UNIT 1

BASICS OF ORE GEOLOGY

Structure______________________________________________
1.1 Introduction 1.7 Introduction to Ore Microscopy
Expected Learning Outcomes Difference Between Ore Microscope and
Polarising Microscope
1.2 Overview of Ore Geology
Major Components of Ore Microscope and
1.3 Basic Terminology
their Adjustment
1.4 Reserves and Resources
Terminologies Related to Ore Microscopy
1.5 Reserve Estimation
1.8 Summary
Factors Influencing Reserve Estimation
1.9 Activity
Methods of Reserve Estimation
1.10 Terminal Questions
1.6 United Nations Framework Classification
1.11 References
for Resources
1.12 Further/Suggested Readings
1.13 Answers

1.1 INTRODUCTION
In our daily life, we use culinary items for cooking, electronic gadgets such as mobile phones,
computers, televisions and for transportation,we use cars, trains, and aeroplanes etc. They are
made of commonly used metals like iron and copper etc. All these metals are naturally
occurring and are mined from the Earth’s crust. Except for a few, metals don’t occur in their
native form, they occur in the form of minerals and all these minerals combine to form rocks.
However, it is important that all the rocks must not be appreciated for mining because they do not
host valuable mineralisation. On the whole, the mineralisation can be considered as an ore for
economical use when it occurs in substantial concentrations combined with other factors such as
mining costs, time and place, and market value of the mineral. In mineralisation, various geological
 Block 1 Introduction to Ore Geology
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processes are involved and to know these influential processes, it is imperative
to study the science known as ‘ore geology’.
Now in this unit, we will discuss the basic terminology used in ore geology,
reserves and resources, and United Nations Framework Classification (UNFC)
for resources. We will also discuss the basics of ore microscopy.

Expected Learning Outcomes__________________

After reading this unit, you should be able to:
❖ define the commonly used terminology in ore geology;
❖ discuss the concept of reserve and resource;
❖ describe the UNFC classification of resources; and
❖ know the basics of ore microscopy.

1.2 OVERVIEW OF ORE GEOLOGY

You are quite aware that whatever the minerals are extracted it is only from the
Earth’s crust. But the mineralisation that takes place in the Earth’s crust can
only be called as an ore deposit when it occurs in adequate quantity and quality
and mined for profit. However, if the mineral concentrations occur in minor
quantity or low grade for extraction purposes, it is termed as mineralisation or
occurrences.
Ore deposits are essentially volumes of valuable rocks formed by significant
concentration of element/s greater than that of their characteristic crustal
abundance. Natural processes of formation of mineral deposits are considered
to be similar to that of the common rocks. There are many significant methods
of mineral exploration. But considering the geochemical abundance of Earth’s
crust, the mineral enrichment can be studied by their chemical properties. The
exploration results can be materialised if it is found that there is an economic
viability and further procedures can be followed for mining of the ore deposit. A
mineral resource is generally considered as ore reserve if its economic viability
for extraction status is examined and hopefully reported.

1.3 BASIC TERMINOLOGY

We have discussed the overview of ore geology in the earlier section. Now in
this section, we will learn about the basic terminology that you should be aware
of while studying ore geology.
• Ore Deposits: The occurrence of large chunks of mineral concentrations in
the crustal part of the Earth are called ore deposits. They comprise ores of
metals and non-metals, industrial minerals, precious and semi-precious
minerals, fuel minerals and rocks used as aggregate for building stone, and
coal and oil shale.
• Occurrence or Mineralisation: If the concentration of mineral/minerals is
low or with low grade and not feasible for mining it is known as occurrence or
mineralisation.

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• Ore: The naturally occurring material from which a mineral or minerals,
normally metals, of economic value can be extracted with profit. In simple
words, ore can be defined as an aggregate of ore minerals and gangue.
• Gangue: It is a commercially unwanted material that exists in close
association with the ore mineral.
• Sample: In ore reserve context, the sample represents a small portion of an
ore deposit which acts as a typical representative of a certain part of the
deposit.
• Ore minerals: There are nearly 3800 known minerals that have been
identified and classified. Out of these minerals, only a few minerals in Earth’s
crust constitute the majority of rocks as rock-forming minerals. Just as the
common rock-forming minerals, some of the ore minerals are commonly
distributed in igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks as accessory
minerals. But some of the ore minerals are specifically found in ore deposits.
The ore minerals are concentrated as native elements (metals), oxides and
hydroxides, silicates, sulfides, sulfosalts, carbonates and other minerals in
the Earth’s crust (table 1.1). Let us study with examples that makes an ore
mineral.
Table 1.1: Classification of ore minerals into different classes. (Source: Modified
after Robb 2005)

Element Native Sulfides, Oxides, Silicates,

metals sulfosalts, hydroxides carbonates
arsenides
Fe Pyrrhotite Magnetite
FeS Fe3O4
Pyrite Haematite Siderite
FeS2 Fe2O3 FeCO3

Goethite
FeO(OH)
Mn Pyrolusite Rhodochrosite
MnO2 MnCO3
Al Gibbsite
Al(OH)3
Boehmite
AlO(OH)
Cr Chromite
FeCr2O4
Cu Chalcopyrite
CuFeS2
Bornite
Cu5FeS4

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Chalcocite
Cu2S
Zn Sphalerite
ZnS
Ti Ilmenite
FeTiO3
Rutile
TiO2
Pb Galena
PbS
Ni Pentlandite
(Ni,Fe)9S8
Mg Magnesite
MgCO3
Sn Stannite Cassiterite
Cu2FeSn4 SnO2
Mo Molybdenite
MoS2
U Uraninite
UO2
Ag Silver Argentite
Ag2S
Au Gold

