1 A Notes by: Agricapsule Agri Notes

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Agricultural Engineering Notes

Agricultural engineering is the engineering discipline that studies agricultural production and
processing. Agricultural engineering combines the disciplines of mechanical, civil, electrical
and chemical engineering principles with a knowledge of agricultural principles according
to technological principles.

SOURCES OF FARM POWER:

1) HUMAN POWER-An average man can develop maximum power of about 0.1 hp for doing
farm work.A strong man can develop maximum power of about 75 watts (about 0.1 hp) for doing
farm [Link] average human power availability in sustained working are as follows:

Male : 60 watts
(0.06 kW)

Female : 48 watts
(0.048 kW)

Children : 30 watts
(0.030 kW)

2) ANIMAL POWER
Power developed by an average pair of bullocks about 1 hp for usual farm work.
The average force a draft animal can exert is nearly one-tenth of its body weight.
DRAUGHT ANIMALS:Power availability from draught animals are related to its body weight.
On the basis of body weight, draught animal are classified as:

Small: (200 to 300 kg)

Medium: (301 to 400

kg)

Large: ( 401 to 500 kg)

Heavy: ( Above 500 kg)

Power available from draught animals is related to its body weight.

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Bullocks: Buffaloes :
About 10% About 12%
of body of body
weight weight

Camels: Donkeys:
About 18% About 32%
of body of body
weight weight

3) MECHANICAL POWER:
These engines are two types:
1) Spark ignition engines (Petrol or Kerosene engine):
2) Compression ignition engines (Diesel engines)

The thermal efficiency of

petrol engine varies from
25 to 32 per cent

The thermal efficiency

of diesel engine varies
from 32 to 38 per cent

TRACTOR
Tractor are available in following classes, depending upon horsepower (hp):
20 to 30 hp – About 25% of the total production of tractors in India.

31 to 40 hp – About 60% of the total production of tractors in India.

41 to above – About 15% of the total production of tractors in India.

❖ Tractor production started in India in 1961. The first tractor manufacturer “M/S Eicher
Goodearth” Produced “Eicher” tractors at Faridabad.

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❖ Average command area of a tractor (26.1 kW) is about fifteen hectares. For calculating
power availability from tractor on the farm, a weighted average of 26.1 kW power per tractor
is considered.
SELECTION OF TRACTOR:

1. LAND HOLDING: Under a single cropping pattern, it is normally recommended to consider

1 hp for every 2 hectares of land. In other words, one tractor 20 – 25 hp is suitable for 40
hectares farm.

2. CROPPING PATTERN: Generally 1.5 hectare/hp has been recommended where adequate
irrigation facilities are available and more than one crop is taken. So a 30 – 35 hp tractor is
suitable for 40 hectare farm.

POWER TILLER
For calculating power availability from power tiller on the farm, a weighted average of 7 kw
per unit is considered. Average command area of a power tiller (7.46 kw) is five hectares,
where one pair of bullock can command about two hectares only.

STATUS OF FARM POWER IN INDIA

❖ About 75% farm holding belong to small and marginal farmers.
❖ About 25% belong to semi, medium and large farm holders.
AVERAGE COMMAND AREA

One pair of draught

animals: 2 ha

Power tiller (7.46

kw): 5 ha

Tractor (26.1 kw):15

ha

For 1000 hectares of cultivated land, the bullocks, power tiller and tractors are generally
required as follows:

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Tractor:67
Power
Bullocks: tiller:200
500 pairs

Studies have shown that about 54% energy in crop production comes from direct
sources like:

Mechanical Electrical
power power

Human Draught
power animals

The remaining 46% power comes from indirect sources like:

Fertilizers Chemicals

Farm yard
Seeds
manures

I.C.A.R project requirements of food grains and farm power for the year 2020 as
follows:

➢ Production of grain 2300 kg/ha

➢ Farm power 2 kW/ha

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Draught animal is going down day by day hence additional requirement of farm power has to
come from mechanical and electrical sources. It is visualized that by 2020 the power position
will be as follows:

Animate
power –
1.4 kW/ha

Electrical
2020 the Mechanical
power –
0.5 kW/ha
power power –
1.4 kW/ha

position
Total
power – 2
kW/ha

ANIMAL DRAWN IMPROVED IMPLEMENTS

❖ The field capacity of traditional implements is about 0.3 – 0.4 ha/day and thus work
output is low.

ROTAVATOR: Tractor drawn rotavator is an energy efficient equipment, it saves 32-35%

time and energy in heavier soils.

Selected Equipment for seedbed Preparation

S. No. NAME OF IMPLEMENT WORK CAPACITY
ha/h h/ha
Tractor operated
1. M.B Plough 0.20-0.25 4-5
0.30-0.35 3-4
2. Disc Plough 0.20-0.25 4-5
0.30-0.35 3-4
3. Disc Harrow (16 disc) 0.40-0.50 2-2.5
4. Cultivator (9-11) 0.40-0.50 2-2.5
5. Rotavator 0.2 5
6. Sweep cultivator 0.35 3-3.5

Selected Equipment for Sowing and Planting

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S. No Name of the implement Size, mm Work Capacity

Ha/h h/ha
A. Power tiller operated
1. Seed-cum-fertilizer drill 5 × 225 0.164 6 – 6.5
5 × 300 0 – 21 5 – 5.5
B. Tractor operated
1. Seed-cum-fertilizer drill 11 × 225 0.75 1.25 – 1.5
No-trill-drill 11 × 225 0.75 1.25 – 1.5
2.
Strip-till-drill 1500 0.25 4–5
3.
Sugarcane cutter planter 2 × 900 0.25 4
4.
1. Potato planter 2 × 600 0.25 4

Weeding and Intercultural Equipment

S. Name of the implement Size, mm Work Capacity
No. Ha/h h/ha
Power tiller operated
1. 3 tyned cultivator/sweep 1000 0.2 5
D. Tractor operated
1. 9 – 11 tyned tiller 2500 0.45 2 – 2.5
2. 5 tyned sweep 2500 0.45 2 – 2.5

WEEDING AND INTERCULTURE

Khurpi is the most versatile hand hoe for removal of weeds.

❖ It takes 300 – 700 man-hours to cover one hectare, depending upon crop, soil and
weed infestation.
❖ Use of long handle weeders (wheel hoe and peg type weeders) reduce this weeding
time to 25 – 110 hours per hectare.

EQUIPMENT FOR SPRAYING AND DUSTING OPERATIONS

S. NAME OF THE SIZE WORK CAPACITY
NO. IMPLEMENT ha/h h/ha
A. Manually operated
1. Hand compression sprayer 15 litres 0.095 10.5
2. Lever operated Knapsack 13-16 litres 0.095 10.5
sprayer
3. Foot sprayer 0.165 6
4. Duster 4-5 kg 0.25 4

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5. Controlled Droplet sprayer 1 litres 0.22 5

B. Power operated
1. Knapsack sprayer cum- 5 litres 0.22 5
duster
2. Stationary power operated 5 – 10 hp 0.35 3
sprayer
C. Tractor operated
1. Tractor operated sprayer 5000 mm 0.5 2
D. Self-propelled
1. High clearance sprayer 10000 mm 0.5-1.0 1-2

HARVESTING AND THRESHING

❖ Harvesting and threshing consumes about 10-35% of the total energy for farming.

EQUIPMENT FOR THRESHING OPERATION

S. NO. NAME OF THE IMPLEMENT SIZE WORK CAPACITY

A. Power operated
1. Power operated thresher 5-10 hp 200-500
2. Paddy thresher 5-15 hp 200-1000
3. Maize thresher 5-15 hp 500-2000
4. Groundnut thresher 10-15 hp 500-1000

Most of the farmers use threshers, which are operated by 5 – 15 hp engine or electric motors

❖ Reaper binder: The harvesting capacity is 0.25 – 0.35 ha/h.

