figure 5.18d for continuous load current, assuming that the current rises or falls linearly. ‘Assuming that the inductor current rises linearly from J; to J; in time f, L-t v,-pech_ Al (5.66) 4 or AIL = 5.67) na” (5.67) and the inductor current falls linearly from Jy to J; in time ty, Al V,— Vy = —L— (5.68) bh or AIL = 5 ny, (5.69) where AJ = J, — /; is the peak-to-peak ripple current of inductor L. From Eqs. (5.66) and (5.68), — Mh _ (Ve Vb aa L Substituting ¢, = kT and 1, = (1 — k)T yields the average output voltage, Vy = Ve (8.70)262 Chapter — DC-DC Converters LFF igh i, Pm E52 “WD > y vy, Voc [- (b) Switch representation init Dm bY, ded vy, vec [load Mode 2 ° (6) Equivalent circuits FIGURE 5.18 Boost regulator with continuous is, which gives A 1-k > ( ) v, Substituting k = 1/7 = tyf into Eq, (5.71) yields Yia-Vs qe Va (@) Waveforms5.9 Switching-Mode Regulators 263 Assuming a lossless circuit, VJ, = Vel, = Vsld/(1 — k) and the average input current is (5.73) Peak-to-peak inductor ripple current. ‘The switching period T can be found from 1 AIL | AIL AIL, T=2=nth= + =o 5.74 FETE WT Mw 6m) and this gives the peak-to-peak ripple current: ar = Ve =¥) 5.78 is 678) or Vik = (S.7¢ Al= (5.76) Peak-to-peak capacitor ripple voltage. When the transistor is on, the capacitor supplies the load current for f = 1). The average capacitor current during time 1) is J, = I, and the peak-to-peak ripple voltage of the capacitor is AV, =v. - u(t = 0) zf [dt (5.77) Cto Substituting 1, = (V, — V,)/(Vaf) from Eq. (5.72) gives ay, = #We=¥) 5.78) C= VIE (5.78) or Lk AV, == (5.79) iC ) Condition for continuous inductor current and capacitor voltage. If /;, is the average inductor current, at the critical condition for continuous conduction the induc- tor ripple current AJ = 2f;, Using Eqs. (5.70) and (5.76), we get kv, 2, Fe = he = (a-kyP which gives the critical value of the inductor L, as, k(1-k)R L 7 (5.80)264 Chapter DC-DC Converters If Vis the average capacitor voltage, at the critical condition for continuous conduc- tion the capacitor ripple voltage AV. = 2V,. Using Eq. (5.79), we get 1K _ oy, =onR Cf = Me = 2a which gives the critical value of the capacitor C, as k x == 5.81 : aR Gar A boost regulator can step up the output voltage without a transformer. Due to a single transistor, it has a high efficiency. The input current is continuous. However, a high-peak current has to flow through the power transistor. The output voltage is very sensitive to changes in duty cycle k and it might be difficult to stabilize the regulator. The average output current is less than the average inductor current by a factor of (1 — &), and a much higher rms current would flow through the filter capacitor, re~ sulting in the use of a larger filter capacitor and a larger inductor than those of a buck regulator. Example 5.6 Finding the Currents and Voltage in the Boost Regulator A boost regulator in Figure 5.18a has an input voltage of V, ~ SV. The average output volt- age V, = 15V and the average load current J, = 0.5. The switching frequency is 25 kHz. If L = 150nH and C = 220 uF, determine (a) the duty cycle k, (b) the ripple current of inductor AL, (¢) the peak current of inductor J, (4) the ripple voltage of filter capacitor AV,, and (¢) the critical values of Land C. Solution V, = SV, V, = ISV, f = 25kHz, L = 150 4H, and C = 220uF. a, From Eq, (5.70), 15 = Si(1 — k) or k = 2/3 = 0.6667 = 66.67% b. From Eq, (5.75), 5x (15-5) y=— 2X55) 25,000 x 150 X 10 x 15 = 089A From Eq. (5.73), J, = 0.5/(1 ~ 0.667) = 1.5A and peak inductor current, 9 page Baas 92 = Los 4. From Eq, (5.79), OS X 0.6667 —e