‘Ore Mineral’ has a higher concentration of metal in it and has a fixed mineral
composition like any other mineral. Let us discuss this with an example.
Hematite (Fe2O3) is an ore mineral of iron. It has higher concentration of Fe. Let
us take olivine with Fe content in it. Olivine ((Mg Fe) SiO4), which is commonly
present in ultramafic and some mafic rocks, is not an ore of iron as it has lesser
concentration of iron in comparison to hematite.
It is important to note that an ore should have concentration of the specific
metal in quantity that should yield metal at a higher profit after taking into
account the cost involved in liberation of the metal from the ore. A few
examples of ores are: chalcopyrite (ore of copper), hematite and magnetite (ore
of Iron), bauxite (ore of aluminium), chromite (ore of chromium), etc.
• Industrial Minerals: Besides metallic minerals from which metals are
extracted, there are other type of minerals known as industrial minerals such
as calcium, fluorite, pyrite, quartz, garnet, etc. These minerals are used in
industries such as in cement, chemical and refractory industries.
You may think that pyrite (iron sulfide) to be an ore of iron, but it is actually
used for extraction of sulphur and not iron. The minerals which have huge
application in diverse industries such as chemical, fertilizer, glass and
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ceramic, refractory etc. are classified as industrial minerals. Examples of
industrial minerals are: quartz, garnet, calcite, gypsum, pyrite, phosphate,
halite(common salt) etc. The industrial minerals at times may also include
metallic ores, these are exception depending on the grade of the ore. A
certain grade of chromite can be used in refractory and chemical industries.
Industrial minerals include rocks such as granite, gabbros, dolerite, granulite,
charnockite, sandstone, limestone and many more and their derivatives like
sand or gravel (commonly referred to as aggregates/bulk materials) which
have application in different industries such as construction and dimensional
stone industry.
What are industrial minerals?
Noetstaller in 1988 defined industrial minerals as any rock, mineral or other
naturally occurring substance of economic value, exclusive of metallic ores,
mineral fuels and gemstones.
Other than the ore and industrial minerals, there are other categories of
minerals known as fuel minerals and radioactive minerals. Coal, petroleum
and natural gas form good examples of fuel minerals and uranium and
thorium are some examples of radioactive minerals. Apart from these, the
gemstones fall in the class of precious and semi-precious minerals. Some
minerals like diamonds, rubies, sapphires, and emeralds are good examples
of precious minerals. It is interesting to know that low quality gemstones
such as diamonds, garnets, tourmaline or quartz which fall in the category of
precious and semi-precious class also are used in industrial applications.
• Host Rock: It is the rock that hosts and encloses the ore deposits. Similar to
gangue minerals it has no commercial value.
• Tenor: It is an estimation of concentrated metallic content present in an ore.
Generally, the tenor of an ore is calculated in percentage.
• Grade: Grade is the metal concentration/content in an orebody. The grade of
ore is expressed in percent or as parts per million (ppm) or part per billion
(ppb) for metallic contents. Ore grade is the quality expression and can be
low, medium and high, depending on the concentration of metal in the
orebody. The disseminated ore mineral in a large orebody will generally give
low grade and the concentrated ore mineral in closely spaced veins and
lodes will have high grade. Colour, strength of the material and impurities
present are also considered in grading of ore. The other factors like size,
shape and distribution of ores are also taken into account while grading the
ore [Link] factors play a significant role in defining a grade of an ore.
• Assay Value: The proportions of metallic or non-metallic elements in an ore
sample is known as assay value. It is measured in form of percentage of the
total weight. The process of calculating the assay value is termed as
assaying.
• Cut-off grade: This term is used for knowing the lowest grade, which is set
for mining an orebody. Mostly economic, but at times political necessities
alter the definition of cut-off grade for a particular metal with time. Its
definition can change with many factors such as economic, political,

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technological, etc. For example with the discovery of porphyry type of copper
deposits in around 1970, the cutoff grade for Cu went down to 0.5% which
was earlier 1.5 to 2 wt% Cu.
• Tonnage: The term is used to represent the total quantity of the material in
the designated orebody. Tonnage includes the ore and the associated
unwanted material called gangue along with it. For example, let us assume
the ore to be present throughout the ore body in disseminated form, then it
will be of low grade and on other hand, if the ore is confined to a vein its
grade will be higher.
• Concentration Factor: To define an orebody, the concentration factor plays
a decisive role. The metals/elements concentration in an orebody should be
higher than the average crustal abundance. The technical advances and
infrastructure development in mining and ore extraction combined with
reduction in transportation expenses have enabled to decrease the
economic grade for most of the metals. For considering the economic grade
of ore we should be familiar with the terms like Clarke and Clarke of
concentration (concentration factor) which you have already studied in
Course BGYCT-133, Block 3 and Unit 11. Now let us refresh these terms in
detail:
• Clarke: It denotes the average abundance of a specific element in the
crustal part of the Earth. The Clarke also known as Clarke value and is
synonyms to crustal abundances.
Clarke of concentration: It isthe ratio of average minimum exploitable
grade (%) to its average crustal abundance (%) i.e. Clarke value. It is a
unitless number known as concentration factor. It denotes the concentration
of an element in a specific rock or ore in relation to its average concentration
in the Earth's crust, or its Clarke value.

Average minimum exploitable grade (%)

Concentration factor =
Average crustal abundance (Clarke Value)

For example, if the average crustal abundance of iron is 5% and the average
minimum exploitable grade is 30%, then the concentration factor of iron is
30/5=6. The concentration factor/Clarke of concentration for iron is, thus 6.
Learners, you have learnt the commonly used terminology in ore geology. Now,
spend few minutes to perform an exercise to check your progress.

SAQ 1
a) Define ore and gangue.
b) How grade of an ore is defined? What is the relationship between grade and
tonnage?
c) What are industrial minerals? Give two examples of industrial minerals.
d) Calculate concentration factor for an element ‘X’ which has average crustal
abundance 2% and average minimum exploitable grade 20%.