❖ Olpad thresher: Olpad thresher is said to have its origin at a small place named Olpad
in Gujarat state.
❖ Groundnut Thresher: It can be run by 5 hp electric motor. Its capacity may be 400
kg pods/hr.
❖ Threshing efficiency: The threshed grain received from all outlets with respect to total
grain input expressed as percentage by mass.

Paddy Thresher:
The capacity may be 250 – 1000 kg/hr.

ROTO TILLAGE
❖ There is saving of 60 – 70 percent operational time and

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❖ 55 – 65 percent fuel consumption with single rotavation, compared to conventional

method of seedbed preparation.

INCLINED PLATE PLNATER

For a six row tractor mounted unit the field capacity is about 0.60 ha/h.

SUGARCANE SETT CUTER PLANTER

❖ It is operated by a 45 hp tractor.
❖ It can cover about 0.20 ha/h in smooth field.

RICE SEEDER
The seed rate depends on the rate of revolution of drums and is normally 50 -70 kg/ha.

POTATO PLANTER
❖ The field capacity of two ridges varies from 0.20 to 0.40 ha/h with
➢ Tuber distance of 200 – 450 mm.
➢ Row spacing of 600 mm.
➢ Depth of planting of 100 – 200 mm.
❖ The automatic unit saves 50 – 60 percent labour, 80 – 85 percent operation time and
50 – 60 percent cost of operation, compared to conventional method.

RICE TRANSPLANTER
❖ Self-propelled rice trans planter (8 rows, single wheel, driven by 3 hp diesel engine) with
three persons transplant nearly one hectare a day using mat type seedlings.

POWER WEEDER
❖ This equipment consists of a 5 hp light weight diesel engine, mounted on the frame.

ORCHARD SPRAYER
❖ The equipment is operated by a 35 hp tractor. It can cover 0.20 to 0.50 ha/h with 3 m
penetration of droplets inside plant canopy.

SELF PROPELLED HIGH CLEARANCE SPRAYER

❖ The machine consists of two rear steered wheels and two front lugged wheels which is
powered with a 20 hp diesel through:
➢ gear box,
➢ tank,

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➢ hydraulic pump and

➢ Boom fitted with 15 nozzles.
❖ It can cover about 0.20 ha/h.

TRACTOR MOUNTED POTATO DIGGER ELEVATOR

❖ It is suitable for digging and exposing the tubers.

With 600 mm width of cut (one row) the field capacity of the machine is about 0.15 ha/h.

Concept of Farm Mechanization

❖ The main concept of farm mechanization is to apply the principles of engineering
and technology to do the agricultural operations in a better way to increase crop
yield.
❖ This includes the development, application and management of all mechanical aids for
field operation, water control, material handling, storage and processing.
❖ Mechanical aids include:
➢ Hand tools,
➢ Animal drawn implements,
➢ Power tillers,
➢ Tractors,
➢ Engines,
➢ Electric motors,
➢ Grain processing and
➢ Hauling equipment’s.

EMERGING TRENDS IN FARM MECHANIZATION

Small engines 1 to 3 hp for handheld and knapsack power operated equipment for pruning, hedge
trimming, tree felling, cutting of bushes, tea harvesting, spraying and dusting are preferred.

CALORIFIC VALUE OF FUELS

S. NO. FUEL CAORIFIC VALUE THERMAL EFFICIENCY (%)

1. Biogas 4500 kcal/m3 60

2. Cowdung cakes 2130 kcal/kg 11

3. Petrol 11100 kcal/kg 25-32

4. Diesel 10550 kcal/kg 32-38

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Sr. No Name of fuel Calorific value, kcal/kg

1 Light Diesel Oil (L.D.O) 10300
2 High speed diesel oil (HSD) 10550
3 Power kerosene 10850

RENEWABLE ENERGY
➢ It is the energy mainly obtained from renewable sources of energy like sun, wind,
biomass etc.
➢ Biogas energy, wind energy and solar energy are used in agriculture and domestic
purposes with suitable devices.
➢ This type of energy is inexhaustible in nature.
WIND ENERGY
The minimum wind speed of 10 km/hr is considered to be useful for working wind mills for
agricultural purpose.

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
➢ On an average, the temperature of the earth increases by 300C per kilometer as one
moves inward.
➢ The first commercial geothermal power station was erected in Larderello in Italy in
1904.
➢ In India, geothermal resources in the form of steam and hot water are known to exist
along Ladakh and in parts of Himachal Pradesh.

TIDAL ENERGY
➢ They arise twice a day.
➢ The first commercial tidal power station in the world, was constructed in France in
1965, across the mouth of La Rance estuary.
➢ In India, tidal power could probably be generated in Kutch and in Hoogly River.

WAVE ENERGY
➢ Wave energy plant using OWC method is being built in Kerala.

CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT ENGINES

1. Based on combustion of fuel:

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External combustion engine

Internal combustion engine

a) External combustion engine-

❖ Here, the working medium, the steam, is generated in a boiler, located outside the engine
and allowed in to the cylinder to operate the piston to do mechanical work.

b) Internal combustion engine-

❖ In internal combustion engine, the combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine
cylinder and heat is generated within the cylinder.
❖ This heat is added to the air inside the cylinder and thus the pressure of the air is
increased tremendously.
❖ This high pressure air moves the piston which rotates the crank shaft and thus mechanical
work is done

2. Based on fuel used:

Diesel engine – Diesel is used as fuel

Petrol engine – Petrol is used as fuel

Gas engines – propane, butane or methane gases are used

3. Based ignition of fuel-

Spark ignition engine (Carburetor type engines)

Compression ignition engine (injector type engines)

a) Spark ignition engine – a mixture of air and fuel is drawn in to the engine cylinder.
Ignition of fuel is done by using a spark plug.

❖ The spark plug produces a spark and ignites the air- fuel mixture.

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❖ Such combustion is called constant volume combustion (C.V.C.)

b) Compression ignition engine –

❖ In compression ignition engines air is compressed in to the engine cylinder.

❖ Due to this the temperature of the compressed air rises to 700-900 oC. At this
stage diesel is sprayed in to the cylinder in fine particles.
❖ Due to a very high temperature, the fuel gets ignited. This type of combustion is
called constant pressure combustion (C.P.C.) because the pressure inside the
cylinder is almost constant when combustion is taking place.

4. Based on working cycle-

Four stroke cycle engine

Two stroke cycle engine

a) Four stroke cycle engine - When the cycle is completed in two revolutions of the
Crankshaft, it is called four stroke cycle engines.

b) Two stroke cycle engine - When the cycle is completed in one revolution of the Crankshaft,
it is called two stroke cycle engine.

Points about IC engine

❖ The end of the connecting rod connecting the piston is called small end.
❖ The other end of the connecting rod connecting the crank shaft is called big end.
❖ When piston is moved up and down, the motion is transmitted to the crank shaft by the
connecting rod and the crank shaft makes rotary motion.
❖ The crankshaft rotates in main bearings which are fitted the crankcase.
❖ A flywheel is provided at one end of the crankshaft for smoothing the uneven torque
produced by the engine.
❖ There is an oil pump at the bottom of the engine which contains lubricating oil for
lubricating different parts of the engine. The oil pressure in hydraulic pump caries from
150 to 200 kg/cm2.

As per ASAE standard pto speed is 540 ± 10 rpm when operating under load.

➢ It is estimated that a tractor engine requires to be operated at full load approximately 25 to 30

percent of the operating time. Most of the time, the engine is required to be operated between 50
to 70% of the full load.

➢ The minimum specific fuel consumption occurs at speed of 1650 rpm.

