Module 5

Grinding machines – Classification – Operations – Surface, cylindrical and center-

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less grinding
Grinding mechanisms – Grinding wheels: Specification – types of abrasives, grain
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size
Types of bond, grade, structure – Marking system of grinding wheels – Selection of
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grinding wheels
Glazing and loading of wheels – Dressing and Truing of grinding wheels, surface
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roughness obtainable
Superfinishing operations: Lapping operation– Types of hand lapping – Lapping
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machines – Types of honing –Methods of honing
Types of honing stones – Honing conditions – Cutting fluids – Types of broaches –
Force required for broaching – Surface roughness obtainable in lapping, honing and 1
broaching operations.
Semi-automatic machine tools – Turret and capstan lathes. Automatic machine tools
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– Single and multi-spindle machines.

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 GRINDING
Introduction
Grinding is a metal cutting operation performed by means of abrasive particles rigidly mounted
on a rotating wheel. Each of the abrasive particles act as a single point cutting tool and grinding
wheel acts as a multipoint cutting tool. The grinding operation is used to finish the work pieces
with extremely high quality of surface finish and accuracy of shape and dimension. Grinding
is one of the widely accepted finishing operations because it removes material in very small
size of (micro-chips) chips 0.25 to 0.50 mm. It provides accuracy of the order of 0.000025 mm.
Grinding of very hard material is also possible.
Advantages of grinding
1. Investment is less and design is simple
2. Surface finishing will be approximate 10 times better as compared to milling and
turning process of machining.
3. Dimensional accuracy will be quite good
4. Grinding process could be performed on hardened and unhardened work piece like
metals, alloys, carbides, ceramics, composites materials.
Applications of grinding
1. Surface finishing
2. Slitting and parting
3. De-scaling and deburring
4. Grinding of tools and cutters and re-sharpening
5. Internal hole finishing
6. Form finishing
Classification of grinding machines
According to the accuracy of the work to be done on a grinding machine, they are classified as
1. Rough grinding machines
2. Precision grinding machines
Conventional grinding machines can be broadly classified
1. Surface grinding machine
2. Cylindrical grinding machine
3. Internal grinding machine
4. Tool and cutter grinding machine
Surface grinding machines
Surface grinding machines are employed to finish plain or flat surfaces horizontally, vertically
or at any angle.
There are four different types of surface grinders
(a) Horizontal spindle and reciprocating table type
(b) Horizontal spindle and rotary table type
(c) Vertical spindle and reciprocating table type
(d) Vertical spindle and rotary table type
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Horizontal spindle surface grinding machine
The majority of surface grinders are of horizontal spindle type. The grinding wheel is mounted
on a horizontal spindle and the table is reciprocated to perform grinding operation. The
periphery of the wheel is used for grinding. The area of contact between the wheel and the
work is small, hence the speed is uniform over the grinding surface and the surface finish is
good.

Vertical spindle surface grinding machine

The grinding wheel is mounted on the vertical spindle of the machine which slides vertically
on the column. The table is made to reciprocate to perform grinding. The face or sides of the
wheel are used for grinding in the vertical type surface grinders. The area of contact is large
and stock can be removed quickly but quality is inferior to horizontal grinding.

Horizontal spindle rotary table Surface grinder

The table is moved to perform the grinding
operation. This machine has a limitation in
accommodation of work piece and
therefore does not have wide spread use. By
swivelling the worktable, concave or
convex or tapered surface can be produced
on individual part.
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Cylindrical grinding machine
This machine is used to produce external cylindrical surface. Cylindrical grinders are generally
used to grind external surfaces like cylinders, taper cylinders, faces and shoulders of work.
Broadly there are three different types of cylindrical grinding machine as follows:
1. Plain centre type cylindrical grinder
2. Universal cylindrical surface grinder
3. Centre-less cylindrical surface grinder
Plain centre type cylindrical grinder/external grinding machine
The work piece is held between head stock and tailstock centres. A disc type grinding wheel
performs the grinding action with its peripheral surface. Both traverse and plunge grinding can
be carried out in this machine as shown. In this grinding wheel is moved into the work. The
desired surface is then produced by traversing the work piece across the wheel.
Plunge grinding - The basic movement is of the grinding wheel being fed radially into the
work while the later revolves on centres.

Universal cylindrical grinding machine

These grinders, in addition to the features offered by plain grinders, are provided with a
swiveling headstock and a swiveling wheel head. This permits the grinding of taper of any
angle, much greater than is possible in plain grinder.
Universal grinder has the following additional features:
 The centre of the head stock spindle can be used alive or dead.
 The wheel head can be swiveled in a horizontal plane in any angle.
 The headstock can be swiveled to any angle in the horizontal plane.
Centre-less cylindrical grinder
This grinding machine is a production
machine in which outside diameter of the
work piece is ground. The work piece is not
held between centres but by a work support
blade. It is rotated by means of a regulating
wheel and ground by the grinding wheel.
Centre-less grinding, the regulating wheel
revolving at a much lower surface speed
than grinding wheel controls the rotation
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and longitudinal motion of the work piece.

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Internal grinding machine
This machine is used to produce internal cylindrical surface. The surface may be straight,
tapered, grooved or profiled.
Broadly there are three different types of internal grinding machine as follows:
1. Chucking type internal grinder
2. Planetary internal grinder
3. Centre-less internal grinder

Centre-less internal grinder

This machine is used for grinding cylindrical and tapered holes in cylindrical parts (e.g.
cylindrical liners, various bushings etc). The work piece is rotated between supporting roll,
pressure roll and regulating wheel and is ground by the grinding wheel
Tool and cutter grinding machines
Tool and cutter grinders are used mainly to sharpen the cutting edges of various tools and
cutters. The can also do surface, cylindrical and internal grinding to finish jigs, fixtures, dies
and gauges.

