Contents

1 Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Travelling waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.1 Transverse waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2 Longitudinal waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3 Mathematical description of travelling waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.4 Speed of a transverse wave on a string . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.5 Speed of sound in a gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3 The principle of linear superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4 Constructive and destructive interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5 Beats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
6 The Doppler effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
7 Intensity of sound waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
8 Standing waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
8.1 Standing wave equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
8.2 Standing waves on a stretched string . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
8.3 Standing sound waves in pipes: open pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
8.4 Standing sound waves in pipes: closed pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
9 Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
10 The electromagnetic spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

i
List of Examples

1 Wave equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 Mass of a stretched string . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3 Speed of sound at different temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4 Interference due to two sound sources of the same frequency . . . . . . . . . . 7
5 Apparent frequency of a moving siren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6 Speed of a ship from the beat frequency and the Doppler effect . . . . . . . . . 10
7 Intensity of several instruments playing together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
8 Relative intensity levels at a distance from a sound source . . . . . . . . . . . 12
9 Air temperature from data of a stationary wave system . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
10 Fundamental frequency of a guitar string . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
11 Harmonic of a transverse wave on a string . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
12 Length of pipe required to produce a specific frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
13 The wavelength of an electromagnetic wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

ii
Vibrations and Waves

1 Oscillations
Any motion that repeats itself in equal time intervals is said to be periodic or cyclic. Examples
of periodic motion include the orbits of the moon and planets, the swing of a pendulum, or
the movement of air particles as a sound wave passes. Periodic motion can be described in
terms of sine functions and is therefore also referred to as harmonic motion.
An oscillating or vibrating particle moves to and fro about some fixed point or equilibrium
position. The displacement is the distance of the oscillating particle from the equilibrium
position. The period is the time interval for one complete cycle and the number of cycles per
unit time is the frequency. Thus

1
f= . (1)
T

The Greek letter ν (nu) is often used as the symbol for frequency instead of f . The unit of
frequency is the hertz (Hz). 1 Hz = 1 s−1 .
A common type of periodic motion that can be described in a simple way mathematically
is simple harmonic motion. In simple harmonic motion the displacement of the oscillating
particle varies sinusoidally with time (the acceleration is proportional to the displacement and
in the opposite direction).

2 Travelling waves
Examples of travelling (or progressive) wave phenomena abound in nature. Music is a result
of sound waves travelling through the air and setting your eardrum vibrating. Surfers ride
water waves and everything we see is a result of light waves reflecting from the objects we
look at.
Waves are produced by vibrations or oscillations. A mechanical wave originates in the
vibration of some portion of an elastic medium. The energy of the vibration is transmitted to
adjacent layers of the medium thus producing a wave that travels through the medium. Water
waves, sound waves or a wave moving along a stretched string are all examples of mechanical
waves. Light waves and radio waves are electromagnetic waves (see Section 10). These do
not require a medium through which to propagate. Light from the stars travels many years
through the near vacuum of interstellar space to reach us.
If the oscillation producing a wave is perpendicular to the direction of motion of the
wave, like a wave moving along a stretched string, it is called a transverse wave. If the
oscillation is in the same direction as the resulting wave, for example a sound wave, it is called
a longitudinal wave.

1
2.1 Transverse waves
As an example of a transverse wave we consider a wave produced in a stretched string by an
oscillating mass on a spring, as in the Figure 1.

crest
spring wavelength

oscillating
mass

trough

Figure 1: Transverse wave in a stretched string.

The period (T ) is the time for 1 cycle to pass any point.

In this example, the period is the time for the mass on the spring to bob up and down once.
One wavelength (λ) is the shortest distance between particles that are at the same stage
of vibration.

The amplitude is the maximum displacement from the equilibrium position.

λ
amplitude

Figure 2: One cycle of a wave.

During one cycle, the wave travels a distance λ. If f oscillations occur per second, then the
distance travelled by the wave in 1 second (the speed of the wave) is given by f × λ. Hence

v = f λ. (2)

The speed v of a wave depends on the medium through which the wave is travelling and the
frequency f depends on the source. v is measured in m s−1 , f in s−1 or Hz and λ in metres.

2
2.2 Longitudinal waves
If the vibrating elements producing a mechanical wave oscillate in the direction of the propa-
gation of the wave, as is the case for sound waves, then the wave is known as a longitudinal
wave.

listener

mean
position

Figure 3: Representation of a sound wave through air.

The air between a vibrating tuning fork and a listener can be regarded as made up of
thin layers of molecules. As the prong (P) moves to the right (see Figure 3) it presses on the
adjacent layer, which in turn presses on the next and so on. As P moves to the left, the layers
move successively back. Regions of compression and rarefaction are thus transferred through
the air to the listener.
Each layer of air vibrates about a mean position and vibrates along the direction of
propagation. At a particular instant a graph of the displacement of each layer plotted against
its mean position might be as in the lower portion of Figure 3.
For both transverse and longitudinal waves, we can draw displacement–position graphs for
any particular instant (often called simply displacement curves). These plot the instanta-
neous displacement of each ‘particle’ (or layer) against its mean position.