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Engine
The flow diagram for
transmission of
Main
power clutch

Transmissi
on gear

Steering
clutch

Wheels

Regarding any
machine attached Engine
to tractor

Main clutch

Tilling
Clutch

Tilling Attached to tractor or

attachment self-propelled

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF I.C. ENGINE/ FOUR STROKE CYCLE

ENGINE / TWO STROKE CYCLE ENGINE:
The sequence of events taking place inside the engine is as follows:

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Suction Compression Exhaust

Power stroke
stroke stroke stroke

1. Admission of air or air-fuel mixture inside the engine cylinder (Suction).

2. Compression of the air or air fuel mixture inside the engine (compression).
3. Injection of fuel in compressed air for ignition of the fuel or ignition of air-fuel mixture by an
Electric spark plug to produce thermal power inside the cylinder (power).
4. Removal of all the burnt gases from the cylinder to receive fresh charge (exhaust).
B) TWO STROKE CYCLE ENGINE (PETROL ENGINE):
❖ In two stroke cycle engines, the whole sequence of events i.e., suction, compression,
power and exhaust are completed in two strokes of the piston i.e. one revolution of the
crankshaft.
❖ There is no valve in this type of engine. Gas movement takes place through holes called
ports in the cylinder.
❖ The crankcase of the engine is air tight in which the crankshaft rotates.

COMPARISON BETWEEN TWO STROKE AND FOUR

STROKE ENGINES

No. Four stroke engine Two stroke engine

1 One power stroke for every two revolutions One power stroke for each revolution of
of the crankshaft. the crankshaft.

2 There are inlet and exhaust valves in the There are inlet and exhaust ports instead
engine. of valves.

3 Crankcase is not fully closed and air tight. Crankcase is fully closed and air tight.

4 Top of the piston compresses the charge. Both sides of the piston compress the
charge.

5 Size of the flywheel is comparatively larger. Size of the flywheel is comparatively

smaller.

6 Fuel is fully consumed. Fuel is not fully consumed.

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7 Weight of engine per hp is high. Weight of engine per hp is

comparatively low.

8 Thermal efficiency is high. Thermal efficiency is comparatively

low.
9 Removal or exhaust gases easy. Removal of exhaust gases
comparatively difficult.

10 Torque produced is even. Torque produced is less even.

11 For a given weight, engine would give only For same weight, two stroke engines
half the power of two stroke engine. give twice the power that of four stroke
engine.
12 All types of speed are possible (high and Mostly high speed engines are there.
low).
13 It can be operated in one direction only. It can be operated in both directions
(clockwise and counter clockwise).

Piston rings are of two types:

(1) Compression ring and
(2) Oil ring

➢ Oil ring: It control the distribution of lubrication oil in the cylinder and the piston.

➢ Crankshaft:
❖ It is the main shaft of an engine which converts the reciprocating motion of the piston
into rotary motion of the flywheel.
❖ Usually the crankshaft is made of drop forged steel or cast steel.

➢ Flywheel is made of cast iron.

❖ Its main functions are stores energy during power stroke and returns back the energy
during the idle strokes, providing a uniform rotary motion of flywheel, pressure surfaces
for the clutch plate and Sometime the flywheel serves the purpose of a pulley for
transmitting power.

➢ Crankcase provides a reservoir for the lubricating oil. It is a mounting unit for such
accessories as the oil pump, oil filter, starting motor and ignition components.

➢ Camshaft is a shaft which raises and lowers the inlet and exhaust valves at proper times.

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❖ The speed of the camshaft is exactly half the speed of the crankshaft in four stroke
engine.
❖ Camshaft operates the ignition timing mechanism, lubricating oil pump and fuel
pump.
❖ It is mounted in the crankcase, parallel to the crankshaft.

➢ Scavenging: The process of removal of burnt or exhaust gases from the engine cylinder is
known as scavenging.

COMPARISON OF DIESEL ENGINE WITH PETROL ENGINE:

No. Diesel engine Petrol engine
1 It has got no carburetor, ignition coil and It has got carburetor, ignition coil & spark
spark plug. plug.
2 Its compression ratio varies from 14:1 to Its compression ratio varies from 5:1 to 8:1.
22:1
3 It uses diesel oil as fuel. It uses petrol (gasoline) or power kerosine as
fuel.
4 Only air is sucked in cylinder in suction Mixture of fuel and air is sucked in the
stroke. cylinder in suction stroke.
5 It has got ‘fuel injection pump’ and It has got no fuel injection pump and injector,
injector instead it has got carburetor and ignition coil.

6 Fuel is injected in combustion chamber Air fuel mixture is compressed in the

where burning of fuel takes places due to combustion chamber when it is ignited by an
heat of compression. electric spark.
7 Thermal efficiency varies from 32 to 38% Thermal efficiency varies from 25 to 32%

8 Engine weight per horse-power is high. Engine weight per horsepower is

comparatively low.
9 Operating cost is low. Operating cost is high.
10 Compression pressure inside the cylinder Compression pressure varies from 6 to 10
varies from 35 to 45 kg/cm2 and kg/cm2 and temperature is above 260°C.
temperature is about 500°C.
SPECIAL FEATURE OF DIESEL ENGINE
1. At the end of the compression stroke, fuel is injected into the cylinder through injectors
(atomisers) at a very high pressure ranging from 120 to 200 kg/cm2.

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➢ The camshaft gear is double the size of the crankshaft gear, so there is one revolution
of the camshaft for every two revolutions of the crankshaft in case of four stroke engine.
Important properties of fuel
S. No. Name of fuel A.P.I degree Specific Calorific value
gravity (kcal/kg)
1. Light diesel oil (L.D.O) 22 0.920 10300
2. High speed diesel oil 31 0.820 10550
(HSD)
3. Power kerosene 40 0.827 10850
4. Petrol 63 0.730 11100

❖ The commercial diesel fuels have got cetane rating varying from 30 to 60.
❖ Best result is obtained when carburetor is so adjusted that air-fuel ratio is about 15:1.
❖ The fuel pressure at the feed pump must be in the range of 1.5 to 2.5 kg/cm3.
❖ It is used to create pressure varying from 120 kg/cm3 to 300 kg/cm3.
❖ About 3 kg/sq. cm pressure is developed in the lubrication system of the tractor engine.

TERMINOLOGY CONNECTED WITH ENGINE POWER:

➢ Bore- Bore is the diameter of the engine cylinder.
➢ Stroke - It is the linear distance traveled by the piston from Top dead Centre (TDC) to Bottom
dead Centre (BDC).
➢ Stroke-bore ratio -The ratio of length of stroke (L) and diameter of bore (D) of the cylinder is
called stroke-bore ratio (L/D). In general, this ratio varies between 1 - 1.45 and for tractor
engines, this ratio is about 1.25.
➢ Swept volume - It is the volume (A x L) displaced by one stroke of the piston where A is the
cross sectional area of piston and L is the length of stroke.
Watt = Joule/sec. (4.2 Joules = 1 Calorie).
In metric unit the power can be expressed in kg.m/sec.
➢ Horse power (HP) - It is the rate of doing work. Expressed in horse power
Conversion factors from work to power
4500 kg m of work /minute = 1.0 hp
75 kg. m of work /second = 1.0 hp.
➢ Indicated horse power (IHP) - It is the power generated in the engine cylinder and received by
the piston. It is the power developed in a cylinder without accounting frictional losses.
➢ Brake horse power (BHP) - It is the power delivered by the engine at the end of the crankshaft.
It is measured by a dynamometer.
➢ Power take-off horse power (PTO HP) - It is the power delivered by a tractor through its PTO
shaft. In general, the belt and PTO horse power of a tractor will approximately be the same. The
PTO hp is around 80-85% 0f tractor engine power.