Cylindrical grinding
Cylindrical grinding is performed by mounting and rotating the work between centres in a
cylindrical grinding machine. The work is fed longitudinally against the rotating grinding
wheel to perform grinding.
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External and internal cylindrical grinding

Surface grinding machines
Surface grinding machines are employed to finish plain or flat surfaces horizontally, vertically.
In surface grinding, the spindle position is either horizontal or vertical, and the relative motion
of the work piece is achieved either by reciprocating the work piece past the wheel or by
rotating it. The possible combinations of spindle orientations and work piece motions yield
four types of surface grinding

Centre-less grinding
Centre-less grinding is a method of grinding external cylindrical, tapered and formed surfaces
on work pieces that are not held and rotated between centres or in chucks. There are two types
of centre-less grinding and they are
1. External centre-less grinding
2. Internal centre-less grinding
External centre-less grinding
Two wheels - a grinding and a regulating wheel are used in external centre-less grinding. Both
these wheels are rotated in the same direction. The work is placed upon the work rest and
rotated between the wheels. The feed movement of the work along its axis past the grinding
wheel is obtained by tilting the regulating wheel at a slight angle from the horizontal. An
angular adjustment of 0 to 10 degrees is provided in the machine for this purpose.

Internal centre-less grinding

The principle of external centre-less grinding is applied to internal centre-less grinding also.
Grinding is done on the inner surfaces of the holes. In internal centre-less grinding, the work
is supported by three rolls - a regulating roll, a supporting roll and a pressure roll. The grinding
wheel contacts the inside surface of the work-piece directly opposite the regulating roll. The
distance between the contours of these two wheels is the wall thickness of the work.
Advantages of centre-less grinding
1. Work piece is supported the entire length, grinding is done very accurately.
2. Small, slender and fragile work pieces can be ground easily.
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3. No chucking or other holding devices are required.

 4. As the process is continuous, it is best adapted for production work.
5. The size of the work can easily be controlled.
6. Low order of skill is needed in the operation of the machine.
Disadvantages of centre-less grinding
1. In hollow work, there is no certainity that the outer diameter will be concentric with
the inside diameter.
2. Works having multiple diameters are not handled easily.

Universal cylindrical grinding machine

These grinders, in addition to the features offered by plain grinders, are provided with a
swiveling headstock and a swiveling wheel head. This permits the grinding of taper of any
angle, much greater than is possible in plain grinder.
Universal grinder has the following additional features:
 The centre of the head stock spindle can be used alive or dead.
 The wheel head can be swiveled in a horizontal plane in any angle.
 The headstock can be swiveled to any angle in the horizontal plane.
Grinding machine operations
Grinding processes are generally classified based on the type of surface produced.
1. Cylindrical grinding process.
2. Surface grinding process.
3. Centre less grinding process.
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Other grinding process
Taper grinding
Taper grinding on long work pieces can be done by swiveling the upper table. If the work piece
is short, the wheel head may be swiveled to the taper angle.
Gear grinding
The teeth of gears are ground accurately on gear grinding machines for their shape. Gear
grinding is done by the generating process or by using a form grinding wheel.
Thread grinding
Thread grinding machines are used to grind threads accurately. The grinding wheel itself is
shaped to the thread profile. These formed grinding wheels have one or multi threads on them
Wet grinding
The method of spreading a good quantity of coolant over the work surface and wheel faces
during grinding is known as ‘wet grinding’. Soda water is used as a coolant. The process of
grinding generates high amount of heat generally about 2000°C. Various properties of the work
material change due to the heat. In order to reduce the heat generated during grinding, coolant
is used. Wet grinding promotes long wheel life and better look of the ground surface. Coolant
is pumped from the tank through pipelines.
Dry grinding
Dry grinding is the method of doing grinding operation without applying coolant. Dry grinding
produces undesirable effects on work surfaces. It leads to burring & discoloration of work
surfaces. The cutting edges of the grinding wheel lose their cutting capacity. So, dry grinding
should better be avoided.
Grinding mechanisms
Material removal is taking place due to the abrasive or rubbing action between the abrasive
particles and work piece. The work is fed against the rotating abrasive wheel.
It is a material cutting process which engages an abrasive tool whose cutting elements are
grains of abrasive material known as grit. These grits are characterized by sharp cutting points,
high hot hardness, chemical stability and wear resistance. The grits are held together by a
suitable bonding material to give shape of an abrasive tool. Each of the abrasive particles act
as a single point cutting tool and grinding wheel acts as a multipoint cutting tool. 8
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Grinding wheel
Grinding wheel consists of hard abrasive grains called grits, which perform the cutting or
material removal, held in the weak bonding matrix. Each of the abrasive particles act as a single
point cutting tool and grinding wheel acts as a multipoint cutting tool. When grinding is
performed with conventional grinding wheels (other than metal-bonded), the worn out grits are
removed automatically by the grinding force and the grits beneath come into contact with the
work piece.
A grinding wheel commonly identified by the type of the abrasive material used. The
conventional wheels include aluminium oxide and silicon carbide wheels while diamond and
CBN (cubic boron nitride) wheels fall in the category of super abrasive wheel.
According to construction, grinding wheels are classified under three categories.
1. Solid grinding wheels
2. Segmented grinding wheels
3. Mounted grinding wheels
Specification of grinding wheel
A grinding wheel requires two types of specification
a) Geometrical specification
b) Compositional specification
Geometrical specification
This is decided by the type of grinding machine and the grinding operation to be performed in
the work piece. This specification mainly includes
a) wheel diameter,
b) width and depth of rim
c) the bore diameter.