2.3 Mathematical description of travelling waves

y
λ
+A

x′

−A

Figure 4: A sinusoidal wave travelling in the positive x direction.

3
The wave depicted in Figure 4 could be represented by
2πx′
y = A sin .
λ
The value of y is the same at any particular value x′ as it is at x′ + λ, x′ + 2λ, etc. Suppose
now that the wave (with its axes) travels to the right with velocity v. Relative to a fixed origin
after a time t, x = x′ + vt or x′ = x − vt. Hence
2π
y = A sin (x − vt). (3)
λ
Recalling that v = f λ and f = T1 , where T is the time period, we may write Equation (3)
in the alternative forms
 
x
y = A sin 2π − ft (4)
λ
 
x t
y = A sin 2π − . (5)
λ T
Another version is obtained if we write
2π
, k= (6)
λ
where k is the propagation constant or wave number. Thus
y = A sin(kx − 2πf t) = A sin(kx − ωt), (7)
where ω = 2πf .
Equations (3)–(7) are for a wave travelling to the right (positive x direction). For a wave
travelling to the left (negative x direction)
2π
y = A sin (x + vt) (8)
λ
= A sin(kx + ωt). (9)

Example 1: Wave equation

A travelling wave moves in one dimension with an amplitude of 0.100 m, a frequency of 800 Hz
and a wavelength of 0.0500 m. Write the equation for the particle displacement in the form

y = A sin(kx − ωt),

placing numerical values where appropriate.

Solution:
2π 2π −1
k= = m .
λ 0.05
ω = 2πf = 2π × 800 = 1600πs−1 .
A = 0.100 m.
Hence
 
2πx
y = 0.100 sin − 1600πt = 0.100 sin[40π(x − 40t)].
0.05

4
2.4 Speed of a transverse wave on a string
We would expect the speed V to be larger if the tension T in a string is larger and smaller
if the mass per unit length µ is larger. It turns out that
s
T
V = , (10)
µ

where µ is the mass per unit length of the string

m
µ= . (11)
ℓ
When a musician tunes a stringed instrument like a guitar, she is changing the tension of
the strings. From Equation (10) it is clear that increasing the tension increases the speed.
Since the speed of a wave is proportional to the frequency, increasing the tension increases
the frequency and hence the pitch of a note. The lowest notes on a stringed instrument are
produced by the thickest strings for which µ is larger. From Equation (10) it is clear that for
a greater mass per unit length the speed, and hence the frequency, is smaller.

Example 2: Mass of a stretched string

A length of string is stretched between two points 80 cm apart. The tension in the string is
20 N and the speed of a transverse wave on the string is 80 m s−1 . Determine the mass of the
string.
Solution:
The mass per unit length is obtained from Equation (10):
T 20
µ= 2
= 2 = 3.125 × 10−3 kg m−1 .
V 80
We obtain the mass from Equation (11):

m = µℓ = 3.125 × 10−3 × 0.8 = 0.0025 kg.

2.5 Speed of sound in a gas

The speed of sound depends on the medium through which the sound wave is propagating.
Some values for the speed of sound are listed in Table 1. Because sound travels more slowly

Medium (at 0 ◦C) Speed (m s−1 )

AIR 331
HYDROGEN 1280
WATER 1480
SEA WATER 1520
IRON 5100

Table 1: Some values for the speed of sound in different media.

than light, thunder can be heard some seconds after lightning is observed. Sound takes ap-
proximately 3 seconds to travel 1 km in air.

5
 The speed of sound in a gas is (a) independent of the gas pressure and (b) proportional to
the square root of the absolute temperature. (See later notes on Heat for an explanation of
absolute temperature.) √
V ∝ T, (12)

where T is the absolute temperature in degrees kelvin.

Example 3: Speed of sound at different temperatures

If the speed of sound in air at 0 ◦C is 331 m s−1 , what will it be at 15 ◦C?
Solution:
The speed and temperature are related by Equation (12) with T in kelvin. Thus
r
V15 273 + 15
= ,
V0 273 + 0
which gives
r
288
V15 = 331 × = 340 m s−1 .
273

3 The principle of linear superposition

In most situations, many waves are present at a certain place at the same time. For instance
several people talking at once or the music created by several instruments playing simultane-
ously. The principle of linear superposition enables us to describe the resultant waveform due
to the individual waves present.

Principle of linear superposition

When two or more waves are present simultaneously at the same place, the resultant distur-
bance is the sum of the disturbances of the individual waves.

4 Constructive and destructive interference

The interaction of individual waves with each other is known as interference. When the
peaks and troughs of two waves coincide as in Figure 5a, the waves are said to be exactly
in phase. The resultant waveform obtained by adding waves that are in phase is a wave

+ = + =

(a) Constructive interference (b) Destructive interference

Figure 5: Two waves of equal amplitude and wavelength interfere (a) constructively when
they are in phase and (b) destructively when they are out of phase.