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1.4 RESERVES AND RESOURCES
Minerals of economic importance play a vital role in all walks of human life. This
leads us in the search of new mineral deposits and in their detailed
investigations. Mineral deposits of a country are its natural wealth upon which
depends its growth and prosperity. Mineral resources and reserves are the
basis for the future viability of a country. So, let us discuss the terms reserves
and resources.
• Reserves: They are part of the mineral resources of a country that are
economically viable and have been fully evaluated based on many
geological and non-geological parameters with no legal or engineering
obstructions for mining.
• Resources: Besides the reserves, the resources include the ore bodies
which are unworked and which may become a potential economic interest in
near future based on their intrinsic geological properties and plethora of non-
geological factors such as market demand, feasibility to transport the
materials, cheap and sturdy technology of extraction and processing,
wartime exigencies etc. (Fig.1.1).

Fig. 1.1: Schematic diagram showingthe concept of resource and reserve

(Modified after : [Link]
[Link])

Let us discuss the ore reserves in detail. The ore reserves can be classified into
three categories as i) proved (measured), ii) probable (indicated) iii) possible
(inferred).
i) Proved: The ore reserves are thoroughly assessed in terms of its tonnage
and average grade that fall in this category.
ii) Probable: In this category, the tonnage and grade can be assessed in a
reasonable confidence way with some limitations. Even though the
sampling from drilling and other activities may not have taken place, but
there is sufficient evidence to be certain about tonnage and grade of the
probability of ore.
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iii) Possible: In this category, only partial information on tonnage and grade
can be assessed.
The resources for a country are the sum-total of ore reserves, uneconomic
deposits and the deposits which are not yet discovered (also called
hypothetical). The Fig.1.2 gives a tabular classification of reserves and
resources.

Fig.1.2: Scheme for classification of reserves and resources. (Modified after Evans,
1992 and references cited there in)

The economic or marginally economic resources turn into mineral reserves with
increasing degree of geologic assurance. The subeconomic deposits may
become economic with changing technology and socioeconomic or political
situations.

1.5 RESERVE ESTIMATION

In the previous section you have been introduced to the terms like reserves and
resources. Now let us discuss the reserve estimation. Reserve estimation is a
crucial task in the mining industry in which one or more minerals or elements or
mineral assemblages are estimated quantitatively for economic viability from an
ore deposit. Estimation of ore reserves is a significant phase in the planning
and development of ore deposits. This process involves the estimation of
average grade and tonnage of ore deposits commonly known as ore-reserve
estimates. Due to geological complexity and mining issues, it is not possible to
estimate the ore reserves in precision.
The primary task in ore reserves estimation is the field work in sample
measurement, collection, preparation and assaying. For better understanding
and knowing the ore reserve estimation related to sampling various methods
are followed. The main purpose of ore reserve estimation is to authenticate the
quality and quantity of ore and cost estimation involved in extraction and further
related activities for preparing the ore deposit for mining. There are many
factors that influence reserve estimation. Let us discuss them one by one.
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1.5.1 Factors Influencing Reserve Estimation
i) Geological factors: These features play an important role and interfere in
reserve estimation and sometimes, they become more pronounced and
influence the kind of mineralisation. Some of the main aspects that influence
mineralisation are the folds, faults, layering, ore shoots and change in the
habit of mineralisation etc. Let us take an example of the folds. In these
features we can notice the change in attitude, thickness change between
two limbs and cause duplication.
ii) Data density: In ore reserve estimation, the main data used is samples
collected from the exposed mineralised body or core samples collected from
drilling of subsurface body. The samples collected for the whole area of
mineralisation are combined to give an idea about the exposure of the
whole ore body. However, the statistical approaches will enhance the
process of data handling and in showcasing the relation between the
mineralisation and the ore deposit.
iii) Grade: It is a basic measure for estimating the value of ore. At best
minimum grade limit is desired to start mining.

1.5.2 Methods of Reserve Estimation

The main methods of ore estimation are i) geometric and ii) geostatistical. Let
us discuss these methods in detail:
i) Geometric methods: These are one of the oldest methods that still have
good recognition and practiced even today. Geometric methods are purely
built on the geometry of the ore body. These methods have advantage in
estimating the tonnage unbiasedly. But the disadvantage with these methods
are point estimates that do not permit the impartial evaluation of quality. The
geometric methods are estimated by different methods named as a) triangle
b) polygon c) rectangle or block d) cross section and e) contour. Let us
discuss about these methods:
a) Triangle method: It is a simple method of reserve estimation and is
based on standard triangle calculations (Fig.1.3a).
b) Polygon method: This method of reserve estimation is somewhat
advantageous than the triangle method (Fig.1.3b). But for practical
applications, the standard triangle and the polygon methods show
identical results.
c) Rectangular method: It is also called as block method and is a special
case of representation of the polygon method (Fig.1.3c). This method is
not frequently used in reserve estimation.
d) Cross-section method: This method is considered as a specific
application of the polygon method (Fig.1.3d). It is particularly used in
cases of reserve estimation where the data is found laterally across the
sequences of geological cross-sections.
e) Contour method: This method follows the hybrid pattern where it is
grouped between the cross-section and mathematical methods
(Fig.1.3e).
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ii) Geostatistical methods: In mining operations, geostatistical methods are
commonly applied and especially in reserve estimation for handling the
numerical data. They are considered to be more accurate method. As it is
helpful in enumerating the geological characteristics in both theoretical and
practical basis for reserve estimation.