Compositional specifications
Specification of a grinding wheel ordinarily means compositional specification.
a) the type of grit material
b) the grit size
c) the bond strength of the wheel, commonly known as wheel hardness
d) the structure of the wheel denoting the porosity i.e. the amount of inter grit spacing
e) the type of bond material
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Types of abrasives (Abrasives may be classified into two types)
Natural abrasives
 Emery (50 - 60 % crystalline Al2O3 + Iron Oxide),
 Sandstone or Solid Quartz, Corundum (75 - 90 % crystalline Al2O3 + Iron Oxide)
 Diamond.
Artificial abrasives
 Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3),
 Silicon Carbide (SiC),
 Artificial diamond,
 Boron Carbide and Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN).
The abrasives that are generally used are Aluminium oxide, Silicon Carbide, Diamond and
Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN).
Aluminium oxide may have variation in properties arising out of differences in chemical
composition and structure associated with the manufacturing process. Pure Al2O3 grit has sharp
free cutting action with low strength and is good for fine tool grinding operation on hard ferrous
materials.
 Regular or brown aluminium oxide (doped with TiO2) possesses lower hardness and
higher toughness is recommended heavy duty grinding to semi finishing.
 Al2O3 alloyed with zirconia extremely tough grit suitable for high pressure, high
material removal grinding on ferrous material and are not used for precision grinding.
Silicon carbide (SiC)
 Silicon carbide is harder than alumina but less tough. Silicon carbide is also inferior to
Al2O3 because of its chemical reactivity with iron and steel.
 Black silicon carbide is less hard but tougher than green SiC and is efficient for grinding
soft nonferrous materials. Green silicon carbide contains at least 97% SiC. It is harder
than black variety and is used for grinding cemented carbide.
Diamond
 Diamond grit is best suited for grinding cemented carbides, glass, stone, granite,
marble, concrete, ceramics, fiber reinforced plastics, ferrite, graphite.
 Natural diamond grit is having very sharp cutting edge and free cutting action and is
exclusively used in metallic, electroplated and brazed bond.
 Mono-crystalline diamond grits are known for their strength. Polycrystalline diamond
grits are most suitable for grinding of cemented carbide with low pressure. These grits
are used in resin bond.
Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN)
Diamond though hardest is not suitable for grinding ferrous materials because of its reactivity.
In contrast, CBN the second hardest material, because of its chemical stability is the abrasive
material of choice for efficient grinding of HSS, alloy steels. Medium strength crystals used in
resin bond for those applications where grinding force is not so high. High strength crystals are
used with vitrified or brazed bond where large grinding force is expected. Microcrystalline
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CBN is known for its highest toughness and auto sharpening character. It can be used in all
types of bond.
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Grain size
It refers to the actual size of the abrasive particles. The grain size is denoted by the number.
The abrasive grains are classified in a screen mesh procedure.
 Large grit: Big grinding capacity, rough work piece surface.
 Fine grit: Small grinding capacity, smooth work piece surface

Grain sizes used in grinding wheels typically range between 6 and 600. Grit size 6 is very
coarse and size 600 is very fine. Finer grit sizes up to 1000 are used in some finishing operations
Grain size is denoted by a number indicating the number of meshes per linear inch of the screen
through which the grains pass when they are graded. There are four different groups of the
grain size namely coarse, medium, fine and very fine.
Grade
Grade or hardness indicates the strength with which the bonding material holds the abrasive
grains in the grinding wheel. This means the amount of force required to pull out a single
bonded abrasive grit by bond fracture. It does not refer to the hardness of the abrasive grain.
The worn out grit must pull out from the bond and make room for fresh sharp grit in order to
avoid excessive rise of grinding force and temperature.
Structure
The wheel structure indicates spacing of the abrasive grains in the wheel. It is measured on a
scale that ranges from open to dense. Open structure means more pores and fewer grains per
unit wheel volume, and vice versa. Open structure is recommended for work materials that tend
to produce continuous chips, while denser structure is used for better surface finish and
dimensional precision

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Types of bond
A bond is an adhesive substance that is employed to hold abrasive grains together in the form
of grinding wheels. Different grinding wheels are manufactured by mixing hard abrasives with
suitable bonds.

Bonds are classified into two types:

1. Organic - Resinoid, Rubber, Shellac & Oxychloride
2. Non - Organic - Metallic, Vitrified & Silicate
Common bonds
1. Vitrified bond (V)
2. Rubber bond (R)
3. Silicate bond (S)
4. Metal bond (M)
5. Shellac bond (E)
6. Oxychloride bond (O)
7. Resinoid bond (B)
8. Electroplated bond
9. Brazed bond
Vitrified bond (V)
It can also be safely used in wet grinding. It cannot be used where mechanical impact or thermal
variations are like to occur. This bond is also not recommended for very high speed grinding
because of possible breakage of the bond under centrifugal force.
 The raw materials of bonds are clay, feldspar, and glass.
 Fired at a temperature about 1200℃.
 Strong abrasives holding strength and high rigidity.
 Applicable to a wide variety of work materials such as carbon steels and alloy steels.
 Very suitable for precision grinding.
 Vitrified wheels hold form extremely well and produce a high rate stock removal
Rubber bond (R)
It's made with rubber as a bond, and the rubber wheel is used as the regulating wheels for
center-less grinding. Its principal use is in thin wheels for wet cut-off operation. Rubber bond
was once popular for finish grinding on bearings and cutting tools.
Silicate bond (S)
Silicate wheels are made by mixing abrasive grains with silicate of soda. The mixture is
moulded in a mould and dried for several hours. Silicate bonded wheels are light grey in colour.
These wheels are having a fairly high tensile strength.
Metal bond (M)
Metal bond is extensively used with super abrasive wheels. Extremely high toughness of metal
bonded wheels makes these very effective in those applications where form accuracy as well
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as large stock removal is desired. Metal bonds include various different bronze alloys. Metal
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bond is extensively used with super abrasive wheels.