6
of amplitude equal to the sum of the amplitudes of the individual waves. Waves that are in
phase exhibit constructive interference.
When the peaks of one wave coincide with the troughs of another wave as in Figure 5b,
the waves are said to be exactly out of phase. The resultant waveform obtained by adding
waves that are out of phase is a wave of amplitude equal to the difference of the amplitudes of
the individual waves. Waves that are out of phase exhibit destructive interference. If the
amplitudes of two waves which are exactly out of phase are equal, then the waves will cancel.
In the case of two sound waves, no sound will be heard.
If the sound waves from two adjacent loudspeakers
b
P
(which are fed from the same oscillator) are mixed, in-
terference occurs. At any point P, if the path difference
S2 S2 P−S1 P between each speaker and P is a whole num-
ber of wavelengths, the crests (and troughs) at P will
coincide and we get reinforcement (constructive inter-
ference). If on the other hand the path difference is a
S1 whole number of wavelengths plus half a wavelength,
then the crests from one speaker will coincide with the
troughs from the other speaker and we get cancellation
(destructive interference).
For constructive interference
S2 P − S1 P = mλ (m = 0, 1, 2, . . .) (13)
and for destructive interference
S2 P − S1 P = (m + 12 )λ (m = 0, 1, 2, . . .). (14)

Example 4: Interference due to two sound sources of the same frequency

Two speakers, A and B, both produce a note of 850 Hz. If the speakers are placed 5.0 m apart,
determine whether a listener standing 12 m in front of speaker A, and perpendicular to the
line joining the speakers, will hear a maximum or a minimum. (Take the speed of sound in
air as 340 m s−1 .)
Solution: 12 m
A b
P b
5m

B b

To determine whether constructive or destructive interference will occur, we need to deter-

mine the path difference BP − AP, and calculate if this is a whole number of wavelengths,
or a whole number plus a half number of wavelengths. BX = 13 m since △BAP is a right
angled triangle. The path difference is therefore BP − AP = 1 m. The wavelength may be
obtained from Equation (2):
v 340
λ= = = 0.4 m.
f 850
The path difference is therefore 2 12 times the wavelength, hence destructive interference
occurs and a minimum will be heard.

7
5 Beats
Suppose two sources of sound have nearly equal frequency. The resultant effect at any point
due to the waves can be obtained by adding the two separate effects due to each source.
At a certain moment, the two waves will be in step as they reach the ear and a loud sound
is heard. A short time later they are out of step and a minimum sound is heard. The resulting
sound rises and falls in intensity which is known as the beats effect (see Figure 6).
y

(b) t

(a) t

Figure 6: The beats phenomenon. Two waves of slightly different frequencies (a), combine to
give a wave whose envelope (dashed line) varies periodically with time (b).

Suppose two people walk side by side and that one takes 60 steps per minute while the
other takes 59. They will be in step once per minute. If the second person takes 58 steps
per minute, she will take 29 steps while the other takes 30 steps and they will now be in step
twice per minute. The number of times the two people get into step will equal the difference
between the frequencies of their steps. Similarly for two sources of sound having frequencies
f1 and f2 ,
beat frequency f = f1 − f2 . (15)

6 The Doppler effect

The Doppler effect is the apparent change in frequency of the wave emitted by a source
resulting from the motion of either the source, the observer, or both. It occurs for both sound
waves and light waves. Examples of the Doppler effect are the drop in apparent pitch of a
train whistle as it passes, or the shift in observed frequency of light radiated from a star which
is moving away from the earth.
If a source is moving towards a stationary observer with speed vs (see Figure 7), the waves
sent out per second occupy a shorter distance (they are more ‘crowded’ together). Thus the
effective wavelength is shortened, causing a corresponding increase in the apparent frequency
f ′ . If V is the wave velocity and vs the velocity of the source, then in a time t:
S′ P = V t and S′ S = vs t.
The number of waves emitted in the time t is f t, where f is the true frequency of the source.
Because the source is moving, these f t waves must span the distance between the source and
the observer at P. With reference to Figure 7, this is the distance
S′ P − S′ S = V t − vs t = (V − vs )t.

8
 S′ S
b b b b b

vs
b
P b
Observer

Figure 7: Doppler effect caused by a source S moving towards an observer.

The effective wavelength λ′ is therefore

(V − vs )t
λ′ = ,
ft
hence
Vf
f′ = . (16)
V − vs
For a source emitting waves of frequency f moving towards a stationary observer, the apparent
frequency f ′ is therefore higher than the true value f . If the source is moving away from the
observer, the sign of vs changes to + and the apparent frequency is observed to be lower than
the true frequency.
Suppose now that the observer moves towards the approaching source with velocity vo .
The observer will intercept more waves per second than when stationary, so the apparent
frequency will be higher still. The number of extra waves intercepted per second will be vo /λ′ .
Hence the new apparent frequency is
vo
f ′′ = f ′ + .
λ′
Using Equation (16) and the value obtained for λ′ earlier in the equation above, we find

Vf vo f
f ′′ = +
V − vs V − vs
and hence
V + vo
f ′′ = · f. (17)
V − vs
If the observer is moving away from the source, we must change the sign of vo to minus.
Equation (16) is a special case of Equation (17) with vo = 0. If instead of a stationary
observer, the source is stationary, we can put vs = 0 in Equation (17) to obtain

V + vo
f′ = · f. (18)
V
It should be noted that whether the source or the observer is moving, the speed V of the
waves is unaffected.