Fig. 1.3: Methods of ore estimation: a) Triangle; b) Polygon; c) Rectangle showing

regular continous, irregular continuous and isolated blocks; d) Cross-
section and e) contour for thickness and accumulation. (Source:
Mendelsohn, 1980)

1.6 UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK

CLASSIFICATION FOR RESOURCES
United Nations Framework Classification for Resources (UNFC) was developed
by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe’s (UNECE) expert
group on resource classification. In the course of development, UNECE
published the United Nations Framework Classification for Reserves and
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Resources of Solid Fuels and Mineral Commodities (UNFC-1997) in the year
1997. The main objective of the UNECE was to classify the solid minerals and
fuels as a unifying system at the international level.
Further in the progress of development, the simplified United Nations
Framework Classification for Fossil Energy and Mineral Reserves and
Resources (UNFC-2009) had evolved. It is an international standard for
classification which is universally accepted for classifying/evaluating resources
such as fossil energy and mineral reserves and resources.
The UNFC is a more accessible system designed to facilitate and address the
requirements at various levels. It enhances the institutional, industry, national,
and international requirements by supporting the balanced usage of resources,
energy supplies and related financial management. It uses three fundamental
criteria such as economic and social viability (E), field project status and
feasibility (F), and geological knowledge (G) for classification (Fig.1.4). This
scheme of classification is to be used for fossil energy and mineral reserves
and resources located on surface or inside the Earth. Let us study these three
axes of fundamental criteria in detail.

Fig. 1.4: Three-dimensional coding of UNFC.

• E-axis: It designates the economic and social viability taking into account of
the market prices and relevant legal, regulatory and environmental
conditions. Studies related to potential socio-economic conditions,
environmental aspects, financial viability, and other related mechanisms are
measured while considering the sequential aspects of pre-feasibility and
feasibility.
• F-axis: It describes the field project status and feasibility taking into account
of the initial exploration efforts to the stage of extraction and selling a
commodity. It forms an essential characteristic in a mining project. Besides
playing a key role in sequential studies related to geological aspects at
apreliminary stage, it follows pre-feasibility and feasibility studies for the task
of mining.
• G-axis: It designates geological knowledge in terms of the confidence level
of recovering the resources. It considers the sequential phases of definite
degree of geological assurance. It includes different stages such as

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reconnaissance survey, overall prospecting and exploration, followed by in
detail survey and investigation, and generating report of detailed information
for geological feasibility.
Considering the three fundamental criteria of economic and social viability (E),
field project status and feasibility (F), and geological knowledge (G) the UNFC
had resulted in a three‐dimensional arrangement with use of numerical coding
system. The economic and social viability (E), has three codes in decreasing
order (E1, E2, E3) (Table1.2). Likewise, the field project status and feasibility
(F) has four codes (F1, F2, F3, F4) (Table1.3). Geological knowledge (G), has
four codes (G1, G2, G3, G4) (Table1.4).
Table 1.2: Description of E-axis category.

Category Description

E1 Extraction and sale procedures are comprehensive indicating

economic feasibility.

E2 Extraction and sale procedures are prospective indicating economic

feasibility.

E3 Extraction and sale procedures are not indicating economic feasibility

in near future. Besides, it is in advance to judge the economic
viability.

Table1.3: Description of F-axis category.

Category Description

F1 Feasibility of extraction/development by a justified growth of a project

or mining process/operation has been established.

F2 Feasibility of extraction/development by a definite growth of a project

or mining process/operation is of conditional assessment.

F3 Feasibility of extraction/development by a definite growth of a project

or mining process/operation is undefined because of restricted
technical data.

F4 Advances in extraction/development of a project is not confirmed or

mining operation is yet to be initiated.

Table 1.4: Description of G-axis category.

Category Description

G1 Load related to an identified deposit and geological conditions can be

valued with a reliable level of assurance.

G2 Load related to an identified deposit and geological conditions can be

valued with a reasonable level of assurance.

G3 Load related to an identified deposit and geological conditions can be

valued with a low level of assurance.

G4 Load related to a probable deposit and geological conditions is based

on indirect sources.

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In 2019, the UNFC was updated to UNFC 2019 and the United Nations
Framework Classification for Fossil Energy and Mineral Reserves and
Resources 2009 was renamed as United Nations Framework Classification for
Resources. Together the categories (E1, E2, E3; F1, F2, F3, F4 and G1, G2,
G3, G4) and sub-categories (e.g. G1.1 etc.) form the foundation of the UNFC
system of classification (Fig.1.5).This scheme has been devised with the intent
to cater to the needs of sectors pertaining to energy and mineral studies,
resources management functions, corporate business processes and financial
reporting standards.

Fig. 1.5: UNFC categories and examples of classes. (Source: [Link]

org/fileadmin/DAM/energy/se/pdfs/UNFC/publ/UNFC_ES61_Update_2019.pdf)

1.7 INTRODUCTION TO ORE MICROSCOPY

You have already studied about a polarising microscope and its functioning in
Unit-8 of BGYCT-133. Ore microscope is the prerequisite to study important
economic minerals. This microscope is different from polarizing/petrological
microscope which uses transmitted light to study minerals. The ore minerals are
studied under ore microscope to understand the nature of ore and the gangue
material and their relationship with each other, and their environment of
formation. Ore microscopy finds its applications in various branches of geology
(Fig. 1.6).

Fig. 1. 6: Ore geology (branch of mineralogy) showing its relationship with other
branches of Earth science. (Source: after Klein, 2002)
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What is an ore microscope?
The minerals which do not permit the light to pass through thin sections are
said to be opaque minerals. Especially treated sections of opaque minerals
are studied under reflected light with the help of reflecting or ore microscope.
Thus the microscope (basic instrument) which is used to petrographically
examine economic minerals together is recognised as the "ore" or "opaque"
minerals is known as ore microscope. Thus, the study is known as ore
microscopy. It is also called as metallographic microscope due to its use in
understanding the microscopic properties of metals and alloys.
1.7.1 Difference Between Ore Microscope and
Polarising Microscope
The term ore is quite often used synonymously with opaque mineral. Most of
the ore minerals are opaque i.e. in the plane polarised light in a transmitted light
microscope they appear totally dark. For example, magnetite and chromite are
opaque minerals. But there are exceptions and not all ore minerals are opaque.
For example, sphalerite and cassiterite are not opaque.
However, the ore microscope is different from a transmitted light microscope in
terms of placement of its light source. Otherwise it is quite identical to
transmitted light microscope in terms of polariser, analyser, diaphragms,
lenses, stage etc (Fig. 1.7a).