Benefits of Metal Bond:
• Long wheel life
• Superior form holding
• Excellent for interrupted cuts
• Retain shape and size during extreme grinding
• accuracy as well as large stock removal
Shellac bond (E)
Shellac bonded grinding wheels are relatively strong but not rigid. At present use of shellac
bond is limited to grinding wheels engaged in fine finish of rolls. Thin wheels that are strong
but possess some elasticity have shellac bond. They can produce high polish and are used in
grinding such parts as camshaft and mill rolls.
Shellac is a resin. Shellac bonded grinding wheels are relatively strong but not rigid. Shellac
bond wheels are made by mixing the abrasive grains with shellac in mixer. After the mixture
has been rolled or pressed into desired wheel shapes they are then hardened by baking for
several hours at about 160 deg.
Oxy-chloride bond (O)
Oxy chloride Bond: This bond is produced by mixing abrasive grains with oxide and chloride
of magnesium. It is less common type bond, but still can be used in disc grinding operation. It
is used under dry condition. It is produced by mixing abrasive grains with oxide and chloride
of magnesium.
Resinoid bond (B)
Conventional abrasive resin bonded wheels are widely used for heavy duty grinding because
of their ability to withstand shock load. This bond is also known for its vibration absorbing
characteristics and finds its use with diamond and CBN in grinding of cemented carbide and
steel respectively. Fiberglass reinforced resin bond is used with cut off wheels which requires
added strength under high speed operation.
 The raw materials of bonds are synthetic resin like phenolic resin.
 Resin bonded products provide soft cutting action in precision grinding,
 Due to its strength and impact resistance, resin bonded products are used for rough
grinding applications 13
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Electroplated bond
The individual diamond grits are bonded through an electroplated nickel layer. Presently it is
the only bond for making wheels for abrasive milling and ultra-high speed grinding. This bond
allows large crystal exposure above the bond without need of any truing or dressing. This bond
is specially used for making small diameter wheel, form wheel and thin super abrasive wheels.
There are several advantages to electroplated technology:
 The ability to manufacture tight-tolerance forms.
 Lower initial cost, compared to vitrified, resin and metal bonded super abrasive wheels.
 Free cutting, resulting in higher material removal rates, less power required
 Elimination of time associated with dressing.
 The ability to strip and re-plate the core.
Brazed bond
This is relatively a recent development, allows crystal exposure as high 60-80%. In addition,
grit spacing can be precisely controlled. This bond is suitable for very high material removal
either with diamond or CBN wheel. The bond strength is much greater than provided by
electroplated bond. This bond is expected to replace electroplated bond in many applications.
Marking system of grinding wheels
The standard marking system for conventional abrasive wheel can be as follows:
W A 60 K 5 V 05
where
 The number ‘W’ is manufacturer’s identification number indicating exact kind of
abrasive used.
 The letter ‘A’ denotes that the type of abrasive is Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3). In case of
Silicon Carbide (SiC) the letter ‘C’ is used.
 The number ‘60’ specifies the average grit size in inch mesh. For a very large size grit
this number may be as small as 6 where as for a very fine grit the number can be 600.
 The letter ‘K’ denotes the hardness of the wheel. The letter symbol can range between
‘A’ and ‘Z’, ‘A’ denoting the softest grade and ‘Z’ denoting the hardest one.
 The number ‘5’ denotes the structure or porosity of the wheel. This number can be any
value between 1 to 20, ‘1’ indicating high porosity and ‘20’ means low porosity.
 The letter code ‘V’ means that the bond material used is vitrified.
 The number ‘05’ is a wheel manufacturer’s symbol identifier.
Selection of grinding wheels
Selection of grinding wheel depends upon the following factors:
1. Physical and chemical characteristics of the work material
2. Grinding conditions (Work speed, Wheel speed, cooling)
3. Type of grinding (stock removal grinding or form finish grinding)
4. Types of grinding machine.
The process parameters of grinding are defined by the kinematic and geometric parameters.
Kinematic parameters are: cutting speed (vs) and work piece speed(vw) and feed(s) if there is
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movement. The geometrical parameters are: wheels diameter Ds, work piece diameter (Dw),
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depth of cut (a), the length of contact (l) and chip thickness (h).
Glazing and loading of grinding wheels
Glazing
It is the condition of the grinding wheel in which the cutting edges or the face of the wheel
takes a glass-like appearance. Glazing takes place if the wheel is rotated at very high speeds
and is made with harder bonds. Rotating the wheel at lesser speeds and using soft bonds are
the remedies. The glazed wheels are dressed to have fresh, sharp cutting edges.
Loading
The wheel is loaded if the particles of the metal being ground adhere to the wheel. The openings
or pores of the wheel face are filled up with the metal. It is caused by grinding a softer material
or by using a very hard bonded wheels and running it very slowly. It may also take place if
very deep cuts are taken by not using the right type of coolant.
Chattering
The wavy pattern of criss-cross lines is visible on the ground surface some times. This
condition is known as chattering. It takes place when the spindle bearings are not fitted
correctly and because of the imbalance of the grinding wheel.
Dressing of grinding wheel
Dressing is the process of breaking away the glazed surface so that sharp particles are again
presented to the work. Dressing means bringing back its cutting edges by removing the
deposited metal chips.
In grinding operations, small chips of work piece material can become lodged in the cutting
surface of the grinding wheel. In addition, if the wheel bonding hardness is excessive, dulled
abrasive grains can remain in the grinding wheel. Both of these conditions will impair the
cutting efficiency, and these particles must be removed as needed to maintain proper cutting
action. This process, termed dressing is important in obtaining good results in grinding.
The common types of wheel dressers known as “Star” dressers or diamond tool dressers are
used for this purpose. A star dresser consists of a number of hardened steel wheels on its
periphery. The dresser is held against the face of the revolving wheel and moved across the
face to dress the wheel surface

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Truing of grinding wheels
Establishes concentricity. Truing a wheel will bring every point on its cutting surface
concentric with the machine spindle. This concentricity is important for achieving smooth and
accurate grinding conditions. The cutting surface of a new wheel will run out slightly due to
the clearance between the wheel bore and machine spindle Truing is also required on a new
conventional wheel to ensure concentricity with specific mounting system. When a new wheel
is installed on the grinder, it must be trued before use.
Diamond tool dressers are set on the wheels at 15° and moved across with a feed rate of less
than 0.02mm. A good amount of coolant is applied during truing. Rotary powered truing
devices are the most widely recommended truing tool in long run mass production and are not
ideally suited for those wheels with large diameters.