9
Example 5: Apparent frequency of a moving siren
A high-speed train is travelling at a speed of 45 m s−1 when the driver sounds the 415 Hz
warning siren. If the speed of sound is 343 m s−1 , calculate the frequency and wavelength of
the sound as perceived by a person standing at a crossing, when the train is (a) approaching
and (b) leaving the crossing.
Solution:
Since the train is moving and the observer is stationary, we use Equation (18) (or Equa-
tion (17) with vo = 0).

(a) For the approaching train, the apparent frequency f ′ is higher than the true value.

V 343
f′ = ·f = · 415 = 478 Hz.
V − vs 343 − 45
The corresponding wavelength
V 343
λ′ = = = 0.718 m.
f ′ 478

(b) After the train has passed, the apparent frequency f ′ is lower than the true value (the
source is moving away), hence

V 343
f′ = ·f = · 415 = 367 Hz.
V + vs 343 + 45
The corresponding wavelength
V 343
λ′ = = = 0.935 m.
f ′ 367

Example 6: Speed of a ship from the beat frequency and the Doppler effect
The fog horn of ships A and B have frequencies of 200 Hz and 198 Hz respectively. If ship A
is moving directly towards ship B which is stationary, what is its speed when the captain of
ship B hears a beat frequency of 6 Hz? (Take the velocity of sound in air as 340 m s−1 .)
Solution:
The captain of ship B hears the true frequency of his own foghorn (fB ) and the (Doppler)
shifted frequency of ship A (fA′ ). He therefore hears a beat frequency fbeat = |fA′ − fB | =
6 Hz. Now fA′ > fA > fB , hence

fA′ = fB + fbeat = 198 + 6 = 204 Hz.

Ship B (the observer) is stationary, hence vo = 0, and from Equation (16)

V 340
fA′ = · fA = · 200,
V − vs 340 − vs
which gives

vs = 6.7 m s−1 .

10
7 Intensity of sound waves
The intensity I of a travelling wave, for example a sound wave, is the power (rate of flow of
energy) crossing a unit area perpendicular to the direction of travel. The units of intensity
are those of power per area (W m−2 ). The intensity of a travelling wave can be shown to be
proportional to the amplitude of the wave squared, i.e.

intensity ∝ (amplitude)2 . (19)

The ear can just detect sounds of intensity 1.0 × 10−12 W m−2 . On the other hand, the
sound from a jet plane may have an intensity of 1 kW m−2 . Since intensities vary so widely
we use a logarithmic scale to express their ratios. Thus if sound A is 100 times (102 ) more
intense than sound B, we say that it is 2 bels higher. If it is 1000 times (103 ) more intense, it
is 3 bels higher, and so on. If it is on tenth (10−1 ) as intense, it is 1 bel lower.
In general, for two intensities I1 and I2 , the level of I1 exceeds that of I2 by
I1
log10 bels.
I2
1
The decibel (dB) = bel. If two intensities I1 and I2 differ by 1 dB, then
10
I1
log10 = 0.1
I2
hence
I1
= log−1
10 (0.1) ≃ 1.26.
I2
An increase in intensity of 1 dB therefore represents an increase of 26 %.
An intensity of 1.0 × 10−12 W m−2 (the barely audible intensity) is often taken as a reference
or standard intensity. Thus the jet plane referred to above is said to have an intensity level of
103
10 log dB = 150 dB (= 15 bels)
1 × 10−12
above the standard intensity.

Example 7: Intensity of several instruments playing together

One trombone produces an intensity level of 50 dB at a certain place in a concert hall when
playing a particular note. Calculate the intensity level if four trombones play the same note,
in the same way, together.
Solution:
Let the intensity of one trombone be I1 and the reference intensity I0 . Then
I1
10 log = 50.
I0
The intensity of four trombones will be 4I1 . The new intensity level will therefore be
4I1 I1
10 log = 10 log 4 + 10 log = 6.0 + 50 = 56 dB.
I0 I0

11
Example 8: Relative intensity levels at a distance from a sound source
A source of sound P emits 20 J of energy per second uniformly in all directions.

(a) Calculate the intensity level (relative to the standard intensity) in decibels at points A
and B which are 1 m and 10 m from P.
(b) By how many decibels does the intensity level at A exceed that at B?

(Standard intensity I0 = 1.0 × 10−12 W m−2 .)

Solution:
(a) The energy per second crossing an imaginary sphere of radius 1 m with centre at P
is 20 J s−1 = 20 W. The area of the sphere A = 4πr2 = 4π m2 ). The intensity of the
sound at A is therefore
power 20
IA = = W m−2 .
area 4π
IA 20
The intensity level at A = log = log = 12.20 bels = 122 dB.
I0 4π × 10−12
Similarly at B:
power 20
IB = = 2
W m−2 .
area 4π × 10

The intensity level at B = log IIB0 = log 400π×10

20
−12 = 10.20 bels = 102 dB.