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➢ Drawbar horse power (DBHP) - It is the power of a tractor measured at the drawbar of a tractor.
It is that power which is available for pulling loads. It is around 50-55 % of engine power.
➢ Frictional horse power (FHP) - It is the power required to run the engine at a given speed
without producing any useful work. It represents the friction and pumping losses of an engine.
IHP = BHP + FHP
➢ Wheels: Usually 2 to 4 ply pneumatic tyres are used in power tillers. The pressure of the tyre
ranges from 1.1 to 1.4 kg/cm2.
➢ White cast iron: It may be used for bearings of disc harrow gangs or wheel bearings for
implements. It may be used for mould boards also.
➢ Ductile cast iron: It may be used for gears, sprockets and plough shares.
➢ Low carbon steel: Low carbon steel contains less than 0.25% carbon. It is also called Mild steel.
It is used for nuts, bolts and other simple components of agricultural implements.
➢ Medium carbon steel: It contains 0.25% to 0.6% carbon. It is used for shafts, gears, axles etc.
➢ High carbon steel: High carbon steel contains 0.6 to 1.5% carbon. It is used for plough shares,
blades, shovels, disc, coulters and cutting tools etc.
➢ Soft Centre steel: Mould board is usually made of this type of steel.

➢ Carburetor-

❖ The process of preparing air-fuel mixture away from the engine cylinder is called
carburetion.
❖ And the device in which this process takes is called carburetor.
❖ Carburetor is used to mix the air and fuel thoroughly, to atomize the fuel, to regulate the
air- fuel ratio at different speeds and loads on the engine, to supply correct amount of
mixture at different speeds and loads
➢ Fuel injection pump is high pressure pump which supplies fuel to the injectors according to
the firing order of the engine. It is used to create pressure varying from 120 kg/cm2 to 300
kg/cm2. It supplies the required quantity of fuel to each cylinder at appropriate time.
❖ The temperature produced on the power stroke of an engine can be as high as 1600 ºC and
this is greater than melting point of engine parts.
❖ The best operating temperature of IC engines lie between 140 F and 200 ºF and hence
cooling of an IC engine is highly essential.
❖ It is estimated that about 40% of total heat produced is passed to atmosphere via exhaust,
30% is removed by cooling and about 30% is used to produce power.
➢ Air cooled engines are those engines in which heat is conducted from the working components of
the engine to the atmosphere directly.

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➢ Engines using water as cooling medium are called water cooled engines. Water is circulated
round the cylinders to absorb heat from the cylinder walls. The heated water is conducted
through a radiator to remove the heat and cool the water.
➢ Governor is mechanical device, designed to control the speed of the engine with in specified
limit.
❖ The governor is fitted on an engine for maintaining a constant speed
❖ In normal working , a variation of about 100 rev/min is observed
❖ Governor hunting-Governor hunting is the erratic variation of the speed of the governor
when it over compensates for speed changes
➢ Internal combustion of suitable horse power is used as a prime mover in a tractor. Engines
ranging from 8 to 200 hp are used in agricultural tractors.
➢ In India , four wheel tractors for agricultural operations are fitted with 25-80 hp. Walking type
tractors are fitted with 8-12 hp engines
➢ Tillage: the preparation of land for growing crops
➢ Tilth: Physical condition of the soil.
❖ Primary tillage: Tillage with more depth and more soil disturbance.
❖ Secondary tillage: Lighter and finer tillage operations performed in the soil after
primary tillage.
❖ Conservation tillage: 30 percent or more crop residue left after planting or any
system that maintains at least 1,120 kilogram per hectare of flat, small grain residue
equivalent on the surface throughout the critical wind erosion period is called
conservation tillage system.
❖ Conversion tillage systems are further classified as No- tillage, Ridge-tillage,
Mulch-tillage.
❖ ROTARY TILLER: Used as primary and secondary both operations, power from
the tractor engine is transmitted to the rotary tiller (rotavator) through PTO (Power
Take Off) of the tractor, operated at 180- 200 rpm
❖ PUDDLER is secondary tillage implement used in rice. Puddling is done in
standing water of 5-10 cm depth.
➢ Reduced-till: Reduced-till systems leave 15-30 percent residue cover after planting or 560
to 1,120 kilograms per hectare of small grain residue equivalent throughout the critical wind
erosion period.
➢ Conventional-till systems leave less than 15 percent residue cover after planting, or less
than 560 kilograms per hectare of small grain residue equivalent throughout the critical wind
erosion period.
➢ Conventional tillage or clean tillage: Ploughing the entire field several times to prepare a
seed bed is called conventional tillage
➢ Conservation tillage: Ploughing the field with lesser number of passes over the entire land
or ploughing only in the required space of the land and then sowing is called conservation
tillage.

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❖ Minimum Tillage, Mulch, Rotary Tillage, Strip tillage are the example of
conservation tillage. Combined Tillage:
➢ Combined Tillage: Tillage operations utilizing simultaneously two or more different types
of tillage tools or implements to simplify, control or reduce the number of operations over a
field is called combined tillage.

INDIGENOUS PLOUGH/ COUNTRY PLOUGH:

Forms V shaped furrows with 15-20 cm top width and 12-15 cm depth. Its field capacity is
around 0.4 ha per day of 8 hours.

MOULD BOARD PLOUGH:

❖ Available for animals, power tiller and tractor operation.
❖ The shares are made of chilled cast iron or steel.
❖ The steel mainly contains about 0.70 to 0.80% carbon and about 0.50 to 0.80%
manganese besides other minor elements.

Wood:
❖ Wood is very common material used for farm implements.
❖ Wood is composed of about 60% cellulose, 28% lignin and other minor elements.
❖ Wood is used for beams, bullock carts, cart wheel, tool handles, sugarcane crusher beam,
country plough, hoe handle, pitman of mower, cattle yokes, levelers, clod crusher,
crowbar and wooden spades.
❖ The common wood available for use are:

a. Babul b. Jambul

c. Khair d. Mango

e. Shisham f. Teak

g. Tomarind h. Sagada

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➢ Harrows, rollers and pulverizes, rotary tillers, tools for mulching and fallowing, cage wheels
etc. Are secondary tillage implements.

➢ TRACTOR MOUNTED MOULD BOARD PLOUGH

Two or three bottom plough is operated by a tractor of 35 – 50 hp and its field capacity varies
from 0.25 to 0.35 ha/h.

➢ Animal Drawn Potato Planter:

The effective field capacity is about 0.1 ha/h.

➢ Tractor Mounted Cultivator Seed Planter:

The effective field capacity is about 0.63 ha/h.

➢ Tractor Mounted Seed Fertilizer Drill cum Planter:

Its effective field capacity is about 0.30 ha/h.

➢ Tractor Mounted Ridge Seeder:

The field capacity is about 1 ha/h.

➢ Tractor Mounted Direct Rice Seeder:

The effective field capacity is about 0.68 ha/h.

➢ Tractor Mounted No –Trill Ferti seed drill:

Effective field capacity is about 0.46 ha/h.

➢ Power Tiller Operated Till Plant Machine:

It consists of main frame with standard hitch, seed/ fertilizer boxes, transport wheel, drive wheel
field capacity is about 0.18 ha/h.

➢ Star Weeder:

The effective capacity is about 0.007 ha/h.

➢ Animal Drawn Reaper:

The output of the machine is about 0.2 ha/h.

➢ Tractor Mounted 2 row Potato Digger:

The effective field capacity is about 0.3 ha/h.

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Disc Harrow:
❖ Disc harrows have concave discs of size varying from 35-70 cm diameter
❖ The spacing between the discs on the gang bolt ranges from 15 to 25 cm for light duty and
25 to 30 cm for heavy duty harrows.

Field efficiency :
About 70%.