Truing and dressing are commonly combined into one operation for conventional abrasive
grinding wheels, but are usually two distinctly separate operations for super abrasive wheel

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 Super-finishing operations
To ensure reliable performance and prolonged service life of modern machinery, its
components require to be manufactured not only with high dimensional and geometrical
accuracy but also with high surface finish. The surface finish has a vital role in influencing
functional characteristics like wear resistance, fatigue strength, corrosion resistance and power
loss due to friction. Unfortunately, normal machining methods like turning, milling or even
classical grinding cannot meet this severe requirement.
1. Lapping
2. Honing
3. Polishing
4. Buffing
5. Electroplating
Lapping operation
Lapping is a machining process in which two surfaces are rubbed together with an abrasive
compound between them, by hand movement or using a machine. Lapping is a surface finishing
process used on flat or cylindrical surfaces. The fluid with abrasive particles very small free
abrasive grains (aluminum oxide and silicon carbide, with grit sizes between 300 and 600) is
referred as lapping compound. It appears as a chalky paste. Normally the fluid used in lapping
compound is oil or kerosene.
Lapping is used to produce optical lenses, metallic bearing surfaces, gauges, and other parts
requiring very good finishes and extreme accuracy.

Another method of lapping is the abrading of a surface by means of a lap (which is made of a
material softer than the material to be lapped), which has been charged with the fine abrasive
particles. The abrasive embeds within the softer material, which holds it and permits it to score
across and cut the harder material.
Advantages
 Less distortion to the work as no clamping is required for the work
 Low heat generation
 Geometrically true surface.
 Extreme accuracy of dimension.
 Refinement of the surface finish
 Close fit between mating surfaces (High tolerance and dimensional accuracy)
Disadvantages
 Skill is required for the process
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 MRR is low
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 Cleaning of lapping compound is required

Flat lapping is most often used to process parts that require tight control of thickness and
parallelism. It can correct surface irregularities and remove subsurface damage caused by
sawing or grinding, producing dimensionally accurate flat parts to high tolerances.
Types or Lapping methods
1. Hand lapping for flat work.
2. Machine lapping.
Hand lapping
Hand lapping of flat surface is carried out by rubbing the
component over accurately finished flat surface of master lap
usually made of cast iron block. Abrading action is
accomplished by very fine abrasive powder slurry. Manual
lapping requires high personal skill because the lapping
pressure and speed have to be controlled manually. Lapping
machines accomplish the process with greater consistency
and efficiency.

Lapping machines
These machines are fairly simple pieces of equipment consisting of a rotating table, called a
lapping plate, pressure plate and conditioning ring. During lapping the abrasive compound is
applied to the rolls rotating in the same direction while the work piece is fed across the rolls.
Machine lapping can also employ abrasive paper or abrasive cloth as the lapping medium. In
lapping process, cast iron plate with loose abrasive carried in a vehicle can be used. or bonded
abrasive plates may also be used.

Types of lapping machines

Lapping machine can be also classifying as single side and double side lapping machines.
1. Vertical axis lapping machine: laps flat or round surfaces between two opposed laps on
vertical spindle
2. Centre-less roll lapping machine using bonded abrasive wheel designed for continuous
production of round parts such as piston rings, bearing races, valve tappets and shaft
etc. (similar to centre-less grinding)
3. Flat lapping machine using circular lap plate
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 Honing
It is an abrasive process used for finishing previously machined surface. It is generally used for
finishing drilled or bored holes. The tool used in this process is called as hone. Hone is a bonded
abrasive stone made in the form of a stick. This process is used primarily to remove the grinding
or the tool marks left on the surface by previous operations and finishing the holes. However,
it can be used for external cylindrical surfaces as well as flat surfaces. Typical applications are
the finishing of cylinders for internal combustion engines, bearing spindles and gears. Honing
can be done on materials like plastic, silver, brass, aluminium, cast iron and steel
The advantages of honing are:
 Correction of geometrical accuracy.
 Dimensional accuracy.
 Surface texture improvement
 Cross hatched finish to retain lubrication
 straightness and finish.

In addition to the surface finish of about 0.1 µm, honing produces a characteristic cross hatched
surface that tends to retain lubrication during operation of the component, thus contributing to
its function and service life. With conventional abrasive honing stick, several strokes are
necessary to obtain the desired finish on the work piece. However, with introduction of high
performance diamond and CBN grits it is now possible to perform the honing operation in just
one complete stroke.
Types of honing
1. Manual honing process
2. Machine honing
Manual honing process
On this process a suitable quantity of coolant is used along with the honing stone hence this
process is called as wet process. In this process the hone is continuously rotated and the work
piece is moved front and back with the help of hand.
Machine honing
The process of honing can be done on any type of machines such as lathes and drilling
machines. These small machines will fail to yield accurate results in mass production. So a
regular honing machine is to be used in order to obtain a good result. A honing machine is
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relatively accurate and perfect

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Honing machine
The honing machines are of two types - Vertical & Horizontal
Horizontal honing machines
Longer jobs are machined with the help of these machines. These machines carry a horizontal
spindle on which honing tool is mounted. The work piece is held in a horizontal position and
rotated about its own axis. This type of machine is meant for very longer jobs. On some
machines the work piece is mounted on the table and it reciprocates to and fro. The hone rotates
about its own axis and also slightly oscillates.

Vertical honing machines

In this type of machining process, the tool as well as the work piece is held vertically. These
machines are available in more spindle types. The work piece is stable and the tool reciprocates.
Fixtures are present to hold the work piece in correct position. Vertical types of honing
machines are generally suitable for shorter jobs.
Methods of honing
Honing is a finishing process performed by a honing tool called as hone which contains a set
of three to a dozen and more bonded abrasive sticks. The sticks are equally spaced about the
periphery of the honing tool. The sticks are held against the work surface with controlled light
pressure, usually exercised by small springs. The honing tool is given a complex rotational
and oscillatory axial motion, which combine to produce a crosshatched lay pattern of very low
surface roughness. A cutting fluid must be used in honing to cool and lubricate the tool and to
help remove the chips. A common application of honing is to finish the holes.