(b) The intensity level at A exceeds that at B by 122 − 102 = 20 dB.

8 Standing waves
Standing (or stationary) waves occur when a wave is reflected. Both transverse and longitu-
dinal waves can form standing waves. Consider the displacement curves of a transverse and
longitudinal wave:

(a) Transverse wave along a string (b) Sound wave

b
O b
O

Suppose a string is clamped at O. The Suppose a sound wave strikes a wall at

reaction of the clamp on the string O. Again a reflection occurs (as in an
varies in a simple harmonic way and echo).
propagates its own wave back along the
string producing a reflected wave.

In each case, to obtain a resultant displacement curve, a forward and reflected wave are
added. The resultant displacement for both waves at O is zero. In the case of the string, point

12
O is held fixed by the clamp. In the case of the sound wave, the layer of air adjacent to the
wall cannot move.
Figure 8 shows the displacement curves for forward and reflected waves (dashed lines).
The sum in each case is shown as a solid line. Notice that there are places where the resultant
displacement is always zero. These points are called nodes (marked with an N in Figure 8).
Successive nodes are spaced at distances equal to half the wavelength. The antinodes
are midway between the nodes. At the antinodes, the resultant displacement is a maximum.
At the point where the waves are reflected (at the right of Figure 8) the displacement of
the forward waves is equal and opposite to the displacement of the reflected wave. There is
effectively a path length change of half a wavelength on reflection.

Example 9: Air temperature from data of a stationary wave system

A tuning fork of frequency 1 kHz is used to set up a stationary wave system in which successive
nodes are 17.5 cm apart. Calculate the air temperature (take the velocity of sound in air at
27 ◦C as 347 m s−1 ).
Solution:
The wavelength of the system is twice the distance between the nodes, hence
λ = 2 × 17.5 = 35 cm.
The velocity of the sound wave can now be determined from Equation (2):
V = f λ = 1 × 103 s−1 × 0.35 m = 350 m s−1 .
The temperature is found from Equation (12):
r
VT 350 T
= = ,
V27 347 273 + 27
which gives
 2
350
T = 300 × = 305 K = 30.5 ◦C.
347

8.1 Standing wave equation

For the forward wave: y1 = A sin(kx − ωt)
For the reflected wave: y2 = A sin(kx + ωt)
The resultant of the forward and reflected waves is the sum
y1 + y2 = A[sin(kx − ωt) + sin(kx + ωt)]
= (2A cos ωt) sin kx. (20)
Thus the resultant displacement curve is a sine wave with an amplitude (2A cos ωt) which
varies with time. The nodes occur where sin kx = 0, which is true whenever
kx = 0, π, 2π, . . . .
2π
Since k = , this gives
λ
λ 3λ
x = 0, , λ, , ... .
2 2

13
 7

N N N N N N N

Figure 8: Method of adding two waves of equal lengths and equal amplitudes travelling in
opposite directions to produce a standing wave.

14
8.2 Standing waves on a stretched string
Various modes of vibration are possible for a stretched string fixed at both ends. The essential
requirement to produce a standing wave is that there should be a node at each end. In general,

L
λ1
L=
First harmonic (funda- 2 s
mental mode of vibration) V V 1 T
f1 = = =
λ1 2L 2L µ

L = λ2 s
Second harmonic (first V 1 T
overtone) f2 = 2f1 f2 = =
λ2 L µ

3λ3
L=
Third harmonic (second 2 s
overtone) f3 = 3f1 V 3 T
f3 = =
λ3 2L µ

Figure 9: Various modes of vibration for a stretched string fixed at both ends.

nλn
for the nth harmonic, L = and
2
s
n T
fn = for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . (21)
2L µ

Example 10: Fundamental frequency of a guitar string

The high E string of a guitar has a mass per unit length of 3.851 × 10−4 kg m−1 and is under a
tension of 70.266 N. Calculate the fundamental frequency of this string if the length is 648 mm.
Solution:
From Equation (10) we can determine the speed of the wave on the string:
s r
T 70.266
V = = = 427.2 m s−1 .
µ 3.851 × 10−4

The fundamental frequency on a stretched string corresponds to half the wavelength, hence

λ = 2 × 0.648 = 1.296 m.

The frequency produced by this string may now be found from Equation (2):

V 427.2
f= = = 329.6 Hz.
λ 1.296

15
Example 11: Harmonic of a transverse wave on a string
A transverse wave of frequency 120 Hz is applied to a string of length 0.450 m which is fixed
at both ends. If the propagation speed of the wave is 36.0 m s−1 , (a) at what harmonic is the
string vibrating and (b) How many antinodes are there?
Solution:
(a) To determine at which harmonic the string is vibrating, we need to compare the
wavelength to the length of the string. The wavelength is
V 36.0
λ= = = 0.3 m.
f 120
We know that L = nλ/2, hence
2L 2 × 0.45
n= = =3
λ 0.3
The string is therefore vibrating at the third harmonic – see Figure 9.
(b) The third harmonic corresponds to three antinodes.

