STM 007

MODULE 01
Divine Creation Theory – created by a supernatural being called GOD.
 religion/Christian belief

Theory of Catastrophism – life is originated by the creation and it is followed by catastrophe

 Bishop James Ussher and Baron Georges Cuvier

Philosophical Theory of Eternity – life has a beginning and no end.

 Sir Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, Sir Fred Hoyle

Cosmozoic Theory – life originated from outer space (cosmozoa)

 Richter and Arrhenuis

Abiogenesis Theory – life can arise from non-living things.

 Alexander Oparin and J.B.S. Haldane

Biogenesis Theory – living things can arise from pre-existing living things.
 comes from ‘bio’ meaning ‘life’, and ‘genesis’, meaning ‘beginning’
o Louis Pasteur - In 1859, to prove biogenesis right down to a bacterial level. By 1861, he succeeded in
establishing biogenesis as a solid theory

MODULE 02
Living Organisms - characterized by a highly organized structure and arranged in a hierarchical pattern.

Atoms – smallest scale; fundamental unit of matter

Molecules – chemical structure consisting of at least two atoms.

Organelle – structure that has a specific function.

Cell – structural and functional unit of life.

Tissue – group of similar cells having common function.

Organ – group of tissues grouped performing a common function.

Organ System – consists of functionally related organs.

Organisms – consists of different organ systems.

Population – group of organisms of the same species living in a specific area

Community – group of organism different species living together and interacting.

Ecosystem – group of organisms interacting to the non-living environment.

Biosphere – group sum of all ecosystem.

MODULE 03
Cell - basic unit of life. It means that all organisms are composed of cells.
Robert Hooke – he contributed to the discovery of cells while looking at a thin slice of cork.
 First to discover the cell; coined the term “cells’

Hans & Zacharias Janssen – They produced the first compound microscope.
 Started experimenting with lenses.

Anton van Leewenhoek – the first man to witness a live cell under a microscope.

Matthias Schleiden – showed that the development of all vegetable tissues comes from the activity of the cells.
 Proposed that plants are composed of cells.

Theodor Schwann – proposed that in animals too, every structural element is composed of cells and cell products.

Rudolf Virchow – concluded that all cells arise from pre-existing cells.
 “Omnis cellula e cellular” which means “cells originate from cell”

The 3 principles of Cell Theory are:

1. All living things are composed of one or more cells,
2. Cell is the basic unit of life and;
3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

MODULE 04
Nucleus
 Governor of the cell
 It controls all the activities of every organelle
 Houses the DNA and directs the synthesis of protein and ribosomes.

Plasma Membrane
 Gate keeper of the cell; it guards the entrance
 Semi-permeable

Cell Wall
 Present in plant cell
 Provides rigidity and gives shape

Cytoplasm
 It is where all organelles are embedded
 Cytosol fluid portion of the cytoplasm

Cytoskeleton
 network of protein fibers
 Microfilaments for cellular movement and provides rigidity and shape
 Intermediate for structural
 Microtubule composed of tubulin, resist compression

Mitochondria
 Responsible for making ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)
 Mitochondrial matrix encloses DNA
 Cristae houses enzymes that catalyze reactions for cellular respiration

Chloroplast
 Carry out photosynthesis
  Contains photosynthetic pigment
 Absent in animal cell
Autotrophs (plants)
Heterotrophs (animals)

Endoplasmic Reticulum
Rough ER
 has ribosomes attached responsible for protein synthesis
Smooth ER
 has no ribosomes attached responsible for lipid synthesis

Golgi Apparatus/Gogi Body

Camillo Golgi - Italian physician who identified them.
 Tagging, sorting and distribution of proteins
 cis face - Receive proteins and lipids from the endoplasmic reticulum
 trans face - releases golgi vacuoles which contain modified enzymes or proteins

Lysosome & Peroxisomes

 Peroxisomes - has oxidation reaction that breakdown fatty acids and amino acids
o Release hydrogen peroxide
 Lysosomes are called “suicidal bag”
 Contains hydrolytic enzyme
 Phagocytosis or endocytosis
 Breaking down old organelles and apoptosis to recycle

Centrioles
 Responsible for cellular division
 Not present in plant cell

Vacuole
 Turgor pressure and 90% volume of the cell
 If large vacuole shrinks, it will result to wilted appearance of plant
 Not present in animal cell

MODULE 05
Bacteria - Single-celled organisms that lack nucleus

Cell Wall
 Maintains its shape, provides rigidity to the cell
 Composed of peptidoglycan
 Protects cell from bursting in hypotonic medium

Capsule
 Made up of polysaccharide
 Protect it from phagocytosis
 Works as food reserve and sticks the cell together

Cytoplasm
 For cellular growth, metabolism and replication of genetic material
 Also called the store house of the cell

Plasma Membrane
  Also called the cytoplasmic membrane
 Semi permeable membrane
 Helps in transportation of substances

Ribosome
 Bacterial ribosome functions for protein synthesis
 Helps in transferring the genetic material of bacterial cells

Flagella
 A hair-like structure
 Locomotion - it helps the bacterial cell to move clockwise, counter-clockwise, forward and spin
 Can be found at either or both ends

Pili
 For attachment or adhering to host
 Sex pili or fertility pili
 Conjugation - gene transfer from donor to recipient thru pilus

Nucleoid
 Prokaryotic cell where DNA is housed
 No membrane bound
 Contains RNA, proteins and enzymes used for cellular process

MODULE 06
Prokaryotic Cell - Mostly single-celled (unicellular) organisms that lacks of nucleus or any other membrane bound
organelles.