TT = 60.61mVv 25,000 X 220 x 10%5.9 Switching-Mode Regulators 265 From Eq,(580 ty, = LEZ AIAR _ (1 = 0.6667) X 0.6667 X30 55 ay rom Eq. (5.80), we get Le = >= = 2X2 MIO = 1330 0.6667 k 5.81), =sR From Eq (S81), we get Ce = 555 = S55 aor a0 = 0.44 uF 5.9.3 Buck-Boost Regulators A buck-boost regulator provides an output voltage that may be less than or greater than the input voltage—hence the name “buck-boost”; the output voltage polarity is opposite to that of the input voltage. This regulator is also known as an inverting regulator. The circuit arrangement of a buck-boost regulator is shown in Figure 5.19a, Transistor Qj acts as a controlled switch and diode D,, is an uncontrolled switch. They operate as two SPST current-bidirectional switches. The circuit in Figure 5.19a is often represented by two switches as shown in Figure 5.19b, ‘The circuit operation can be divided into two modes. During mode 1, transistor Qy is tuned on and diode D,, is reversed biased. The input current, which rises, flows through inductor L and transistor Q;. During mode 2, transistor Q; is switched off and the current, which was flowing through inductor L, would flow through L, C, Dj», and the load. The energy stored in inductor L would be transferred to the load and the inductor current would fall until transistor Q, is switched on again in the next cycle. The equivalent circuits for the modes are shown in Figure 5.19c. The waveforms for steady- state voltages and currents of the buck—boost regulator are shown in Figure 5.19d for a continuous load current. Assuming that the inductor current rises linearly from J; to J in time fy, v= (5.82) or AIL (5.83) na 6.83) and the inductor current falls linearly from J, to J; in time fy, v, = -14l (8) ty or AIL = 5.85) nae 6.85) where AI = h — his the peak-to-peak ripple current of inductor L. From Eqs. (5.82) and (5.84),266 Chapter — DC-DC Converters (a) Circuit diagram (b) Switch representation Load. Mode 2 (©) Equivalent circuits (a) Waveforms FIGURE 5.19 Buck-boost regulator with continuous i Substituting 4, = KP and f, = (1 — k)T, the average output voltage is Vik (5.86)5.9 Switching-Mode Regulators 267 Substituting 4; = kT and = (1 - k) T into Eq, (5.86) yields O- = 7oy (587) Substituting f) = (1 — k) T,and (1 — k) from Eq. (5.87) into Eq. (5.86) yields eo (5.88) (Va — Ve)F Assuming a lossless circuit, V;l, = Vly = VifkI(1 — k) and the average input cur- rent J, is related to the average output current J, by z (5.89) Peak-to-peak inductor ripple current. ‘The switching period T can be found from AIL _ AIL(V, ~ V;) VW, (5.90) and this gives the peak-to-peak ripple current, ViVa =a LY (5.91 SEW, W) 6p or Vik Al= a (5.92) ‘The average inductor current is given by L=kt+h= (5.92a) Peak-to-peak capacitor ripple voltage. When transistor Q; is on, the filter capacitor supplies the load current for t = 1). The average discharging current of the capacitor is J. = ~J, and the peak-to-peak ripple voltage of the capacitor is fh a ; ay.=3/ ~kae= ef I,dt = (5.93) Substituting t, = V,/[(V, — V,)f] from Eq. (5.88) becomes TV SE Woe oe or AV, = hk (5.95) IC268 Chapter DC-DC Converters Condition for continuous inductor current and capacitor voltage. If J, is the aver- age inductor current, at the critical condition for continuous conduction the inductor ripple current AJ = 2h. Using Eqs. (5.86) and (5.92), we get We 94, = 94, = fL Lee wR which gives the critical value of the inductor L, as, (1-k)R L (5.96) oF t the critical condition for continuous conduc- ~2V,, Using Eq, (5.95), we get If V; is the average capacitor voltag tion the capacitor ripple