8.3 Standing sound waves in pipes: open pipe

When a sound wave travels through a hollow pipe, standing waves are set up. This phe-
nomenon has long been used for making musical sounds. Flutes, organ pipes and didgeridoos
all produce sounds in a similar way.

L
First harmonic P S λ1
L=
(Fundamental mode 2
V
of vibration) Q
f1 =
R 2L
A N A

Second harmonic (First L = λ2

overtone) f2 = 2f1 V
f2 =
L

3λ3
Third harmonic (Second L=
2
overtone) f3 = 3f1 f3 =
3V
2L

Figure 10: Various modes of vibration for a sound wave in an open pipe.

In general, for the nth harmonic,

nV
fn = for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . (22)
2L

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 A sound wave travelling through a pipe which is open at both ends is partially reflected
at the ends. Since there is motion at the end of the pipe, the end point is an antinode. In
Figure 10, the resultant displacement curves for a standing wave in a hollow pipe are shown
for the first three harmonics. For clarity the resultant for a vibration at a particular moment
(PQ) as well as the resultant for a moment half a vibration later (RS) are shown. The nodes
and antinodes for the first harmonic are indicated in the diagram by N and A respectively.

8.4 Standing sound waves in pipes: closed pipe

Standing waves can also occur in a pipe that is closed at one end. In this case the air at the
closed end is not free to move so a node (N) occurs there. In general, for the nth harmonic,

L
First harmonic λ1
L=
(Fundamental mode 4
V
of vibration) f1 =
4L
A N

3λ3
Third harmonic (First L=
4
overtone) f3 = 3f1 f3 =
3V
4L

5λ5
Fifth harmonic (Second L=
4
overtone) f5 = 5f1 f5 =
5V
4L

Figure 11: Various modes of vibration for a sound wave in a closed pipe.

nV
fn = for n = 1, 3, 5, . . . . (23)
4L
Note that for a closed pipe only odd harmonics can occur.

Example 12: Length of pipe required to produce a specific frequency

If the speed of sound in air is 345 m s−1 what length of organ pipe is required for a fundamental
frequency of 45.0 Hz if the pipe is (a) closed (b) open? (c) What would be the wavelength in
each case?
Solution:
(a) For a closed pipe:

λ V 345
L= = = = 1.92 m.
4 4f 4 × 45.0

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 (b) For an open pipe:

λ V 345
L= = = = 3.84 m.
2 2f 2 × 45.0

(c) Since the frequency is the same for both pipes, the wavelength is also the same. Thus

V 345
λ= = = 7.67 m.
f 45

9 Resonance
Vibrations of stretched strings and of air columns in pipes provide examples of resonance.
For example if one end of a stretched string is held fixed whilst the other is vibrated with
small amplitude by a vibrator of adjustable frequency f , standing waves occur whatever the
value of f . However when f becomes equal to one of the natural frequencies
s
n T
fn = ,
2L µ

resonance occurs (see Equation (21)). At resonance, the amplitude at the antinodes is very
much larger than at the driven end and standing waves are sustained.
Similarly, if a tuning fork is held over a ‘closed’ pipe of adjustable length, resonance occurs
(i.e. a relatively loud sound is heard) when the length is equal to a value corresponding to the
fundamental or one of the overtones (see Figure 12).

λ/4

3λ/4

Fundamental 5λ/4

Second
harmonic

Third
harmonic

Figure 12: Resonance in a closed pipe.

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10 The electromagnetic spectrum
Light waves are transverse waves. They have vibrations at right angles to the direction in
which they travel.
Light waves, radio waves, microwaves, infrared waves, ultra-violet waves, X-rays and γ-
rays (from radioactive sources) all have the same physical nature and basically differ only in
wavelength. They are described as transverse electromagnetic waves and together make
up the complete electromagnetic spectrum.

10−12 10−10 10−8 10−6 10−4 10−2 100 102 104 λ(m)

γ rays X rays UV infrared microwaves radio waves

z }| {
visible light

Figure 13: The electromagnetic spectrum.

For all electromagnetic waves v = f λ holds. Furthermore, for an electromagnetic wave

travelling in a vacuum, the speed is equal to the speed of light in vacuum c = 3.0 × 108 m s−1
(This value may be used in air to a good approximation.) Hence for electromagnetic waves,

c = f λ. (24)

The wavelength of visible light is usually quoted in nanometres. For example, visible light
corresponds to a range of wavelengths from about 400 nm (violet light) to 700 nm (red light).
A typical microwave wavelength on the other hand, would be of the order of a few cen-
timetres. Microwave ovens for example operate on a wavelength of 12.2 cm.

