Lecture notes on probability and Statistics Chapter 3: DESCRIPTIVE STSTISTICS

CHAPTER 3

3.1 measures of central tendency

Introduction
 When we want to make comparison between groups of numbers it is good to have a
single value that is considered to be a good representative of each group. This single value
is called the average of the group. Averages are also called measures of central tendency.
 An average which is representative is called typical average and an average which is
not representative and has only a theoretical value is called a descriptive average. A typical
average should posses the following:
 It should be rigidly defined.
 It should be based on all observation under investigation.
 It should be as little as affected by extreme observations.
 It should be capable of further algebraic treatment.
 It should be as little as affected by fluctuations of sampling.
 It should be ease to calculate and simple to understand.

Objectives:
 To comprehend the data easily.
 To facilitate comparison.
 To make further statistical analysis.

The Summation Notation:

 Let X1, X2, X3, …, XN be a number of measurements where N is the total number of
observation and Xi is ith observation.
 Very often in statistics an algebraic expression of the form X 1+X2+X3+...+XN is
used in a formula to compute a statistic. It is tedious to write an expression like this
very often, so mathematicians have developed a shorthand notation to represent a
sum of scores, called the summation notation.

 The symbol is a mathematical shorthand for X1+X2+X3+...+XN

The expression is read, "the sum of X sub i from i equals 1 to N." It means "add up all the
numbers."

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Example: Suppose the following were scores made on the first homework assignment for
five students in the class: 5, 7, 7, 6, and 8. In this example set of five numbers, where
N=5, the summation could be written:

The "i=1" in the bottom of the summation notation tells where to begin the sequence of
summation. If the expression were written with "i=3", the summation would start with the
third number in the set. For example:

In the example set of numbers, this would give the following result:

The "N" in the upper part of the summation notation tells where to end the sequence of
summation. If there were only three scores then the summation and example would be:

 Sometimes if the summation notation is used in an expression and the expression

must be written a number of times, as in a proof, then a shorthand notation for the
shorthand notation is employed. When the summation sign "" is used without
additional notation, then "i=1" and "N" are assumed.

For example:

PROPERTIES OF SUMMATION

1. where k is any constant

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Lecture notes on probability and Statistics Chapter 3: DESCRIPTIVE STSTISTICS

2. where k is any constant

3. where a and b are any constant

4.

The sum of the product of the two variables could be written:

Example: considering the following data determine

X Y

5 6

7 7

7 8

6 7

8 8

a)

b)

c)

d)

e)

f)

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Lecture notes on probability and Statistics Chapter 3: DESCRIPTIVE STSTISTICS

g)

h)

Solutions:

a)

b)

c)

d)

e)

f)

g)

h)

Types of measures of central tendency

There are several different measures of central tendency; each has its advantage and
disadvantage.
 The Mean (Arithmetic, Geometric and Harmonic)
 The Mode
 The Median
 Quantiles (Quartiles, Deciles and Percentiles)
The choice of these averages depends up on which best fit the property under discussion.

The Arithmetic Mean

 Is defined as the sum of the magnitude of the items divided by the number of
items.
 The mean of X1, X2 ,X3 …Xn is denoted by A.M ,m or and is given by:

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 If X1 occurs f1 times
 If X2occurs f2 times
 .
 .

 If Xn occurs fn times, then the mean will be , where k is the number

of classes and

Example: Obtain the mean of the following number

2, 7, 8, 2, 7, 3, 7

Solution:
Xi fi Xifi
2 2 4
3 1 3
7 3 21
8 1 8
Total 7 36

Arithmetic Mean for Grouped Data

If data are given in the shape of a continuous frequency distribution, then the mean is
obtained as follows:

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Xi =the class mark of the i th class and fi = the frequency of the i th

class
Example: calculate the mean for the following age distribution.
Class Frequency
6- 10 35
11- 15 23
16- 20 15
21- 25 12
26- 30 9
31- 35 6