(a)

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Fig.1.7: a) Ore microscope; and b) Schematic cross sections of reflected light

microscope. (Source: redrawn from Craig and Vaughan, 1994)

The source of light is placed above the sample contrary to placement of light
source below the sample in transmitted light microscope. A doubly coated glass
plate is placed which acts as a reflector and reflects light falling on it. The
sample to be placed on the stage of the reflected light microscope has to be
polished unlike the samples used for transmitted light. The Figure1.7b is a
schematic cross-section of a reflected light microscope with important
components. It is important to notice the source of light and the path of light
through the system and the whole-field doubly coated glass plate reflector.
1.7.2 Major Components of Ore Microscope and their
Adjustment
We have studied the difference between ore microscope and petrographic
microscope. Before we discuss about the components of ore microscope, let us
briefy discuss about the preparation of polished section.
Preparation of polished section is an important part of the ore microscopy. For
microscopic study, a plane polished surface of an ore, free of pits, scratches,
fractures and pores is required. Earlier these polished sections were prepared
manually (hand polishing), now-a-days automatic polishing (Fig. 1.8) machines
are available. Thus, a paper-thin layer of an polished ore section is prepared by
cementing thin slices of glass to it or an polished block ( ore mounted upon
resin) is prepared (Fig. 1.9).
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Fig. 1. 8: Steps for preparation of polished surface in an automatic polishing

machine.

Fig. 1.9: Polished thin section and block section. (Source: Redrawn from
Shrivastava and Rani, 2012)

Now, let us discuss the major components of ore microscope and their
adjustment.
i. Graduated Rotating Stage: The graduated rotatable stage lies in between
the two nicols (polariser and analyser) and is used for placing the polished
mineral specimen. It must be freely rotatable through 360° angle and can be
locked at any point..It should be positioned in centre in comparison to the
objectives and must be vertical (90°) to the axis of light transmitted in the
[Link] example, as you can see in Fig. 1.10(a) when the stage is
rotated by 360º, the grain remains in its original position, the objective is set
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to be perfectly centered. If the objective is not centred Fig. 1.10(b), the grain
can be brought close to centre/cross-wire by adjusting the screws either
clockwise or anticlockwise attached to the objective. The angular degree
markings on the edge of the stage helps to measure certain properties
during rotation of the specimen.

Fig. 1.10: Centring of the objective by rotating and adjusting the rotatable stage:
a) perfectly centered; and b) not centered.

ii. Objective Lenses: The classification of objective lenses is normally based

on the type of lens, magnifying capacity and numerical aperture, lenses that
are of oil immersed or normal air used. Rarely, the focal length of the
objective lens is also considered. The type of lens used may be apochromat
(decreases spherical and chromatic aberration), achromat or fluorite(semi-
apochromat). Spherical (lens curvature) and chromatic (colour) aberrations
are two dissimilar image defects caused due to transmission of light through
an image. However, the most commonly used is achromat lens because of
its economic viability.
iii. Ocular Lenses: The ocular system is an arrangement of eyepiece lens. In
this system, one can look through the naked eye for greater magnification of
the image generated by objective lens. In maximum number of microscopes
‘Huygenian oculars’ (systematic arrangement of two planoconvex lenses
in eye piece for magnification) with a magnification ranging between 5x and
12x are commonly used.

iv. Illuminating Systems: Illuminating systems relate to use of bulb/lamp in

ore microscopes. The incandescent filament lamp and the gas discharge
lamp are the basic types normally used for illumination. The lamp should
provide adequate light, even and illumination throughout the field of [Link]
make it clear that the light source is in centre or not, close the field
diaphragm, remove the eyepiece, the point of light source on the centre of
cross-wire is observed. If this point of light is centred, then it is said that the
reflector is orientated properly (Fig. 1.11). If not orientated properly, than the
reflector can be positioned correctly by removing and placing the light
source propely in the microscope until it is centered (Fig. 1.11).

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Fig. 1. 11: Showing field of view while centering of the light source. (Source:
Shrivastava and Rani, 2012)

v. Reflector: It is one of the main constituents of the ore microscope that acts
as a source for vertical focusing of light on the surface of a polished
specimen. How you would know that the light source is in centre or not? For
this, you have to remove the eyepiece, close the field diaphragm and
observe the point of light. If the point of light is in centre, then the reflector is
said to be properly oriented or vice versa.
vi. Polariser and Analyser: Polariser in a standard ore microscope is placed
inside the illumination system between the lamp and the collector lens but
may be located between the diaphragms. The analyser is positioned over
the objective lenses. Polariser as well as analyser are used for the
transmission of light in one plane. For the application of this aspect, they are
equipped with a polaroid plate.
vii. Accessories: Monochromators (to provide incident light of specified
wavelength), photometers (to measure the reflectance of mineral grains),
stage micrometres (accurate measurement of grain sizes; 1 mm scale
subdivided into hundredths), sample holders are some of the other
accessories used in the operation of ore microscope.
1.7.3 Terminologies Related to Ore Microscopy
Now in this section, we will learn about the basic terminology that you should be
aware of while studying ore microscopy.
i. Reflectance (R): The reflectance (brightness) is a characteristic mineral
property which is used in quantitative and qualitative ore microscopy.
Reflectance of a phase depends on two parameters:
• Refraction (refractive index n),and
• Absorption (absorption coefficient k)