Draft: About 400 N

Labour requirement:
8 man – h/ha

❖ Spike Tooth Harrow:

It usually operates at shallow depth up to 5 cm.

❖ Spring Tooth Harrow:

▪ It works up to a depth of 150 mm in the field.
▪ The sections vary in width from 0.9 to 1.7m, adapted for use in rough and stony ground,
also called as quack grass, and Bermuda grass eradicator,
❖ Scraper:
The field capacity is in the range of 0.10 to 0.15 cubic meters.
❖ ACME HARROW:
Also known as blade harrow, curved knife-tooth harrow, pulverizer
❖ PATELA:
Wooden plank used for smoothening the soil and crushing the weeds.
❖ POWER HARROW – TRACTOR DRAWN:
Field capacity is around 1.5 ha/day.
➢ POTATO PLANTER (SEMI-AUTOMATIC): It may plant in 2-4 rows, Field capacity is 0.15-
0.35 ha/hr.
➢ POTATO PLANTER (AUTOMATIC SEED DROPPING): It can plant in 2-4 rows. Capacity
is 6000- 14000 potatoes /hr.
➢ MANUAL RICE PLANTER: The row to row spacing is 200 mm, It can cover 0.25 ha/ day.
➢ SELF PROPELLED PADDY TRANSPLANTER: Picks up 3 or 4 seedlings in each fork at a
time from the mat and plant them in the puddled soil, row to row spacing of 28 cm to 30 cm and
plant to plant spacing of 14 to 16 cm, planting capacity of the machine is about 0.05 to 0.1
hectare per hour Power requirement is about 1.2 to 1.8 HP petrol engine.

IMPLEMENTS FOR INTERCULTURAL OPERATIONS

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➢ HAND HOE: Depth 2-3 cm thereby weeds are cut and soil is stirred, coverage is 5-7 cents per
day.
➢ Star type weeder: Suitable for weeding in dry lands, coverage is 0.05 ha/day.
➢ Peg type weeder: Suitable for weeding in dry lands, coverage is 0.05 ha/day.
➢ Wheel hoe: Tool for weeding and intercultural in row crops, coverage is 0.05 ha/day.
➢ Different types of cultivators are Disc cultivator, Rotary cultivator, Tine cultivator, Tractor
Drawn Cultivator, Trailed type cultivator, Mounted Cultivator.
➢ ANIMAL DRAWN CULTIVATOR:
❖ Sweep: By skimming action under the soil at a shallow depth of 2 to 3 cm, the sweep blades
cuts the weeds. The coverage is 1.75 to 2.5 ha/day.
❖ Junior hoe: Coverage is 1.5 ha per day.
➢ ENGINE OPERATED WEEDER: It consists of a 3-hp engine (petrol start kerosene run), field
capacity is 0.75 – 1.0 ha per day, Depth of cut is 8-12 cm.
SPRAYERS:
COMPONENTS OF A SPRAYER: Pump, Tank, Agitator (device to stirs the solution), Air
chamber, Pressure gauge, Pressure regulator, Valves, Cut-off valve, By-pass valve, Relief valve,
Strainer, Nozzles, Spray gun, Spray boom, Over-flow pipe.
TYPES OF SPRAYERS:

High volume sprayer (more than 400 litres /ha)

Low volume sprayer (5 to 400 litres/ hectare)

Ultra low volume sprayer (ULV) spray (less than 5 litres

/ha)
❖ HAND ATOMIZER: The pump is operated to build pressure in the tank of 0.15-0.3
kg/cm2. The application rate ranges from 45 to 100 litres /ha.
❖ HAND COMPRESSION SPRAYER:
➢ This sprayer also consists of a tank of 10-12 lit capacity.
➢ The chemical tank is filled 75-80 % volume.
➢ The pump is operated to pump air in to the tank to build pressure up to 2.0 – 3.5 kg/cm2.
➢ The application rate ranges from 45 to 100 litres /ha.
❖ KNAPSACK SPRAYER (HAND OPERATED):
➢ It has a flat or bean-shaped tank of 10-15 litres capacity.
➢ The pressure developed in these sprayers depends on the pump and varies from 3 to 12
kg/cm2.
➢ The application rate is 500 lit/ha. The coverage is 0.5-1.0 ha/day.
❖ ROCKER SPRAYER:
➢ The pump builds up a pressure up to 14-18 kg/cm2.
➢ The output of the sprayer is 70-90 lit/hr with one nozzle.

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➢ Coverage is about 1.5 ha/day.

❖ FOOT OR PEDAL OPERATED SPRAYER:
➢ It develops a pressure of 17-21 kg/cm2.
➢ The discharge rate with one nozzle is 110-135 l/hr and coverage is 1.0 ha/day
❖ KNAPSACK MOTORIZED MIST BLOWER CUM DUSTER:
➢ It consists of a 1.2- 3.0 hp high speed petrol engine, a blower, a 12 lit chemical tank.
❖ POWER SPRAYER: It can Develops 250 to 350 pounds pressure and can deliver the
solution up to 15 m. It can be powered by a 3 HP engine or electric motor
❖ DUSTER: A duster essentially consists of ,
1. Hopper 2. Agitator
3. Feed control 4. Fan or blower
5. Delivery nozzle
❖ Harvesting tools and equipment are sickle, mower, Shoe, Ledger plate, Wearing plate,
Knife.
❖ COMBINE: It is a machine, which performs the functions of a reaper, thresher and
winnower.
The functional components are:
1. Header 2. Reel 3. Cutter bar 4. Elevator canvas 5. Feeder canvas 6. Feeding drum 7. Threshing
drum 8. Concave 9. Fan [Link] sieve 11. Grain sieve 12. Grain auger 13. Tailing auger 14.
Grain elevator and 15. Grain container.
➢ Combine harvester: A combine may be self-propelled type and PTO driven type,
➢ Self-propelled type: This engine gives power for operating all the mechanisms as well
as for pulling the weight of the combine. Size varies from 2-4 m.
➢ PTO driven type: The power requirement of the combine may be taken on 8 HP/m
width of cut for pulled type machine and 12 HP/m width of cut for self-propelled
machines.
Relative difficulty in transplanting various vegetables:

NO. Easy to transplant Medium difficulty Difficult to transplant

1 Broccoli sprouts Cauliflower Watermelon
2 Brussels Celery Muskmelon
3 Cabbage Egg plant Squash
4 Tomato Onion Cucumber
5 Lettuce Pepper

Average Field Speeds, Field Efficiencies, and Effective Field Capacities 0f

some farm machinery:

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Machine Size Speed Field Efficiency Effective Field

(mph) (%) Capacity (A/h)
Plow 7– 5 85 4.8
16"
Subsoiler 5– 5 85 5.2
24"
Chisel Plow 11’3" 5.5 85 6.4
Offset Disk 12' 5.5 85 6.8
Field Cultivator/Seedbed 15' 7 85 10.8
Conditioner
Planter, seed only 6– 5 65 5.9
30"
Sprayer 20' 6 65 9.5

Mower Conditioner 9' 7 83 6.3

rotary
Combine, soybeans* 15' 3.8 73 5.0
self-propelled Forage Harvester 3 25
rows

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Estimating Draft Requirements:

IMPLEMENT DRAFT PER UNIT WIDTH

(KN/m)
Disc plough 5.0-6.0
Chisel plough 4.5-5.5
Blade plough 4.0-4.5
SCarifier 4.0-4.5
Cultivator 3.0-3.5
Planter 2.5-3.5
Total draft = width (m) x draft / metre (kN/m)

Estimation of drawbar power:

Drawbar power = pull (kN) x speed* (km/hr)

3.6 (constant)

Equipment name Speed Draft (lb. per unit Average Range

(mph) of width)