Solutions:
 First find the class marks
 Find the product of frequency and class marks
 Find mean using the formula.
Class fi Xi Xifi
6- 10 35 8 280
11- 15 23 13 299
16- 20 15 18 270
21- 25 12 23 276
26- 30 9 28 252
31- 35 6 33 198
Total 100 1575

Exercises:
1. Marks of 75 students are summarized in the following frequency distribution:

Marks No. of students

40-44 7

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45-49 10
50-54 22
55-59 f4
60-64 f5
65-69 6
70-74 3
If 20% of the students have marks between 55 and 59
i. Find the missing frequencies f4 and f5.
ii. Find the mean.
 If the values in a series or mid values of a class are large enough, coding of values is a
good device
to simplify the calculations.
 For raw data suppose we have used the following coding system.

Where A is an assumed mean and is the mean of the coded data.

 If the data are expressed in terms of ungrouped frequency distribution

 In both cases the true mean is the assumed mean plus the average of the deviations
from the assumed mean.
 Suppose the data is given in the shape of continuous frequency distribution with a
constant class size of w then the following coding is appropriate.

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Where: Xi is the original class mark for the ith class.

di is the transformed class mark for the ith class.
A is an assumed mean usually the mean of the class marks.
(i =1, 2… k)
Example:
1. Suppose the deviations of the observations from an assumed mean of 7 are: 1, -
1, -2, -2, 0, -3, -2, 2, 0, -3.
a) Find the true mean
b) Find the original observation.

Solutions:

a)

The true mean is 6.

b) Using Xi=A+di we obtain the following original observations:
8, 6, 5, 5, 7, 4, 5, 9, 7, 4.

Special properties of Arithmetic mean

1. The sum of the deviations of a set of items from their mean is always zero. i.e.

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2. The sum of the squared deviations of a set of items from their mean is the

minimum. i.e.

3. If is the mean of observations

If is the mean of observations
.
.
If is the mean of observations
Then the mean of all the observation in all groups often called the combined mean
is given by:

Example: In a class there are 30 females and 70 males. If females averaged 60 in an

examination and boys averaged 72, find the mean for the entire class.

Solutions:

4. If a wrong figure has been used when calculating the mean the correct mean can be
obtained with out repeating the whole process using:

Where n is total number of observations.

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Example: An average weight of 10 students was calculated to be [Link] it was

discovered that one weight was misread as 40 instead of 80 k.g. Calculate the
correct average weight.
Solutions:

5. The effect of transforming original series on the mean.

a) If a constant k is added/ subtracted to/from every observation then the new
mean will be the old mean± k respectively.
b) If every observations are multiplied by a constant k then the new mean will
be k*old mean

Example:
1. The mean of n Tetracycline Capsules X1, X2, …,Xn are known to be 12 gm.
New set of capsules of another drug are obtained by the linear transformation
Yi = 2Xi – 0.5 ( i = 1, 2, …, n ) then what will be the mean of the new set of
capsules
Solutions:

2. The mean of a set of numbers is 500.

If 10 is added to each of the numbers in the set, then what will be the mean of the new
set?
a) If each of the numbers in the set are multiplied by -5, then what will be the
mean of the new set?

Solutions:

Weighted Mean
 When a proper importance is desired to be given to different data a weighted mean
is appropriate.
 Weights are assigned to each item in proportion to its relative importance.
 Let X1, X2, …Xn be the value of items of a series and W 1, W2, …Wn their
corresponding weights , then the weighted mean denoted is defined as:

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Example:
A student obtained the following percentage in an examination:
English 60, Biology 75, Mathematics 63, Physics 59, and chemistry [Link] the
students weighted arithmetic mean if weights 1, 2, 1, 3, 3 respectively are allotted
to the subjects.
Solutions:

Merits and Demerits of Arithmetic Mean

Merits:
 It is rigidly defined.
 It is based on all observation.
 It is suitable for further mathematical treatment.
 It is stable average, i.e. it is not affected by fluctuations of sampling to some extent.
 It is easy to calculate and simple to understand.
Demerits:
 It is affected by extreme observations.
 It can not be used in the case of open end classes.
 It can not be determined by the method of inspection.
 It can not be used when dealing with qualitative characteristics, such as intelligence,
honesty, beauty.
 It can be a number which does not exist in a serious.
 Some times it leads to wrong conclusion if the details of the data from which it is
obtained are not available.
 It gives high weight to high extreme values and less weight to low extreme values.