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Reflectance (R) depends on the medium (air, water, or oil) in which reflection
takes place. Many optical properties of ore minerals are more distinctive with
the help of oil immersion objectives. Two minerals which have small
differences in their R values in air are difficult to distinguish, whereas the
same small difference in oil is more distinct. The following Fresnel equation
is used for reflectance, i.e.
R= (n - N)2 = k2/ (n + N)2 = k2
Where, the refractive index of the medium (N) N = 1 for air, N = 1.518 for oil.
Depending on the medium used the expressions (n - N) and (n + N)
changes. Reflectance is especially reduced for minerals with low values of
[Link] of stronger absorbing minerals with higher k is less strongly
reduced.
ii. Colour Impression (CI): Colour impressions in the mineral profiles are only
given for oil immersion objectives. Using oil immersion objectives the colour
intensity of a mineral is generally increased and more easily visible. Minerals
with strong CI were described only by colour. For less strong coloured
minerals each colour impression is preceded by white or grey, depending on
the overall reflectance, e.g. whitish blue, greyish brown, greyish white.
iii. Bireflectance: It is an optical property similar to pleochroism where the
mineral appears to change in intensity in different orientations while
illuminated by plane polarized light on rotation of the stage. The polarizers
are not crossed to observe bireflectance. It is usually the sum of two
different effects, i.e., the changing of colour impression and reflectance.
Reflection pleochroism (Rpl) means the colour impression of a mineral
varies according to the position of the crystal to the polariser. Bireflection
(BR, also called bireflectance) means the mineral shows different reflectance
values.
BR <Rpl: Minerals show mainly Rpl and less BR
BR ~ Rpl: Minerals show BR as well as Rpl
BR >Rpl: Minerals show mainly BR
iv. Anisotropism Effects: Anisotropism effects are observed under crossed
polars. They are variations in brightness and/or colour of an anisotropic
mineral grain in an optimal orientation if the specimen is rotated. There
should be four positions, each 90° apart. The mineral grain shows minimum
brightness or maximum darkness is called normal position. Four positions
where the grain shows maximum brightness is called 45° or diagonal
position.
v. Extinction: The normal position of the specimen on the stage with minimum
brightness, may be used for the identification of minerals. On rotation of the
stage through 360º angle, you can make observations of colours and
extinction. You will notice that on rotation of stage four times a mineral
becomes extinct and between two extinction positions it shows range of
polarisation colour.
vi. Twinning: Crystal twinning occurs when two separate crystals share some
of the same crystal lattice points in a symmetrical manner. A twin boundary
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surface separates the two crystals, so it will be very helpful for the mineral
identification. The typical twinning of a given mineral is classified due to the
orientation, form and frequency. Twinning of crystal (contact, penetration,
simple, multiple,polysynthetic/lamellar) can be observed by crossing the
polars with a slightly uncrossed analyser.
vii. Cleavage: If a mineral shows cleavage planes, it can be an important
feature for the identification. Minerals with good cleavages in hand
specimens do not necessary show this feature in polished section. The
polishing process has great effect on the visibility of cleavage planes, which
can be seen as oriented fine black lines on the mineral surface. Thus, one
should be careful in polishing process.
viii. Qualitative Hardness: Hardness of a mineral is its resistance to scratching.
There are three types of hardness: polishing hardness,scratch hardness
and microindentation (Vickers ) hardness. The first two can be examined
with the standard ore microscope by comparing the relative hardness of
adjacent phases. During the polishing process, harder minerals will stand out
in relief, compared to softer minerals in the polished section. Kalb light line is
made used to determine the relative hardness between two adjacent grains.
Kalb light line is a line of “fuzzy” light that is produced upon reflection at the
contact between two minerals of contrasting hardness.
• Vickers Hardness (VHN): The measurement of hardness on the
microscopic scale has involved a variety of instruments and types of
indenter. The most common indenters is the Vickers (a square-based
pyramid). This technique has been widely adopted in ore microscopy. The
Vickers indenter is a square-based diamond pyramid with a 130° included
angle between opposite faces. So that a perfect indentation is seen as a
square with equal diagonals. The area of the Vickers indentation can be
expressed in terms of the length of the diagonal d (in µm) as:
VHN = 1854.4 x L/d2 g/mm2
Physical and optical properties of some common ore minerals are summarised
below in Table 1.5.
Table 1.5: Physical and Optical Properties of common ore minerals.
(Abbreviation used Refl: Reflectance; Source: modified from Marshall
[Link]. 2004)

Physical Properties Optical Properties

(Hand Specimen) (Polished Section)

Chalcopyrite Colour: Lustre: Colour: Yellow Bireflectance:

(CuFeS2) Brass yellow Metallic to brass yellow Weak

Hardness Streak: Anisotropy: Cleavage:

(Mohs): Greenish Weak to distinct, {011}, {111} Poor
3.5 – 4.5 Black grey-blue to
yellow -green

Density: Cleavage/ Refl (546nm): Refl (589nm):

4.1 – 4.3 Fracture: 35.7 – 36.9 36.7 – 39.8

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Conchoidal, Polishing Hardness (Vickers)
uneven hardness: (kg/mm2)
brittle >galena, VHN100 = 187
<sphalerite

Chromite Colour: Iron Lustre: Colour: Dark Cleavage: None

(Fe,Mg) black to Sub-Metallic grey to brownish
(Cr,Al)2O4 brownish grey
black

Hardness Streak: Anisotropy: Bireflectance:

(Mohs): 5.5 Brown Very weak; Absent
usually absent

Density: 4.6 Cleavage/ Refl (546nm): Refl (589nm): 11.7

Fracture: 12.0
Uneven,
Polishing Hardness (Vickers)
brittle
hardness: (kg/mm2)
>magnetite, VHN100 = 1278 -1456
<hematite

Copper Colour: Lustre: Colour: Deep Cleavage: Absent

(Cu) Copper-red, Metallic pink, tarnishes
brown-red brown

Hardness Streak: Anisotropy: Bireflectance:

(Mohs): 2.5-3 Copper red Isotropic Weak

Density: 8.9 Cleavage/ Refl (546nm): Refl (589nm): 65.9

Fracture: 47.5
None
Polishing Hardness (Vickers)
Hardness: (kg/mm2)
>chalcocite VHN100 = 77–99

Galena Colour: Lead Lustre: Colour: White Cleavage: {100}

(PbS) grey, bluish Metallic Perfect
tint

Hardness Streak: Anisotropy: Bireflectance: Not

(Mohs): 2.5 Lead grey Isotropic present

Density: Cleavage/ Refl (546nm): Refl (589nm): 41.5

7.4-7.6 Fracture: 42.2
Perfect
Polishing Hardness (Vickers)
cubic
Hardness: (kg/mm2)
~chalcocite, VHN100 = 79 –104
<chalcopyrite
Goethite Colour: Lustre: Colour: Grey Cleavage: {010}
([Link]) Metallic black, Adamantine with bluish tint Perfect
yellowish to
dark red-
brown
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Hardness Streak: Anisotropy: Bireflectance:
(Mohs): Brownish Distinct, grey- Weak, distinct in oil
5- 5.5 yellow or blue to grey-
ochre yellow yellow, brown
Density: Cleavage/ Refl (546nm): Refl (589nm):
3.3- 4.3 Fracture: 13.2 -14.5 12.7- 13.9
One good
Polishing Hardness (Vickers)
cleavage
Hardness: (kg/mm2)
Variable; for VHN100 = 667
crystalline
material,
<magnetite,
hematite

Hematite Colour: Red- Lustre: Dull Colour: Grey- Cleavage: Absent;

(Fe2O3) brown white with bluish {0001}, {1012} only
earthy), steel tint partly due to
grey – iron twinning
black
Hardness Streak: Anisotropy: Bireflectance:
(Mohs): 3.5-4 Cherry Red Distinct, grey- Weak
blue, grey- yellow
Density: Cleavage/ Refl (546nm): Refl (589nm):
5.2- 5.3 Fracture: 27.0 - 30.6 26.0 - 29.7
Sub-
Polishing Hardness (Vickers)
Conchoidal
Hardness: Very (kg/mm2)
high, variable; VHN100 = 1000-
>magnetite, 1100
ilmenite.
Magnetite Colour: Iron Lustre: Colour: Grey Cleavage: {111}
(Fe3O4) black Metallic or with brownish tint Imperfect
sub-metallic
Hardness Streak: Anisotropy: Bireflectance:
(Mohs): 5.2 Black Isotopic, slight Not present
anomalous
anisotropism
Density: Cleavage/ Refl (546nm): Refl (589nm):
5.2- 5.3 Fracture: 20.4 20.6
Sub- Polishing Hardness (Vickers)
Conchoidal Hardness: (kg/mm2)
<ilmenite, VHN100= 681 - 792
<<hematite

Pyrite Colour: Lustre: Colour: Cleavage: {001}

(FeS2) Brassy yellow Metallic Yellowish white Poor

Hardness Streak: Anisotropy: Bireflectance: Not

(Mohs): 6-6.5 Black Weak present

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Unit 1 Basics of Ore Geology
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Density: Cleavage/ Refl (546nm): Refl (589nm): 55.2
5 - 5.2 Fracture: 54.1
Conchoidal,
Polishing Hardness (Vickers)
uneven
Hardness: Very (kg/mm2)
brittle
high; >marcasite VHN100 =1505 -1520
Pyrolusite Colour: Iron Lustre: Colour: Creamy Cleavage: {100}
(MnO2) black Metallic white perfect
Hardness Streak: Anisotropy: Bireflectance:
(Mohs): Black or Very strong, Distinct in oil,
2 - 6.5 bluish black yellowish, brown, yellowish white to
blue grey - white
Density:4.4- Cleavage/ Refl (546nm): Polishing
5.1 Fracture: 18.7 - 31.3 Hardness: Variable
Brittle, soils Refl (589nm):
finger 18.4 – 30.4
Sphalarite Colour: Lustre: Colour: Grey Cleavage: {011}
White, yellow, Resinous to Perfect
(ZnS)
brown, black adamantine
– darkening
with
increased Fe
Hardness Streak: Anisotropy: Bireflectance:
(Mohs): 3.5-4 White, Isotropic Not present
reddish
brown
Density:3.9 - Cleavage/ Refl (546nm): Refl (589nm): 16.4
4.1 Fracture: 16.6
Conchoidal, Polishing Hardness (Vickers)
brittle Hardness: (kg/mm2)
Variable VHN100 = 208–224

Learners, now spend few minutes to perform an exercise to check your

progress.

SAQ 2
a) Define mineral resources.
b) Give classification of reserves.
c) What are the main objectives of UNFC classification?
d) Define an ore microscope. How is it different from transmitted light
microscope?

1.8 SUMMARY
Let us sum up what we have studied in this unit.
• Ore deposits are basically volumes of valuable rocks formed by substantial
concentration of element/s larger than that of their distinctive crustal