Tillage
Moldboard plow (16 in. bottom,
7 in. deep)
Light soil 5.0 320 220 - 430 per foot
Medium soil 4.5 500 t350 - 650 per foot
Heavy soil 4.5 800 580 - 1,140 per foot
Clay soil 4.0 1200 1,000 - 1,400 per foot
Chisel-plow 5.0 500 200 - 800 per shank
(7-9 in. deep)
Field cultivator 5.0 300 200 - 400 per foot
Spring-tooth harrow 5.0 200 70 - 300 per foot
Spike-tooth harrow 6.0 50 20 - 60 per foot
Roller or packer 5.0 100 20 - 150 per foot
Cultivator 5.0 250 60 - 300 per foot
Field (3-5 in. deep) 4.5 80 40 - 120 per foot
Row crop

Rotary hoe 7.5 84 30 - 100 per foot

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Subsoiler (16 in. deep)

Light soil
Medium soil 4.5 1500 1,100 - 1,800 per
Heavy soil 4.5 2000 1,600 - 2,600 per
4.5 2600 2,000 - 3,000 per

Points to be remembered
❖ The cheapest source of energy is renewable energy.
❖ Power available from a farm labour is 0.1 hp
❖ Solar energy is a Renewable energy.
❖ 1915-1919- Power take off was introduced
❖ 1936- 1937 – Diesel engine was used in tractor and pneumatic tires were introduced
❖ 1960-1961 – Tractor manufacturing was started in India by first manufacturer M/s Eicher
Good Earth
❖ 1981- Auto tractors were started.
❖ 1982- Universal Tractors was established
❖ Sowing behind the plough can be done by a device known as malobansa
❖ With ultra-low volume sprayer one hectare of crop can be treated in around 2.5 hour
❖ Width of operation in self-propelled paddy harvester is 1.0 metre, coverage is 1.5 ha/day.
❖ Self-propelled harvesting units- citrus harvester can harvest 200-400 trees in one hour.
It can harvest 95% of the crop from the tree.
❖ Tractor operated turmeric harvester has field capacity of the unit is 1.6 ha per day. It
saves 70 per cent in cost and 90 per cent in time when compared to manual digging and
extent of damage caused to the rhizomes is very much less (2.83 per cent).
❖ Nursery stock vegetable Trans-planter can plant at spacing as close as 5-8 cm in the row.
Planters are available to plant 2-6 rows at a time with 15-20 cm row spacing.
❖ Power tiller operated potato digger depth is up to 30 cm capacity is 0.4 ha/day. 47.7 per
cent of saving in cost and 68.0 per cent of saving in time when compared to manual
digging.
❖ leveling with the animal make sure that ratio of 40kg weight/meter width of leveling
board as it gives best results.
❖ CHISEL PLOUGH: Can efficiently work up to 60-70 cm depth. 10 to 15 horsepower
(7 to 11 kW) per shank will be required.

PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND POST HARVEST

TECHNOLOGY
Green House: A greenhouse is a framed or an inflated structure covered with a transparent or
translucent material in which crops could be grown under the conditions of at least partially

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controlled environment and which is large enough to permit persons to work within it to carry
out cultural operations.

❖ The technology was rarely employed during the next 1500 years.
❖ In the 16th century, glass lanterns, bell jars and hot beds covered with glass were used
to protect horticultural crops against cold.
❖ In the 17th century, low portable wooden frames covered with an oiled translucent paper
were used to warm the plant environment.

Greenhouse Effect: Phenomenon of increase in the ambient temperature, due to the formation
of the blanket of carbon dioxide is known as greenhouse effect.

❖ In general, the percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is 0.035% (345 ppm).
❖ During the daytime, the shorter wave radiation enters into the greenhouse and gets
reflected from the ground surface.
❖ This causes the increase in the greenhouse temperature.
❖ It is desirable effect from point of view of crop growth in the cold regions.

Greenhouse type based on shape:

1) Lean-to type greenhouse: A lean-to design is used when a greenhouse is placed against the
side of an existing building

❖ It is typically facing south side and a total width of 7 to 12 feet.

2) Even span type greenhouse: The even-span is the standard type and full-size structure, the
two roof slopes are of equal pitch and width

❖ Several single and multiple span types are available for use in various regions of India.
❖ For single span type the span in general, varies from 5 to 9 m, whereas the length is
around 24 m.
❖ The height varies from 2.5 to 4.3 m.

3) Uneven span type greenhouse: This type of greenhouse is constructed on hilly terrain and
now-a-days as it is not adaptable for automation.

4) Ridge and furrow type greenhouse: Designs of this type use two or more A-frame
greenhouses connected to one another along the length of the eave.

❖ The eave serves as furrow or gutter to carry rain and melted snow away.
❖ Effectively used in northern countries of Europe and in Canada and are well suited to the
Indian conditions.

5) Saw tooth type Greenhouse: These are also similar to ridge and furrow type greenhouses
accept that, there is provision for natural ventilation in this type.

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Greenhouses for active cooling:

❖ During summer season, it is desirable to reduce the temperatures of greenhouse than the
ambient temperatures, for effective crop growth.
❖ This greenhouse is designed in such a way that it permits a roof opening of 40% and in
some cases nearly 100%.

1) Wooden framed structures: In general, for the greenhouses with span less than 6 m, only
wooden framed structures are used (Pine wood)

2) Pipe framed structures: Pipes are used for construction of greenhouses, when the clear span
is around 12m

3) Glass greenhouses: Only glass greenhouses with glass as the covering material existed prior
to 1950.

4) Plastic film greenhouses: Flexible plastic films including polyethylene, polyester and
polyvinyl chloride are used as covering material in this type of greenhouses. The best quality
ultraviolet (UV) stabilized film can last for four years only.

5) Rigid panel greenhouses: Polyvinyl chloride rigid panels, fibre glass-reinforced plastic,
acrylic and polycarbonate rigid panels are employed as the covering material. High grade panels
have long life even up to 20 years.

6) Shading nets: They are characterized of high tear resistance, low weight for easy and quick
installation with a 30-90% shade value range.

Light:
Green house crops are subjected to light intensities varying from 129.6klux on clear summer
days to 3.2 Klux on cloudy winter days. Photosynthesis does not increase at light intensities
higher than 32.2klux.

❖ UV light is available in the shorter wavelength range, i.e less than 400nm. Large of
quantities of it is harmful to the plants.
❖ Glass screens are opaque to the most UV light and light below the range of 325nm.
❖ Visible and white light has wavelength of 400 to 700nm.
❖ Far red light (700 to 750nm) affects plants, besides causing photosynthesis.

Temperature:
crop Temp.
Primula, mathiola 7 0C
incana and
calceolaria

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carnation and 10 0C
cineraria
rose 16 0C
Chrysanthemum 17 to 180C
and poinsettia
African violet 21 to 22 0C

Relative humidity: For most crops, the acceptable range of relative humidity is between 50
to 80%.

Ventilation: Air temperatures above 35 0C are generally not suited for the crops in green
house.

Carbon dioxide: Most crops will respond favorably to Co2 at 1000 to 1200 ppm.

Equipment required for controlling greenhouse environment:

1) Fan-and Pad cooling system: The fan and pad evaporative cooling system has been
available since 1954 and is still the most common summer cooling system in green
houses.
2) Fog cooling system: The fog evaporative cooling system, introduced in green houses in
1980, mean size of less than 10 microns using suitable nozzles.
3) Convection tube cooling: A proper gap is available for the air entry, as the end of the
convection tube is separated from the louvered inlet by 0.3 to 0.6m and the other end of
the tube is sealed.
4) Horizontal air flow cooling: HAF cooling system uses small horizontal fans[ 31 to 62
W (1/30 to 1/15hp)] for moving the air mass and is considered to be an alternative to
convection tube for the air distribution.
5) Natural ventilation: The ventilators on the roof as well as those on the side wall
accounts, each about 10% of the total roof area.
6) Roll up side passive ventilation in poly houses: allowing the air to flow across the
plants. The amount of ventilation on one side, or both sides, may be easily adjusted in
response to temperature, prevailing wind and rain
7) Computers: Computer systems can provide fully integrated control of temperature,
humidity, irrigation and fertilization, CO2, light and shade levels for virtually any size
growing facility. to realize saving of 15 to 50% in energy, water, chemical and pesticide
applications.