Example 13: The wavelength of an electromagnetic wave

One of the East Coast Radio frequencies is 95.7 MHz. Determine the corresponding wave-
length.
Solution:
For all electromagnetic waves in air, speed V = c = 3.0 × 108 m s−1 . Thus Equation (24)
yields

c 3.0 × 108 m s−1

λ= = = 3.13 m.
f 95.7 × 106 s−1

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 TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
Useful formulae
v = fλ speed of a periodic wave
 
2π x
y = A sin (x − vt) = A sin 2π − ft
λ λ
 forms of the travelling wave equation
x t
y = A sin 2π − = A sin(kx − ωt)
λ T
2π
k= wave number
λ
2π
ω = 2πf = angular frequency
T
r
T
V = Speed of a transverse wave on a string
µ
√
V ∝ T for a gas (V independent of pressure)

f = f1 − f2 beat frequency

V + vo Doppler effect (for source and observer moving

f ′′ = ·f
V − vs towards each other)
I1
log10 bels sound intensity level of I1 w.r.t. I2
I2
λ
distance between nodes in standing wave system
2
y = (2A cos ωt) sin kx standing wave equation
r
n T
f= (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .) resonant frequencies of a stretched string
2L µ
nV
f= (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .) resonant frequencies of an ‘open’ pipe
2L
nV
f= (n = 1, 3, 5, . . .) resonant frequencies of a ‘closed’ pipe
4L

Problems
Unless otherwise stated in the question, use the following data:
Speed of sound in air at 0 ◦C V = 331 m s−1
Speed of electromagnetic radiation c = 2.998 × 108 m s−1
Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.8 m s−2

1. A person standing in the ocean notices that after a wave crest passes by, ten more crests
pass in a time of 120 s. What is the frequency of the wave? (0.083 Hz)

2. Calculate the wavelength of a sound wave in air at 20 ◦C produced by a tuning fork of

frequency 440 Hz. (Take the speed of sound in air at 20 ◦C as 343 m s−1 .) (0.780 m)

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 3. One of the Radio Zulu broadcasting frequencies is 90.8 MHz. What is the corresponding
wavelength? (3.30 m)

4. At a height of ten metres above the surface of a lake, a sound pulse is generated. The
echo from the bottom of the lake returns to the point of origin 0.140 s later. The air and
water temperatures are 0 ◦C. How deep is the lake? (Refer to Table 1 in Section 2.5 of
your notes.) (59 m)

5. A travelling transverse wave has an amplitude of 0.300 m, a frequency of 200 Hz and a

propagation velocity of 400 m s−1 . Write down the travelling wave equation in the form

y = A sin(kx − ωt)

inserting numerical values where appropriate. (y = 0.3 sin(πx − 400πt))

6. Two strings made of the same material have the same length and are under the same
tension. The second string has twice the diameter of the first. Determine the ratio of
the velocities of transverse waves along them. (2:1)

7. The wavelength of a sound wave in air is 2.76 m at 0 ◦C. What is the wavelength of
this sound in water at 0 ◦C? (Use the data in Table 1 of your notes.) (Hint: since the
frequency is dependent on the source, it is the same in both media.) (12.3 m)

8. Two loudspeakers are fed from the same audio oscillator. They are 3.0 m apart and a
microphone is located 4.0 m directly in front of one of them. The air temperature is
15 ◦C.
(a) For how many frequencies f in the audio range will there be a minimum signal
picked up by the microphone? Give a general formula for f .
(b) For what frequencies will there be a maximum signal?

(Take the speed of sound in air at 0 ◦C as 331 m s−1 and the audio range between 20 Hz
and 20 000 Hz.)
((a) 59; 170(2n + 1) Hz, where n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , 58
(b) 340nHz, where n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , 58.)
9. Two guitars are slightly out of tune. When they play the ‘same’ note simultaneously,
the sounds they produce have wavelengths of 0.776 m and 0.769 m. On a day when the
speed of sound is 343 m s−1 , what beat frequency is heard? (4.0 Hz)

10. On a day when the speed of sound in air is 340.0 m s−1 a siren mounted on a car emits
a note whose frequency is 1000 Hz.
(a) Determine the frequency of the sound heard by a stationary observer when the car
approaches him with a speed of 40.0 m s−1 .
(b) Determine the frequency heard by an observer moving toward the car with a speed
of 40.0 m s−1 while the car remains stationary. (1133 Hz; 1118 Hz)

11. An express train blowing its whistle passes through a station. An observer standing on
the platform notices that there is a drop in pitch corresponding to a frequency change
in the ratio 6 to 5. Calculate the speed of the train. (Take the speed of sound in air as
340 m s−1 .) (30.9 m s−1 )

21
12. A 1000 Hz source of sound is mounted on a horizontal turntable which is rotating at
40 rad s−1 . If the source is at a distance of 30 cm from the axis of rotation, what will be
heard by a listener whose ear is some distance away from the turntable and at the same
height as the source? (Take the temperature as 27 ◦C.)
(Variation from 967 Hz to 1036 Hz)

13. A speeding motorcyclist passes a stationary police car. The car siren is started (the
car still being stationary) and the motorcyclist hears a frequency of 900 Hz. If the true
siren frequency is 1000 Hz and the speed of sound in the air is 343 m s−1 , (a) calculate
the speed of the motor-cyclist. The police car starts up in pursuit and soon reaches a
speed of 43.0 m s−1 , still sounding its siren. (b) what frequency does the motorcyclist
now hear? (34.3 m s−1 ; 1029 Hz)