The honing stones are given a complex motion so as to prevent every single grit from repeating
its path over the work surface. The critical process parameters are:
 Rotation speed.
 Oscillation speed.
 Length and position of the stroke.
 Honing stick pressure
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Types of honing stones
The honing stone is composed of abrasive grains that are bound together with an adhesive. There
are many types of hones but all consist of one or more abrasive stones that are held
under pressure against the surface they are working on. The choice of abrasive material is usually
driven by the characteristics of the work piece material. With conventional abrasive honing stick,
several strokes are necessary to obtain the desired finish on the work piece. From aluminum
oxide and silicon carbide to diamond and cubic boron nitride (CBN) hone stone are using
with different grain size and bond types.
However, with introduction of high performance diamond and CBN grits it is now possible to
perform the honing operation in just one complete stroke. Honing stick with CBN grit can
maintain sharp cutting condition with consistent results over long duration.
Honing conditions
 Spindle speed
 Length of hone
 Diameter/bore length
 Reciprocating speed
 Cross hatch pattern
Linear speed, tangential speed, pressure of abrasive stones on the work piece and a kind of
coolant are used. On the other hand, parameters related to abrasive stones are type of
abrasive, grain size of abrasive, type of binder and density of abrasive.
Cutting fluids
The hone is usually turned in the bore while being moved in and out. Special cutting fluids are
used to give a smooth cutting action and to remove the material that has been abraded. Honing
oil is a liquid, solution or emulsion used to aid in the cutting or grinding of metal, typically by
abrasive tools or stones, and may or may not contain oil. It can also be called machining
oil, tool oil, cutting fluid, and cutting oil. There are many different kinds of "honing oils" to
suit different needs. The two most common classes of honing oil are petroleum based (typically
mineral oils), and non-petroleum (typically water or vegetable oil) based. Common additives
include chlorine, sulfur, rust inhibitors, and detergents
Special cutting fluids are used to give a smooth cutting action and to remove the material that
has been abraded.
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 Broaching process
Basic principles of broaching
Broaching is a machining method in which a series of cutting teeth each remove a portion of
stock as the cutting tool (broach) moves past or through the work piece. It removes layers of
material in one stroke by a rod or bar type cutter with gradually increased protrusion. Each
tooth removes a predetermined amount of material in a predetermined location. Broaching is
preferably used to machine internal and external surfaces such as holes of circular, square, or
irregular shapes, keyways, splines and teeth of internal gears.

Metal removal process in broaching operation is similar to shaping process except it uses a
series of progressive teeth which can cut more material in a single pass. In shaping, attaining
full depth requires a number of strokes to remove the material in thin layers step-by-step by
gradually in feeding the single point tool. Whereas, broaching enables remove the whole
material in one stroke only by the gradually rising teeth of the cutter called broach.
Advantages of broaching
1. Very high production rate (much higher than milling, planing, boring etc.).
2. High dimensional and form accuracy and surface finish of the product.
3. Roughing and finishing in single stroke of the same cutter.
4. Needs only one motion (cutting), so design, operation and control are simpler.
5. Extremely suitable and economic for mass production.
6. Any type of surface, internal or external can be generated with broaching.
Limitations
1. Only through holes and surfaces can be machined.
2. Usable only for light cuts,
3. Cutting speed cannot be high.
4. Design, manufacture and restoration of the broaches are difficult and expensive.
5. Separate broach has to be used when the size, shape and geometry of the job changes.
6. Economic only when the production volume is large.
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Types of Broaches
A broach is a multiple –edges cutting tool that has successively higher cutting edges along the
length of the tool. Broaching is getting more and more widely used, wherever feasible, for high
productivity as well as product quality. Various types of broaches have been developed and are used
for wide range of applications.
Broaches may be classified in various ways according to
1. Type of operation: (Internal or external broaching)
2. Method of operation: (Pull type or Push type)
3. Type of construction:( Solid, build up, progressive cut, inserted tooth, rotor cut)
4. Function:(surface keyway, round hole, splines)
5. Progressive – cut type broaches have their teeth increasing in width instead of height
Ordinary – cut type where the teeth increase in height or protrusion gradually from
tooth to tooth along the length of the broach.
Internal broaching tools are used to enlarge and finish various contours in through holes.
External broaches are used to cut splines and teeth on outer surfaces, grooves, slots, keyways etc.
Pull type broaches are generally made as a long single piece is in tension and having more
number of teeth with high material removal.
Push type broaches are essentially shorter in length (to avoid buckling) is pushed through the
work piece. Push type broaches are generally used for external broaching, preferably, requiring light
cuts and small depth of material removal.

Force required for broaching

Cutting forces acting along the cutting velocity and tangential forces
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Surface roughness obtainable in lapping, honing and broaching operations.
To ensure reliable performance and prolonged service life of modern machinery, its
components require to be manufactured not only with high dimensional and geometrical
accuracy but also with high surface finish. The surface finish has a vital role in influencing
functional characteristics like wear resistance, fatigue strength, corrosion resistance and power
loss due to friction. Unfortunately, normal machining methods like turning, milling or even
classical grinding cannot meet this stringent requirement.

 Shaping Process character: High MRR, medium Surface finish, dimension control
 Broaching - High MRR, Very good surface, dimension control, Expensive
 Drilling, Reaming, Boring- High MRR, Cheap, Medium-high surface, dimension
control
 Turning- high MRR, high surface finish, dimension control
 Surface finish is maximum with lapping, then honing and broaching operations
Superfinishing operations
Super finishing is a micro finishing process that produces a controlled surface condition on
parts which is not obtainable by any other method. It is abrasive process which utilizes either
a bonded abrasive like honing for cylindrical surfaces or a cup wheel for flat surfaces. Fig. 4.38
schematically shows the super finishing process.