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abundance. A mineral resource is usually considered as ore reserve if its
economic viability is examined and reported.
• Ore mineral is known as a mineral which has higher concentration of metal
in it and has a fixed mineral composition like any other mineral. Minerals
such as calcium, fluorite, pyrite, etc., are used in industries are known as
industrial minerals.
• Grade is the metal concentration/content in an orebody. Tonnage is the total
quantity of the material in the designated orebody. Clarke value isthe ratio
of average minimum exploitable grade (%) to its average crustal abundance
(%).
• Ore deposits are the masses of rock that contain one or more ore bodies.
From these ore bodies commodity (ore) of economic value are extracted.
However, extraction is limited and not the entire ore body will be extracted.
The ore bodies are grouped into reserves and resources.
• The process that involves the estimation of average grade and tonnage of
ore deposits is called as ore-reserve estimates. The main purpose of ore
reserve estimation is to validate the quality and quantity of ore and cost of
estimation involved in extraction and further for preparing the ore deposit for
mining. Factors involved for the ore estimation are the geological features,
data density, grade. The main methods involved in ore estimation are i)
geometric and ii) geostatistical.
• UNFC is an international standard for classification which is universally
accepted for classifying/evaluating mineral resources. UNFC-2009 uses
three fundamental criteria of economic and social viability (E), field project
status and feasibility (F), and geological knowledge (G) for classification. It
was designed to furnish the requirements of sectors relating to energy and
mineral studies, resources management functions, corporate and financial
reporting standards.
• Ore microscopes are used to study the nature of ores and the gangue
material and their relationship, and the environments of their formation. The
ore microscope is different from transmitted light microscope in terms of
placement of its light source. Major components of the ore microscope are i)
rotatable stage ii) objective lens iii) ocular lenses iv) illuminating systems v)
polarizer and analyser vi) other accessories.

1.9 ACTIVITY
The tables given below shows (E-axis) economic and social viability (E) and (F-
axis) the field project status and feasibility (F). Write the description for missing
(E1 and E3) and (F2 and F4) categories.

Category Description

E1

E2 Extraction and sale procedures are prospective indicating economic

feasibility.

E3

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Unit 1 Basics of Ore Geology
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Category Description

F1 Feasibility of extraction/development by a justified growth of a project or

mining process/operation has been established.

F2

F3 Feasibility of extraction/development by a definite growth of a project or

mining process/operation is undefined because of restricted technical
data.

F4

1.10 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Give a brief account of ore minerals and classify them into different classes
with examples.
2. What is the concentration factor? Discuss Clarke of concentration with an
example.
3. Discuss the methods of reserve estimation with neat diagrams.
4. Explain the three-dimensional arrangement numerical coding system of
UNFC.
5. Describe the major components of ore microscope.
6. Discuss qualitative hardness in ore microscopy.

1.11 REFERENCES
• Craig, J. R. and Vaughan, D. J. (1994) Ore Microscopy and Ore
Petrography. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 446p.
• Evans, A.M. (1992) Ore Geology and Industrial minerals An Introduction. 3rd
Edition. Wiley Blackwell Publishers. 389p.
• Klein, C. (2002) Manual of Mineral Science. John Wiley & Sons,Inc., 23rd
edition, 716p.
• Lufkin, J. L. (2012) Ore Mineralogy & Microscopy, Golden Publishers. 192p.
• Marshall D. (‘Lyn’) Anglin C.D. and Mumim H. (2004) Ore Mineral Atlas,
Geological Association of Canada, Mineral Deposits Division. 126p
• Mendelsohn, F. (1980) Some Aspects of Ore Reserve Estimation.
Information Circular No. 147, Economic Geology Research Unit. University
of the Witwatersrand. Johannesburg. South America.
• Neumann, U. (2019) Guide for the Microscopical Identification of Ore and
Gangue Minerals. Tübingen University Press. 321p.
[Link]
• Noetstaller, R.(1988) Industrial Minerals: A Technical Review. The World
Bank. Washington.
• Ridley, J. (2013) Ore Deposit Geology. Cambridge University Press. 398p.
• Robb, L. (2005) Introduction to Ore-Forming Processes. 1st edition.
Blackwell Publishing. 373p.

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 Block 1 Introduction to Ore Geology
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• Shrivastava, J. P. and Rani, N. (2012) Introduction to Ore Microscopy.
Prentice Hall India. 112p.
• [Link]
• [Link] study_
of_minerals_under_the_microscope.pdf
• [Link]
C2009_ES39_e.pdf
• [Link]
61_Update_2019.pdf
(All the above websites accessed between 10th and 25th May 2020)
1.12 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS
• Evans, A.M. (1992) Ore Geology and Industrial mineralsAn Introduction. 3rd
Edition. Wiley Blackwell Publishers. 389p.
• Shrivastava, J. P. and Rani, N. (2012) Introduction to Ore Microscopy.
Prentice Hall India. 112p.

1.13 ANSWERS
SAQ 1
a) Ore is a naturally occurring mineral or an aggregate of minerals from which
one or more elements, mostly metallic,can be extracted with a profit at a
given point of time. Gangue is a commercially unwanted material that exists
in close association with the ore.
b) Grade is defined as the metal concentration/content in an orebody. The
relationship between grade and tonnage is that lower the grade, higher the
tonnage and higher the grade, lower the tonnage.
c) Industrial minerals are defined as any rock, mineral or other naturally
occurring substance of economic value, exclusive of metallic ores, mineral
fuels and gemstones. The two examples of industrial minerals are granite
and quartz.
d) 10
SAQ 2
a) Mineral resources include the ore bodies which are unworked and which
may become potential and of economic interest in near future. The
potentiality is based on their intrinsic geological properties and plethora of
non-geological factors.
b) The ore reserves can be classified into 3 categories as i) proved
(measured), ii) probable (indicated) iii) possible (inferred).
c) The main objective of UNFC classification is to facilitate and address the
requirements at various levels. It helps to enhance the institutional,
industry, national, and international requirements by supporting the
balanced usage of resources, energy supplies and related financial
management.

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Unit 1 Basics of Ore Geology
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d) The ore microscope is a basic instrument used to petrographically examine
economic minerals together known as the ore or opaque minerals. The ore
microscope is different from transmitted light microscope in terms of
placement of its light source.
Terminal Questions
1. Please refer to sub section 1.3.
2. Please refer to sub section 1.3.
3. Please refer to sub-section 1.5.2.
4. Please refer to sub-section 1.6.
5. Please refer to sub-section 1.7.2.
6. Please refer to sub-section 1.7.3.

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48