Eukaryotic Cell - Multicellular organisms that has nucleus, characterized by numerous membranes bound
organelles
o Have a membrane bound nucleus that encloses its genetic material

MODULE 07
Organisms – are made up of cells, when these cells combined together it forms tissues.
o Organisms are classified as unicellular and multicellular.
 Unicellular organisms – consist of one cell as in lower forms of organisms.
 Multicellular organisms – demonstrated by higher forms. Made up of several cells of various sizes,
shapes, and arrangement.

Tissues – are group of similar cells that perform specific function.

4 Basic Types of Tissues

1. Epithelial Tissues – it covers the body’s internal and external surfaces with one or more layers of tightly
packed cells.

Epithelial tissues can be structurally divided into two groups depending on the number of cell layers:
 simple epithelium – which is consists of single layer of cells
 stratified epithelium – made is made up multiple cell layers.

Epithelial tissues are classified partly by shapes of their cells:

 Simple Squamous Epithelium (flattened) – a single layer of flat cells with oval nuclei and
arranged like tiles on the floor. Found in lining of the lungs, blood vessels and capillary walls.
  Simple Cuboidal Epithelium (cube-shaped) – roughly cuboidal in shape and each cell has
spherical nucleus in the center. Found in secretive or absorptive tissues.

 Simple Columnar Epithelium (tall and thin/elongated) – usually forms the lining of stomach and
intestine. Some columnar cells are specialized for sensory perception.

 Ciliated Epithelium – made up of cells which can be either columnar and cuboidal, but, they
possess fine hair– like outgrowths called cilia on their free surfaces.

2. Muscular Tissues – are specialized cells that have a primary function of contraction and their cells are called
muscle fibers which are elongated and arranged in parallel arrays.

 Muscle fiber – is composed of cytoplasm,

 Sarcolemma – the sarcoplasm and the membrane of muscle fiber.

 Two kinds of contractile proteins of Myofibril

1. actin
2. myosin.

Based on location, muscles maybe

 Skeletal – if they are attached to the bones like biceps, triceps, pectoralis.
 Visceral or Smooth – if they are located in the walls of hollow internal structures like the
stomach, intestines and blood vessels.
 Cardiac – if they make up the heart.

Types of Muscle
 Voluntary Muscles – are found outside of the skeleton and are under control of the will.

 Involuntary Muscles – produce movements over which we have no control, such as motions of the
stomach and other hollow internal organs.

Three Types of Muscular Tissue

 Striated Muscle – made up long filamentous fibers with many elongated nuclei in the sarcolemma and the
presence up many striations of the dark and light cross bands.

 Smooth or Visceral Muscle – made up of spindle-shaped cell and it is found in the walls of visceral organs.

 Cardiac Muscle
- a very special type of muscle, which is striated and involuntary.
- it has many nuclei, the fibers are characterized by branches with cross striations and unique dark
bands.
- Intercalated Disk – where two cell membranes are adjacent to each other.

3. Connective Tissue – is to bind together various parts of the body.

 Extracellular matrix – connective tissues are characterized by its presence.

 Protein Fibers and Ground Substance – is as non-living material.

 Collagen and Elastin – are composed of protein fiber.

 Loose or Areolar connective tissues

- loosely arranged fibro-elastic tissue
- consists of a clear amorphous ground substance
- fastens down the skin and various membranes.

 Dense connective tissue

o contains tightly packed collagen fibers
o stronger than connective tissue
o is found in tendons

 Adipose or fats tissue

o has clear oval shape cells
o cytoplasm and nucleus are pushed to the side of each cell by a globule if fat
o function for the nutrients and fat storage

 Hyaline cartilage
o found in the particular ends of long bones
o common than fibrous and elastic cartilage
o bluish-white translucent and quite homogeneous

 Chondrocytes – are found in the small cavities called lacunae.

 Bone or osseous tissue – dense organic matrix chiefly of collagen with mineral deposits
o Compact Bone – more solid and found externally
o Spongy or Calcareous Bones – composed of latticework of short bars and plates and it is
found more internal
3 Parts of bone
o Lamella – thin layer where other non-living mineral substances are deposited.
o Periosteum – outermost covering to which the muscles and tendons are attached.
o Haversian system – runs mainly longitudinally, providing channels for blood vessels and
nerve.

 Lacunae – are small spaces where the bone cells are found.

 Canaliculi – are fine radiating canals.

 Blood – liquid that has a color red.

 Vascular tissue – which is blood. It can classified as special connective tissue. Composed of cell and
extracellular matrix.

 Red blood cells or Erythrocytes – numerous disk-shaped cells without nuclei.