Super finishing is a finishing operation similar to honing, but it involves the use of a single
abrasive stick. The reciprocating motion of the stick is performed at higher frequency and
smaller amplitudes. Also, the grit size and pressures applied on the abrasive stick are smaller.
A cutting fluid is used to cool the work surface and wash away chips.
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Semiautomatic and Automatic Lathes
Automation is incorporated in a machine tool or machining system as a whole for higher
productivity with consistent quality aiming meeting the large requirements and overall
economy. Such automation enables quick and accurate auxiliary motions, i.e., handling
operations like tool – work mounting, bar feeding, tool indexing etc. repeatably with minimum
human intervention but with the help of special or additional mechanism and control systems.
These systems may be of mechanical, electro-mechanical, hydraulic or electronic type or their
combination.
It is already mentioned that according to degree of automation machine tools are classified as,
• Non automatic where most of the handling operations irrespective of processing
operations, are done manually, like centre lathes etc.
• Semiautomatic
• Automatic where all the handling or auxilliary operations as well as the processing
operations are carried out automatically.
Main limitations of centre lathes
 The setting time for the job in terms of holding the job is large.
 Only one tool can be used in the normal course.
 The idle times involved in the setting and movement of tools between the cuts is large.
 Precise movement of the tools to destined places is difficult to achieve if proper care is
not taken by the operator.
The conventional general purpose automated lathes can be classified as
Semi-automatic
(a) capstan lathe (ram type turret lathe)
(b) turret lathe
(c) multiple spindle turret lathe
(d) copying (hydraulic) lathe
Automatic
(a) Automatic cutting off lathe
(b) Single spindle automatic lathe
(c) Swiss type automatic lathe
(d) multiple spindle automatic lathes
Semi-automatics machine tools
Semi-automatics are employed for machining work from separate blanks. The operator loads
and clamps the blanks, starts the machine and unloads the finished work. The characteristic
features of semi - automatic lathes are:
 Some major auxiliary motions and handling operations like bar feeding, speed change,
tool change etc. are done quickly and consistently with lesser human involvement.
 The operators need lesser skill and putting lesser effort and attention.
 Suitable for batch or small lot production.
 Costlier than centre lathes of same capacity.
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Classification of semi-automatics
Depending upon the number of work spindle, these machines are classified as:
 Single spindle semi-automatics
 Multi spindle semi-automatics
The machine may also be built in two designs:
 Centre type.
 Chucking type.
Capstan and Turret lathes
The semiautomatic lathes, capstan lathe and turret lathe are very similar in construction,
operation and application.

(a) Bed
(b) Headstock
(c) Cross slide and saddle
(d) Turret
The turret is a hexagonal-shaped tool holder intended for holding six or more tools. Each
face of the turret is accurately machined. Through the centre of each face accurately bored
holes are provided for accommodating shanks of different tool holders. The centre line of
each hole coincides with the axis of the lathe when aligned with the headstock spindle. In
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addition to these holes, there are four tapped holes on each face of the turret for securing
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different tool holding attachments.

Working principle of capstan and turret lathes
The work pieces are held in collets or chucks. A bar feeding mechanism is used for automatic
feeding of bar stock. At least eleven tools can be set at a time in turret and capstan lathes. Six
tools are held on the turret faces, four tools in front square tool post and one parting off tool at
the rear tool post. While machining, the turret head moves forward towards the job. After each
operation, the turret head goes back. The turret head is indexed automatically and the next tool
comes into machining position. The indexing is done by an indexing mechanism. The
longitudinal movement of the turret corresponding to each of the turret position can be
controlled independently. By holding different tools in the turret faces, the operations like
drilling, boring, reaming, counter boring, turning and threading can be done on the component.
Four tools held on the front tool post are used for different operations like necking, chamfering,
form turning and knurling. The parting off tool in the rear tool post is used for cutting off the
work piece. The cross wise movements of the rear and front tool posts are controlled by pre-
stops.

Comparison of centre lathe and Turret and capstan lathes

Capstan and turret lathes are production lathes used to manufacture any number of identical
pieces in the minimum time. These lathes are development of centre lathes.
In contrast to centre lathes, capstan and turret lathes:
 Are relatively costlier.
 Are requires less skilled operator.
 Possess an axially movable indexable turret (mostly hexagonal) in place of tailstock
 Holds large number of cutting tools; up to four in indexable tool post on the front slide,
one in the rear slide and up to six in the turret (if hexagonal) as indicated in the
schematic diagrams.
 Are more productive for quick engagement and overlapped functioning of the tools in
addition to faster mounting and feeding of the job and rapid speed change.
 Enable repetitive production of same job requiring less involvement, effort and
attention of the operator for pre-setting of work-speed and feed rate and length of travel
of the cutting tools.
 Are suitable and economically viable for batch production or small lot production.
 Capable of taking multiple cuts and combined cuts at the same time.
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Automatic lathes
Automatics as their name implies are machine tools with a fully automatic work cycle.
Automation is incorporated in machine tool systems to enable faster and consistently accurate
processing operations for increasing productivity and reducing manufacturing cost in batch and
mass production. The reduction in number of set ups and total machining time enables the parts
to be produced at an economical cost in an automatic lathe.
These are machine tools in which the components are machined automatically. The working
cycle is fully automatic that is repeated to produce identical parts without participation of the
operator. All the working and idle operations are performed in a definite sequence by the
control system adopted in the automats which is set up to suit a given work.
Advantages of automats over conventional lathes
1. Mass production of identical parts.
2. High accuracy is maintained.
3. Time of production is minimized.
4. Unskilled labor is enough. It minimizes the labor cost.
5. One operator can be utilized to operate more than one machine.
6. Scrap loss is reduced by eliminating operator error.