Planning of green house facility:

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Structural design: Greenhouse structures should be designed to resist a 130 km/h wind
velocity.

Covering materials:
Covering material Life span
1. Glass and acrylic sheet 20 years
2. Polycarbonate and fiberglass- 5-12 years
reinforced polyester sheet
3. Polyethylene 2-6 months
4. Polyethylene stabilized for UV rays 2-3 years

The ideal greenhouse selective covering material should have usable life of 10 to 20 years.

Materials for construction of green houses

a) Wood: Wood and bamboo are generally used for low cost poly-houses.

b) Glass: Widely used glass for greenhouse is:

(i) Single drawn or float glass (thickness of 3 to 4 mm)

(ii) Hammered and tempered glass (thickness of 4 mm) the most widely used

c) Polyethylene film: Polyethylene film was developed in the late 1930s in England and spread
around the middle of this century. Plastic film greenhouses are popular because the cost of
heating them is approximately 40% lower compared to single-layer glass or fiberglass-reinforced
plastic greenhouses.

d) Polyvinyl chloride film: PVC films are UV light resistant vinyl films of 0.2 to 0.3 mm and
are guaranteed for 4 to 5 years respectively. In Japan, 95% of greenhouses are covered with
plastic film, out of which 90% are covered with vinyl film.

e) Tefzel T 2 film: The most recent addition of greenhouse film plastic covering is Tefzel T 2
film (ethylene tetrafluoroethylene).

f) Polyvinyl chloride rigid-panel: PVC rigid panels showed much promise as an inexpensive
covering material (almost 40% of cost of long lasting fiberglass reinforced plastics), has the life
of 5 years. PVC rigid panels are not in use.

g) Fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP) rigid panel: FRP was more popular as a greenhouse
covering material in the recent past. Some grades give 5 to 10 years, while better grades can
last up to 20 years.

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h) Acrylic and polycarbonate rigid-panel: These panels have been available for about 15
years for greenhouse use. Acrylic panels are available in thickness of 16 and 18 mm, and have
83% of PAR light transmission.

Design criteria and constructional details of greenhouses: The floor area of service buildings
required for small firms is about 13% of the greenhouse floor area, (An average 10%)

Irrigation system used in greenhouses

Rules of Watering:

❖ Use a well-drained substrate with good structure

❖ Water thoroughly each time- As a rule, 10 to 15% excess of water is supplied

1) Hand watering: The most traditional method of irrigation is hand watering and in present
days is uneconomical.

2) Perimeter watering:

❖ Perimeter watering system can be used for crop production in benches or beds.
❖ A typical system consists of a plastic pipe around the perimeter of a bench with nozzles
that spray water over the substrate surface below the foliage.
❖ Either polythene or PVC pipe can be used.
❖ Nozzles are made of nylon or a hard plastic and are available to put out a spray are of
180°, 90° or 45°.
❖ Perimeter watering systems with 180° nozzles require one water valve for benches up to
30.5 m in length.

3) Overhead sprinklers:

❖ While the foliage on the majority of crops should be kept dry for disease control
purposes, a few crops do tolerate wet foliage.
❖ A total height of 0.6 m is sufficient for bedding plants flats and 1.8 m for fresh flowers. A
nozzle is installed at the top of each riser.
❖ Nozzles vary from those that throw a 360° pattern continuously to types that rotate
around a 360° circle. Trays are sometimes placed under pots to collect water that would
otherwise fall on the ground between pots and wasted.
❖ The trays also have drain holes, which allow drainage of excess water and store certain
quantity, which is subsequently absorbed by the substrate.

4) Boom watering:

❖ Boom watering can function either as open or a closed system, and is used often for the
production of seedlings grown in plug trays.

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❖ Plug trays are plastic trays that have width and length dimensions of approximately 30 ×
61 cm, a depth of 13 to 38 mm, and contain about 100 3 to 800 cells.
❖ Each seedling grown in its own individual cell.
❖ Precision of watering is extremely important during the 2 to 8 week production time of
plug seedlings. A boom watering system generally consists of a water pipe boom that
extends from one side of a greenhouse bay to the other
❖ The boom is propelled by an electric motor.
❖ The quantity of water delivered per unit area of plants is adjusted by the speed at which
the boom travels.

5) Drip Irrigation:

❖ Drip irrigation, often referred to as trickle irrigation.

❖ Drip irrigation is the best means of water conservation. In general, the application
efficiency is 90 to 95%, compared with sprinkler at 70% and furrow irrigation at 60
to 80%.

SPRINKLER IRRIGATION LIMITATIONS:

❖ Power requirements are usually high, since sprinkler operate with a water pressure of 0.5
kg/cm2 to 10 kg/cm2.
❖ PERFORATED PIPE SYSTEM
➢ It is suitable for lower pressure of about 0.5 to 2.5 kg/cm2.
➢ PUMP AND PRIME MOVER
➢ The laterals may designed to operate under pressure as low as 0.15 to 0.2 kg/cm2 and
as high as 1 to 1.75 kg/cm2.
❖ EMITTERS:
➢ The discharge rate of “emitters” usually range from 2 to 10 litres per hour.
❖ EMERGING TRENDS IN FARM MECHANIZATION
➢ Small engines 1 to 3 hp for handheld and knapsack power operated equipment for
pruning, hedge trimming, tree felling, cutting of bushes, tea harvesting, spraying and
dusting are preferred.
THRESHING
Post-harvest Technology: It refers to the process and treatments carried out on agricultural
products after it is harvested. It starts from the selection of proper harvest and ends with
marketing.

1) Threshing: Process of detaching grains from ear heads or from the plants.

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Manual – capacity varies from 30 to 50 kg/h

Power - capacity varies from 300 to 500kg/h

Components of thresher:

Concave

Threshing cylinder

Cleaning unit

Some important points:

❖ In case of angle bar type threshing cylinder the clearance between cylinder and concave
unit at the entrance is from 13 mm to 19 mm and reduces to 6 to 9 mm only.
❖ In case of rasp bar type cylinder usually 6 to 8 bars are spirally fixed on the cylinder.

WINNOWING

➢ Grain winnower:-
❖ This machine winnows the paddy already threshed by a paddy thresher or other
means.
❖ The capacity of unit is 625 kg/h and the unit is operated by on 1 hp motor.
➢ Paddy winnower:-

❖ Operated by 1 hp electric motor.

➢ Paddy pre-cleaner:-

❖ Used in cleaner cum grader to improve cleaning efficiency.

❖ The capacity of the unit is 150 kg/h and it is operated 1 hp electric motor.
❖ The efficiency of the unit is 91%.

SHELLER – MAIZE AND CASTOR SHELLER

1) Maize Sheller:-
❖ The capacity of the unit is 500 kg of cob/h.
❖ It is operated by a 1 hp electric motor.

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2) Husker Sheller for maize:-

❖ Used for removal of sheath and shelling of cob.