voltage AV. - bk —2V, -2L,R G a A which gives the critical value of the capacitor C, as, k 7 5.97) 2R 691) A buck-boost regulator provides output voltage polarity reversal without a transformer. It has high efficiency. Under a fault condition of the transistor, the di/dt of the fault current is limited by the inductor L and will be V,/L. Output short-circuit protection would be easy to implement. However, the input current is discontinuous and a high peak current flows through transistor Q1 Example 5.7 Finding the Currents and Voltage in the Buck-Boost Regulator The buck-boost regulator in Figure 5.19a has an input voltage of V, = 12V. The duty cycle k = 025 and the switching frequency is 25 kHz. The inductance L = 150 wH and filter capaci- tance C = 220 pF. The average load current [, = 1.25. Determine (a) the average output voltage, V,; (b) the peak-to-peak output voltage ripple, AV,; (c) the peak-to-peak ripple current of inductor, A7; (d) the peak current of the transistor, J,; and (e) the critical values of Zand C. Solution V, = 12V,k 0.25, 1, 125A, f = 25kHz, L = 150 wH, and C = 220 pF. From Eq. (5.86), V, = -12 x 0.25/(1 - 0.25) = -4V. b. From Eq, (5.95), the peak-to-peak output ripple voltage is 1.25 x 0.25 AV. = = 56.8 mV 25,000 x 220 x 10% From Eq, (5.92), the peak-to-peak inductor ripple is 12 x 0.25 A= 25,000 X 150 x 10% =08A5.9 Switching-Mode Regulators 269 a. From Eq, (5.89), J, = 1.25 x 0.25/(1 — 0.25) = 0.4167. Because J, is the average of duration kT, the peak-to-peak current of the transistor, 1, Al _ 0.4167 | 08 |, POR 2 025 4 4 ias 52 = 2.067 e (L=K)R_ (1-025) x32 From Eq, (5.96), we get = 450pH1, 4. (5.96), we a oF 2« 25 x 10° m k 025 5.97), = = = 156, From Ba. 697), we eet C= 5m = Soe oa ~ NSHP 5.9.4 Cak Regulators The circuit arrangement of the Ck regulator [10] using a power bipolar junction tran- sistor is shown in Figure 5.20a. Similar to the buck-boost regulator, the Ciik regulator provides an output voltage that is less than or greater than the input voltage, but the output voltage polarity is opposite to that of the input voltage. It is named after its inventor [1]. When the input voltage is turned on and transistor Qy is switched off, diode Dm is forward biased and capacitor Cy is charged through L, D,,, and the input supply V,, Transistor Q; acts a controlled switch and diode Dy, is an uncontrolled switch. They operate as two SPST current-bidirectional switches, The circuit in Figure 5.208 is often represented by two switches as shown in Figure 5.20b. The circuit operation can be divided into two modes, Mode 1 begins when tran- sistor Q; is turned on at = 0. The current through inductor Ly rises. At the same time, the voltage of capacitor C, reverse biases diode D,, and turns it off. The capaci- tor C; discharges its energy to the circuit formed by Cj, Co, the load, and L2. Mode 2 begins when transistor Q, is tumed off at ¢ = fy. The capacitor C; is charged from the input supply and the energy stored in the inductor Ly is transferred to the load. The diode Dy, and transistor Q; provide a synchronous switching action. The capacitor C; is the medium for transferring energy from the source to the load. The equivalent circuits for the modes are shown in Figure 5.20c and the waveforms for steady-state voltages and currents are shown in Figure 5.20d for a continuous load current. ‘Assuming that the current of inductor L; rises linearly from [11 to [;32 in time ty, Ip — | AL v, = 1, =, AL (5.98) or (5.99) and due to the charged capacitor C,, the current of inductor Z; falls linearly from 1,19 to Jz41 in time f5, AL Ve Va = —L1 b (5.100)