Automatic lathe working

Runs fully automatically continuously over a long duration repeating the same machining cycle for
each product. Provided with up-to five radial tool slides which are moved by cams mounted on a cam
shaft and with higher spindle speeds.
1. Automatic Bar/stock/work piece feeding after the completion of one product
2. Indexing of tool
3. Cam or hydraulic drive for cross slide etc.
Advantage
1. It is used to manufacture precision turning of small parts.
2. It has many tool slides.
3. Wide range of speed is available.
4. It is rigid in construction.
5. Simple design of can is enough.
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6. Many working stations are available.

7. Micro-meter tool setting is possible
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Automatic lathes are also classified into some distinguished categories based on constructional
features, operational characteristics, number of spindles.
• Single spindle
o Automatic cutting off lathes
o Automatic (screw cutting) lathe
o Swiss type automatic lathe
• Multi-spindle automatic lathe
Single and multi-spindle machines.
These machines have only one spindle. So, one component can be machined at a time. These
cross slides (cross feed of tool) are operated by disc cams or hydraulic mechanism which draws
the power from the main spindle through cycle time change gears. Spindle speeds are changed
to suit work piece diameter/material requirements by means of change gears in the headstock.
Essentially used for large volume of production of relatively smaller size.

Description of above figure

The required length of work piece (stock) is fed out with a cam mechanism, up to the stock
stop which is automatically advanced in line with the spindle axis, at the end of each cycle.
The stock is held in the collect chuck of the rotating spindle. The machining is done by tools
held in cross slides operating only in the crosswise direction. The form tool held in the front
tool slide produces the required shape of the component. The parting off tool in the rear tool
slide is used to cut off the component after machining.
Single spindle automatic screw type machine
This is very similar to capstan and turret lathes with reference to tool layout, but all the tool
movements are cam controlled, such that full automation in manufacturing is achieved. This is
designed for machining complex external and internal surfaces on parts made of bar stock or
of separate blanks.
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The bar stock is held in a collet chuck and advanced by a feed finger after each piece is finished
and cut off. All movements of the machine units are actuated by cams mounted on the camshaft.
The bar stock is pushed through stock tube in a bracket and its leading end is clamped in
rotating spindle by means of a collet chuck. The bar is then fed out for the next part by stock
feeding mechanism. Longitudinal turning and machining of the central hole are performed by
tools mounted on turret slide. The cut off and form tools are mounted on the cross-slides. At
the end of each cut, turret slide is withdrawn automatically and indexed to bring the next tool
into position. One revolution of camshaft produces one component. It is used for producing
small jobs, screws, stepped pins, taper pins, bolts, etc.
Multi-spindle machines
The multi spindle automats are the fastest type of production machines and are made in a
variety of models with 2, 4, 5, 6 or 8 spindles. Each of the spindles is provided with its own set
of tools for operation. As a result, more than one work piece can be machined simultaneously
in these machines. In contrast to the single spindle automat, where one turret face at a time is
working on one spindle, the multi spindle automat has all turret faces working on all spindles
at the same time. The production rate of a multi spindle automat, however, is less than that of
the corresponding number of single spindle automats. Machining of the inner and outer races in
mass production of ball bearings are, for instance, machined in multi-spindle automatic lathes.

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Questions
I. Answer the following questions in one or two words
1. Name one artificial abrasive.
2. Name the grinding machine used for grinding jigs, fixtures and tools.
3. What is the name of the bond indicated by the letter ‘V’?
II. Answer the following questions in one or two sentences
1. What is grinding?
2. Name any four grinding machines.
3. What is centreless grinding?
4. What are the four types of surface grinders?
5. List any four operations performed in a grinding machine.
6. What are the effects of dry grinding?
7. Name any four types of bonds.
8. What is glazing?
9. What is loading?
10. What are the reasons for chattering?
[Link] the following questions in about a page
1. List the types of rough and precision grinding machines.
2. Explain external centreless grinding with a diagram.
3. A grinding wheel is specified as follows w A 46 K 5 V 17. Explain the meaning of each
symbol.
4. Explain ‘Dressing’ of a grinding wheel with a diagram.
5. Explain ‘Truing’ of a grinding wheel
6. Write short notes on a. Lapping b. Honing
IV. Answer the following questions in detail
1. Draw and explain a external cylindrical grinder.
2. Explain a surface grinder with a diagram.
3. Explain ‘mounting’ of a grinding wheel with a suitable diagram.
4. Write notes on a. Precision grinding b. Polishing c. Buffing d. Scraping
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 General notes
Rough grinding machines
The rough grinding machines are used to remove stock with no reference to the accuracy of
results. Excess metal present on the cast parts and welded joints are removed by rough grinders.
The main types of rough grinders are
4. Hand grinding machine
5. Bench grinding machine
6. Floor stand grinding machine
7. Flexible shaft grinding machine
8. Abrasive belt grinding machine
Lapping compound
Fine-grained loose abrasive particles suspended in a viscous or liquid vehicle such as soluble
oil, mineral oil or grease. Oil base or water base which acts as a carrier for the abrasive powder
is called [Link] hard particles used are aluminum oxide, silica or silicon carbide, glass,
boron carbide, etc. These vehicles hold the abrasive in suspension before and during use. The
paste abrasives are generally used in hand-lapping operations. For machine lapping, light oil is
mixed with dry abrasive so that it can be pumped onto the lapping surface during the lapping
operation.
Application of lapping
The process of lapping can be applied to a wide range of materials, including metal, glass,
ceramic, plastic, or silicon substrate. It can machine ceramic, brittle material, glass machining
and soft material machining
 Lapping to create accurately smooth, flat surfaces. Lapping to achieve very precise
tolerances and end surface finish requirements.
 Lapping can also be used to obtain a domed surface, such as a convex lens or mirror.
Lens makers can produce surfaces better than 30 nanometers (or 0.030 μm).
 Lapping can be used slender and fragile parts. Lapping is also critical to semiconductor
production, providing the precision required for handling very fragile, thin components,

Surface roughness of different operations 32

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