14. The security alarm on a parked car goes off and produces a frequency of 1000 Hz. As
you drive towards this parked car, pass it and drive away, you observe the frequency
to change by 99 Hz. Calculate your own speed. (Take the speed of sound in the air as
343 m s−1 .) (17 m s−1 )

15. A tuning fork of frequency 400 Hz is moved away from an observer and towards a flat
wall with a speed of 2 m s−1 , the air temperature being 27 ◦C. What is the apparent
frequency (a) of the unreflected sound wave coming directly towards the observer and
(b) of the sound waves coming to the observer after reflection? (c) How many beats are
heard? (398 Hz; 402 Hz; 4 Hz)

16. On a hot night a bat emitting ‘squeaks’ of frequency 100 kHz flies with a speed of 20 m s−1
towards a stationary bat which is emitting squeaks of the same frequency. When the
squeaks of the two bats occur together, a beat note of frequency 6 kHz is produced, as
recorded by a suitable detector near the stationary bat. Calculate the night temperature.
(Take the speed of sound in air at 0 ◦C as 331 m s−1 .) (38 ◦C)

17. If a sound intensity is suddenly increased by 2.0 decibels, calculate the percentage in-
crease this represents. (58.5 %)

18. If the firing of a distant gun produces an intensity level of 40 dB (above the standard
intensity) at an open window having dimensions 1 m × 2 m, calculate
(a) the power due to the sound entering the room,
(b) the intensity level (in decibels above the standard intensity) at the window if two
such guns at the same distance are fired together.

(Take the standard intensity I0 as 1.0 × 10−12 W m−2 ) (2 × 10−8 W; 43 dB)

19. One violin playing alone produces an intensity level of 60 dB at a particular seat in
a concert hall. How many decibels will be produced by 25 violins playing together?
(74 dB)

20. A jet engine is started up some distance away from the open door of an aeroplane hangar
and causes sound energy to enter the hangar at a rate of 1.2 × 106 joules per minute. If
the corresponding intensity level is 150 dB above the standard level, estimate the area
of the hangar door. Take the standard intensity as 1.0 × 10−12 W m−2 . (Neglect sound
which enters the hangar other than directly via the open door.) (20 m2 )

22
21. (a) What is the maximum power delivered to your neighbour’s eardrum (surface area
8 × 10−5 m2 ) when your motor mower produces an average intensity level of 120 dB
above the standard level?
(b) Assuming the mower radiates sound energy uniformly in all directions and is 5.0 m
away from your neighbour, what is its total sound output power?
(c) If your neighbour now doubles her distance from your mower, what will the new
intensity level at her ear be in decibels? (8 × 10−5 W; 314 W; 114 dB)

22. With a source of sound of frequency 5000 Hz, stationary waves are formed in air at 0 ◦C.
The distance between successive antinodes is 3.31 cm. At a higher temperature it is
found that the separation of the antinodes with the same source is 3.43 cm. Calculate
(a) the speed of sound in air at 0 ◦C (b) the temperature at which the second observation
was made. (331 m s−1 ; 20 ◦C)

23. A clothesline 4.5 m long has a mass of 0.61 kg. One end is fastened to a house and the
other end runs over a pulley. (a) If a child of mass 36 kg hangs on the free end, what is
the velocity of a transverse disturbance travelling in the clothesline? (b) What will be
the fundamental frequency of oscillations in the clothesline? (51 m s−1 ; 5.7 Hz)

24. What will be the fundamental frequency and first two overtones for a 26 cm long organ
pipe if it is (a) open and (b) closed? (Take the speed of sound in air as 343 m s−1 .)
Sketch the displacement curve diagram in each case.
((a) 660 Hz; 1.32 kHz; 1.98 kHz (b) 330 Hz; 989 Hz; 1.65 kHz)

25. The fundamental frequencies of two air columns are the same. Column A is open at
both ends while column B is open at only one end. The length of column A is 0.60 m.
What is the length of column B? (0.30 m)

26. The A string of a violin has a mass per unit length of 0.60 g m−1 and an effective length
of 330 mm. (a) Find the tension required for its fundamental frequency to be 440 Hz.
(b) If the string is under this tension, how far along the fingerboard (from the tuning
pegs end) should it be pressed in order to vibrate at a fundamental frequency of 495 Hz
(which corresponds to note B)? (51 N; 37 mm)

27. A source of frequency 256 Hz is emitting sound energy in air at 0 ◦C producing an in-
tensity level of 60 dB (above the standard intensity) at an observer 200 m away. The
velocity of sound in air at 0 ◦C is 331 m s−1 .
(a) If the observer sets up a stationary wave system by intercepting the original sound
wave with a reflecting barrier, what would be the distance between successive nodes?
(b) If the air temperature rises to 20 ◦C what would be the new sound wave velocity?
(c) If the observer moves steadily towards the source, would the apparent frequency be
higher than, the same as, or lower than the true frequency? Explain your answer
carefully but without using formulae.
(d) Calculate the intensity level (in decibels above the standard intensity) at a point
100 m from the source.
(e) What beat frequency would be heard if a second source is sounded, of frequency
260 Hz (the observer being stationary)? (0.645 m; 343 m s−1 ; higher; 66 dB; 4 Hz)

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