The Geometric Mean

 The geometric mean of a set of n observation is the nth root of their product.

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 The geometric mean of X1, X2 ,X3 …Xn is denoted by G.M and given by:

 Taking the logarithms of both sides

The logarithm of the G.M of a set of observation is the arithmetic mean of their
logarithm.

Example:
Find the G.M of the numbers 2, 4, 8.
Solutions:

Remark:
 The Geometric Mean is useful and appropriate for finding averages of ratios.

The Harmonic Mean

The harmonic mean of X1, X2 , X3 …Xn is denoted by H.M and given by:

, This is called simple harmonic mean.

In a case of frequency distribution:

If observations X1, X2, …Xn have weights W1, W2, …Wn respectively, then their
harmonic mean is given by

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Lecture notes on probability and Statistics Chapter 3: DESCRIPTIVE STSTISTICS

, This is called Weighted Harmonic Mean.

Remark:- The Harmonic Mean is useful and appropriate in finding average speeds and
average rates.

Example: A cyclist pedals from his house to his college at speed of 10 km/hr and back
from the college to his house at 15 km/hr. Find the average speed.
Solution: Here the distance is constant
The simple H.M is appropriate for this problem.
X1= 10km/hr X2=15km/hr

The Mode
- Mode is a value which occurs most frequently in a set of values
- The mode may not exist and even if it does exist, it may not be unique.
- In case of discrete distribution the value having the maximum frequency is the model
value.

Examples:
1. Find the mode of 5, 3, 5, 8, 9
Mode =5
2. Find the mode of 8, 9, 9, 7, 8, 2, and 5.
It is a bimodal Data: 8 and 9
3. Find the mode of 4, 12, 3, 6, and 7.
No mode for this data.
- The mode of a set of numbers X1, X2, …, Xn is usually denoted by .

Mode for Grouped data

If data are given in the shape of continuous frequency distribution, the mode is defined
as:

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Where:

Note:- The modal class is a class with the highest frequency.

Example: Following is the distribution of the size of certain farms selected at random
from a district. Calculate the mode of the distribution.

Size of farms No. of farms

5-15 8
15-25 12
25-35 17
35-45 29
45-55 31
55-65 5
65-75 3
Solutions:

Merits and Demerits of Mode

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Merits:
 It is not affected by extreme observations.
 Easy to calculate and simple to understand.
 It can be calculated for distribution with open end class
Demerits:
 It is not rigidly defined.
 It is not based on all observations
 It is not suitable for further mathematical treatment.
 It is not stable average, i.e. it is affected by fluctuations of sampling to
some extent.
 Often its value is not unique.
Note: being the point of maximum density, mode is especially useful in finding the most
popular size in studies relating to marketing, trade, business, and industry. It is the
appropriate average to be used to find the ideal size.

The Median
- In a distribution, median is the value of the variable which divides it in to two
equal halves.
- In an ordered series of data median is an observation lying exactly in the middle of the
series. It is the middle most value in the sense that the number of values less than the median is
equal to the number of values greater than it.
-If X1, X2, …Xn be the observations, then the numbers arranged in ascending order
th
will be X[1], X[2], …X[n], where X[i] is i smallest value.
X[1]< X[2]< …<X[n]
-Median is denoted by .

Median for ungrouped data

Example: Find the median of the following numbers.

a) 6, 5, 2, 8, 9, 4.
b) 2, 1, 8, 3, 5, 8.