❖ The capacity of the unit is 100 quintals per day.
❖ It is operated by 7.5 hp electric motor.
3) Castor Sheller cum winnower:-
❖ Capacity of the unit is 250 kg/h.
❖ It is operated by 2 hp electric motor.
4) Castor Sheller:

❖ The Sheller consists of a wooden ribbed cylinder of 320 mm length and 380 mm
diameter.
❖ The unit is operated by 2 labours.
❖ Capacity of the unit is 1 quintal per day.
GRAIN DRYING
Mechanism of drying process:-

Movement of moisture takes place due to:-

❖ Capillary flow – Liquid movement due to surface forces.
❖ Liquid diffusion – Liquid movement due to difference in moisture concentration.
❖ Surface diffusion - Liquid movement due to moisture diffusion of the pore spaces.
❖ Vapour diffusion – Vapour movement due to moisture concentration difference.
❖ Thermal diffusion - Vapour movement due to temperature difference.
❖ Hydro dynamic flow – Water and vapour movement due to total pressure difference.

1) Thin layer drying:-

❖ Up to 20 cm thickness of grain bed is taken as thin layer.
❖ All commercial dryers are designed based on thin layer drying principles

2) Deep bed drying:-

❖ Rate of airflow per unit mass of grain is small.

Types of dryers:-

Continuous flow dryer:

1) Mixing type:-
❖ Baffles are used to divert the grains.
❖ Use low air flow rates of 50-95 m3/min/tonnes.
❖ Zigzag columns enclosed by screens are used to achieve mixing.
❖ High drying air temperature of 65°C is used.
❖ E.g. Baffle dryer.
2) Non-mixing type:-

❖ Grains flow in a straight path.

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❖ Baffles are absent.

❖ High airflow rates can be used.
❖ Drying air temperature of 54°C is used.
a) Re-circulatory Batch dryer:-

❖ Consists of 2 concentric circular cylinders, set 15-20 cm apart.

b) LSU dryer:-

❖ Developed at Louisiana state university (LSU).

❖ Capacity varies from 2-12 tonnes.
❖ Recommended air flow rate is 60-70 m3/min/ton.
❖ Air temperature are 60 & 85°C for raw & parboiled paddy respectively.
c) Tray dryer: - Heated by hot air.

d) Fluidized Bed Dryers:

❖ Heat is transferred from the air to the food material, mostly by convection.

Other non-mixing type dryers - Pneumatic Dryers, Rotary Dryers

GRAIN STORAGE
Storage structures:
Storage- to maintain the quality of grain after harvest for:

❖ Maintaining the supply of grain.

❖ Taking advantage of higher prices.

Two methods of grain storage:

Bag storage

Loose in bulk storage

A) Traditional storage structures- (Bulk type) -

1) Bukkhari type:
❖ Shape - Cylindrical in shape
❖ Made of mud or combination of mud and split bamboo
❖ Improved type – same structure
❖ Rat proofing cones

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❖ Grains – wheat, gram, paddy, maize and sorghum

❖ Capacity – 3.5 – 18 t

2) Kothar type:
❖ Store – paddy, maize, sorghum, wheat
❖ Capacity – 9-35 t
❖ Structure – box
❖ Improved Kothar – 5cm thick wooden planks and beams

3) Morai type:
❖ Grains – paddy, maize, sorghum
❖ Capacity – 3.5 – 18 t
❖ Shape- inverted truncated cone

4) Mud Kothi (Mud bin):

❖ Capacity-1 to 50 tonnes.
❖ These are made from mud mixed with dung and straw.
❖ Rectangular in shape but cylindrical Kothi is also common in some region.

5) Bag Storage Structure:

❖ These structures are generally used for the storage of 25 to 500 tonnes of grain.

B) Improved storage structures:

1) Pusa bin:
2) Brick and cement bin:
❖ The bin is made on a platform raised at 60 cm above the ground.
❖ Capacity-1.5 to 60 tonnes.
3) Bunker Storage:
❖ Bunker storage structure is used for long term storage of a larger volume of grains.
❖ The structure is successful as a means of storing grains safely, securely and
economically.
4) 'CAP' Storage structures:
❖ The 'CAP' is used for cover and plinth storage
❖ This type of open storage is considered as intermediate storage and serves the purpose of
storage of food grains in bags for short period
❖ Rectangular in shape
❖ Capacity-24 tonnes.

FRUITS AND VEGETABLES CLEANING

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1) Fruit and Vegetable Cleaning Machine:

❖ Capacity : 20 kg/batch
❖ Power requirement : 1 person
❖ RPM : 20 – 30 rpm
❖ Fruit and vegetable : Most fruits & vegetable inclusive mango & tomato
❖ Foreign matter removal : Field Soil, Dust and surface microorganism, Fungicide /
insecticide, Sap, Black spots etc.

2) Multifunctional cleaning machine

3) Fruit cleaning machine:

❖ The equipment is suitable for cleaning of ball-shape or oval-shape fruits and vegetables.
❖ The fruits and vegetables rotate continuously in all directions randomly.
❖ Brushing and spraying is in effect at a same time.

4) Brush Type Vegetable & Fruit Cleaning Machine:

Production capacity

Watermelon-
Apple-30T/h
10T/h

Orange-
Carrot- 8T/h
35T/h

5) Surf Type Fruit Cleaning Machine:

❖ The equipment is mainly composed of water cabinet, material turning device, fan and
lifter etc.
❖ It is widely used for soft washing of fruit and vegetable raw materials. The lifter can be
made of complete stainless steel and engineering plastic.

GRADING
1) Divergent roller type fruit sorting machine for lemon and sapota- MPKV, Rahuri.

2) Divergent rails/slit size mango grader- CISH, Lucknow.

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3) Fruit and vegetables grade for tomato and mango:

Capacity – 500 kg /ha

Power requirement-
½ hp electric motor

Efficiency- 85-90 %

4) Potato grader: Capacity – 5 to 30 tonnes/ hr

5) Onion grader: Capacity - 8 to 30 tonnes/ hr

SIZE REDUCTION
Unit operation in which the average size of solid pieces of food is reduced by the application:

Impact forces
Compression
Grinding

Related terms:
❖ Homogenization or Emulsification
➢ Reduction in size of globules of immiscible liquids
❖ Atomization
➢ Size reduction of liquids by droplets
❖ Extrusion, Agglomeration or Forming
➢ Size enlargement
❖ Milling efficiency: Product of coefficient of hulling (E hulling) and coefficient of
wholeness of kernel (E wk)
❖ Coefficient of hulling: Percentage of the hulled grains obtained from the total amount of
grain input.

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❖ Coefficient of Wholeness of kernel: Ratio of the amount of kernel, crushed grains and
mealy waste obtained by any milling system.
FOOD STANDARDS AND REGULATIONS
INDIAN STANDARDS:
The main Acts/Regulations/Control orders to regulate trade,
❖ Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954
❖ Plant Quarantine (Regulation of Import into India) Order, 2003
❖ Meat Food Product Order, 1973
❖ Milk And Milk Product Order, 1992
❖ Bureau Of Indian Standards Act, 1986
❖ Standards On Weight And Measurement Act, 1976
❖ Livestock Importation Act, 1898
❖ AGMARK Act ,1937
❖ The Infant Milk Substitutes, Feeding Bottles and Infant Foods Act ,1992
❖ Export (Quality Control and Inspection) Act, 1963
❖ Essential commodities Act,1955
❖ Indian Explosives Act,1884
❖ Energy Conservation Act, 2001
❖ The Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006

The following laws were consolidated:

1. The Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954 (37 of 1954)
2. The Fruit Products Order, 1955
3. The Meat products Order, 1973
4. The Vegetable Oil Products (Control) Order, 1947
5. The Edible Oils Packaging (Regulation) order, 1998
6. The Solvent Extracted Oil, De oiled Meal, and Edible Flour (Control) Order, 1967
7. The Milk and Milk Products Order, 1992
8. Any other order issued under the Essential Commodities Act, 1955 (10 of 1955)
relating to food.

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