Chapter 3 : Algebraic
structures
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f(x)’= f(x’) “the symmetric of a morphism is the morphism of the symmetric”
Proof : f(x) o f(x’) = f(x * x’) = f(e1) = e2 and f(x’) o f(x) = f(x’ * x) = f(e1) = e2
Kernel and image:
• The kernel of f is the subgroup f −1 (e2) of G1, and
Ker f = {x ∈ G1 : f(x) = e2}
• Proposition : Let f : G → H be a homomorphism. Then
f is injective ⇐⇒ Ker f = {e1}.
Proof=⇒ :Suppose that f is injective. We must show that x ∈ Ker f ⇐⇒ x = e1. Note that e1 ∈ Ker f
Conversely, suppose that x ∈ Ker f. Then by definition f(x) = e2 = f(e1). Since f is injective, x = e1.
⇐= : Suppose that Ker f = {e1}. If f(x1) = f((x2), then
f(x1) o (f(x2))’ = f((x2) o (f(x2))’ = f((x2) o (f(x2’) = f(x2*x2’) = f(e1) = e2
And f(x1 * x2’) = e2 Then (x1 * x2’) ∈ Ker f then x1 * x2’ = e1 so x1 = x2
Algebraic structures
2. Ring structure
The definition of a ring
A structure (R, +, ·) is a ring if R is a non-empty set and + and · are binary
operations such that
Addition: (R, +) is an abelian group, that is
• associativity: for all a, b, c ∈ R we have a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
• there exists 0 ∈ R such that for all a ∈ R we have a + 0 = 0 + a = a
• inverses: for any a ∈ R, −a ∈ R such that a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0
• commutativity: for all a, b ∈ R we have a + b = b + a
Multiplication: associativity: for all a, b, c ∈ R: a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c
Addition and multiplication together : for all a, b, c ∈ R, a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c and
(a + b) · c = a · b + b · c
Special types of rings:
Assume (R; +, ·) is a ring.
We say R is a commutative ring if its multiplication · is commutative,
that is
• Commutativity: a · b = b · a for all a, b ∈ R.
We say R is a ring with 1 (or ring with identity) if there exists an identity
for multiplication, that is
• identity element: there exists 1 ∈ R such that for all a ∈ R we have a
a . 1 = 1 · a = a.
Integral domain: The ring (R; +, ·) is an integral domain if for all a, b in R,
a · b = 0 implies a=0 or b=0.
Examples :
(1) All of Z, Q, R and C are commutative rings with identity (with the number 1 as the
identity).
(2) N is NOT a ring for the usual addition and multiplication. These are binary operations
and we do have a zero element, namely 0, so axiom (A2) holds. However (A3)
(existence of additive inverses) fails: there is no n ∈ N for which 1 + n = 0, for example.
(3) (A (R; R) , +, o) is a non commutative ring with identity and without integral domain :
The identity is idx such that f o idx = f
f o g = 0 does not imply that f and g are zeros.
Subrings and the Subring Test :
Let (R; +, ·) be a ring and let S be a non-empty subset of R. Then (S; +, ·) is a subring of R if it is a
ring with respect to the operations it inherits from R.
The Subring Test : Let (R; +, ·) be a ring and let S ⊆ R.
Then (S; +, ·) is a subring of R if (and only if) S is non-empty and the following hold:
• a + b ∈ S for any a, b ∈ S;
• a − b ∈ S for any a, b ∈ S;
• ab ∈ S for any a, b ∈ S.
Examples
(1) Z and Q are subrings of R;
(2) R, regarded as numbers of the form a + 0i for a ∈ R, is a subring of C.
(3) (nZ , + , . ), with n ∈ Z are sub rings of (Z , + , .) because :
nZ contains zéro 0 and for all x,y ∈ nZ: x - y ∈ nZ and x . y ∈ nZ
Ring homomorphism
The definition of a field
Definition : A structure (F, +, ·) where + and · are binary operations on F is a
field if
• 0 ≠ 1 ie "e1 ≠ e2"
• (F, +) is an abelian group;
• (F \ {0}, ·) is an abelian group;
• The distributive laws hold.
The field is commutative if the ring is commutative.
Every field is a ring with integral domain. Reciprocity is not true:
(Z, +, ·) is a ring with integral domain but is not a field.
(R, +, ·), (Q, +, ·), (C, +, ·) are fields,
The Subfield : Let (F; +, ·) be a field and let L ⊆ F.
Then (L; +, ·) is a subfield of F if and only if:
• a + b ∈ L for any a, b ∈ L;
• a − b ∈ L for any a, b ∈ L;
• a .b-1 ∈ L for any a, b ∈ L.
Remark that a homomorphism of field is a homomorphism of ring