Solutions:

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a) First order the data: 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9

Here n=6

b) Order the data :1, 2, 3, 5, 8

Here n=5

Median for grouped data

If data are given in the shape of continuous frequency distribution, the median is defined

as:

Remark
The median class is the class with the smallest cumulative frequency (less than type) greater
than or equal to .
Example: Find the median of the following distribution.

Class Frequency
40-44 7
45-49 10
50-54 22
55-59 15
60-64 12
65-69 6

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70-74 3

Solutions:
 First find the less than cumulative frequency.
 Identify the median class.
 Find median using formula.

Class Frequency [Link](less

than type)
40-44 7 7
45-49 10 17
50-54 22 39
55-59 15 54
60-64 12 66
65-69 6 72
70-74 3 75

Merits and Demerits of Median

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Merits:
 Median is a positional average and hence not influenced by extreme observations.
 Can be calculated in the case of open end intervals.
 Median can be located even if the data are incomplete.

Demerits:
 It is not a good representative of data if the number of items is small.
 It is not amenable to further algebraic treatment.
 It is susceptible to sampling fluctuations.
Quantiles

When a distribution is arranged in order of magnitude of items, the median is the value of the
middle term. Their measures that depend up on their positions in distribution quartiles, deciles,
and percentiles are collectively called quantiles.

Quartiles:
- Quartiles are measures that divide the frequency distribution in to four equal parts.
- The value of the variables corresponding to these divisions are denoted Q 1, Q2, and Q3
often called the first, the second and the third quartile respectively.
- Q1 is a value which has 25% items which are less than or equal to it. Similarly Q 2 has
50%items with value less than or equal to it and Q 3 has 75% items whose values are
less than or equal to it.
- To find Qi (i=1, 2, 3) we count of the classes beginning from the lowest class.

- For grouped data: we have the following formula

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Remark:
The quartile class (class containing Qi ) is the class with the smallest cumulative frequency
(less than type) greater than or equal to .
Deciles:
- Deciles are measures that divide the frequency distribution in to ten equal parts.
- The values of the variables corresponding to these divisions are denoted D 1, D2,.. D9
often called the first, the second,…, the ninth decile respectively.
- To find Di (i=1, 2,..9) we count of the classes beginning from the lowest class.

- For grouped data: we have the following formula

Remark:
The decile class (class containing D i )is the class with the smallest cumulative frequency
(less than type) greater than or equal to .

Percentiles:
- Percentiles are measures that divide the frequency distribution in to hundred equal
parts.
- The values of the variables corresponding to these divisions are denoted P 1, P2,.. P99
often called the first, the second,…, the ninety-ninth percentile respectively.
- To find Pi (i=1, 2,..99) we count of the classes beginning from the lowest class.

- For grouped data: we have the following formula

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Remark:

The percentile class (class containing Pi )is the class with the smallest cumulative
frequency (less than type) greater than or equal to .
Example: Considering the following distribution
Calculate:
a) All quartiles.
b) The 7th decile.
c) The 90th percentile.

Values Frequency

140- 150 17
150- 160 29
160- 170 42

170- 180 72
180- 190 84
190- 200 107

200- 210 49
210- 220 34
220- 230 31
230- 240 16
240- 250 12

Solutions:
 First find the less than cumulative frequency.

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 Use the formula to calculate the required quantile.

Values Frequency [Link](less

than type)
140- 150 17 17
150- 160 29 46
160- 170 42 88
170- 180 72 160
180- 190 84 244
190- 200 107 351
200- 210 49 400
210- 220 34 434
220- 230 31 465
230- 240 16 481
240- 250 12 493

a) Quartiles:
i. Q1
- determine the class containing the first quartile.

ii. Q2
- determine the class containing the second quartile.

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iii. Q3
- determine the class containing the third quartile.

b) D7
- determine the class containing the 7th decile.

c) P90
- determine the class containing the 90th percentile.

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