 White blood cells or Leukocytes – lesser number in number and bigger size compared to RBC.
o Lymphocytes – are the smallest WBC
 o Monocytes – are the largest WBC

4. Nervous Tissue – exhibit irritability. It receives and transmits stimuli in the form of nerve impulse to various
effectors.

 Neuron – made up of the cell body containing the nucleus and cytoplasmic extensions.

 Dendrite – carry impulses towards the cell body and it is usually short and unbranched.

 Axon – carries the impulse away from the cell body and usually long and unbranched.

 Myelin sheath – a nucleated cell membrane covers the axon cylinder.

 Neuroglia or nerve glue – which do not conduct nerve impulses.

MODULE 08
Botany – branch of science that deals with plants.
 Botanist - person who studies plant structure and function.

Histology – the science that deals with tissues.

 Histologist – person who studies tissue.

Four Main Types of Plant Tissues

1. Protective Tissues – covers the surface of the leaves and the living cells of the roots and stems.

1. Epidermis – in animals (skin), in plants (epidermis).

o Cuticle – coating of plant leaves

2. Periderm – also called (bark), replaces the epidermis in plants that undergo secondary growth.

2. Meristems or Meristematic Tissues

- tissues that are constantly dividing
- region that produced new cells

 Apical Meristems – are located at or near the tips of roots and shoot.

 Lateral Meristems – which is generally the horizontal growth.

Two types of lateral meristems: Vascular Cambium and Cork Cambium

 Intercalary Meristems – are found in grasses and related plants

3. Ground Tissues – are responsible in synthesizing organic compounds.

 Parenchyma Cells
- most abundant
- found in almost all major parts of higher plants
- basically, sphere shape when they are first made
- divide if they mature which is vital in repairing damage to plant tissues
- has no chloroplasts

 Collenchyma Cells
 - Elongated and walls are pliable in addition to being strong
- Found just beneath the epidermis

 Chlorenchyma
- Some parenchyma cells have many chloroplasts and form the tissues found in the leaves
- Main function is for photosynthesis

 Aerenchyma Tissues – group of cells that are loosely packed together with connected air spaces

 Sclerenchyma Tissues – Cells that has thick tough secondary walls that are imbedded with lignin
- Sclereids - randomly distributed throughout other tissues; sometimes called ‘stone cells’
- Fibers - found in association with the variety of tissues in roots, leaves and fruits

4. Specialized Tissues – Consist of two important plant organs:

1. Stomata - pore on the epidermis of land plants
2. Guard cells - act as a turgor-driven valve that opens and closes the pores in response to given
environmental conditions

 Transpiration – process in which the water vapor is released into the atmosphere through the pores.

 Trichomes – cutinized epidermal appendages; for protection and prevention of water evaporation.

MODULE 09
Cellular Modification – is needed by an organism to adapt and respond to the changing environment in order to
survive.

 Microvilli
o Structure: Microvilli are tiny finger-like projections on certain types of cells.
o Function: Their function is related to absorption of materials because they increase the surface
area of the cell membrane
o Location: They are found on the surface of the cell that line the small intestine of animals.

 Cilia – are tail like projections found in eukaryotic cells.

1. Motile Cilia – used to move cells through certain parts of the organisms mostly animals.
2. Non-motile Cilia – usually found in the eyes and the nose to trap dirt and other objects.

 Stereo Cilia – different from cilia they are most closely related to microvilli.
o has a distinctive characteristics
o mechano-sensing organelles of hair cells

 Muscle
o contraction and when this contraction is coordinated, it results in movement.
o generally elongated and elastic containing mitochondria in large numbers.

 Red Blood Cell

o tiny, disk–like cell (biconcave shape) which has no nucleus
o red pigment called hemoglobin

 Root Hair Cells

o modified epidermal cells of the roots
o tubular extensions of individual epidermal cells
  Trichomes
o cellular or multicellular hair-like outgrows
o reduce evaporation
o protect leaves from high-intensity light

 Guard Cells
o paired sausage shaped cell
o mouth-shaped epidermal opening
o contain chloroplast

MODULE 10
Cytology – science that study cells.
o Branch of science that deals the structures and function of cells.

Cell Division – accomplishes the increase in the number of cells.

o Cell divides to give rise to new ones, to replaced those old and injured cells and to promote growth of
organisms.

Cell Cyle – an orderly sequence of events that describes the stages of cell’s life from the division of a single parent
cell to the reproduction of two new cells daughter cell.
o Activities exhibited by cell

Interphase – it is also called the resting phase.

GAP 0 phase – are times when a cell will leave the cycle and quit dividing. It means that if the cell does not receive
“go-ahead” signal.

GAP 1 phase – also known as restriction point. Cell increase in size, produce RNA and synthesize protein.

Synthesis phase or S phase – produce two similar daughter cells, DNA replication.

GAP 2 – the gap between DNA synthesis and mitosis, the cell will continue to grow and produce new proteins.

Mitosis – is the part of cell cycle that results in identical daughter nuclei that are also genetically identical to the
original parent nucleus.

Nuclear Division (known as Karyokinesis) – a continuous process but it is conveniently divided into four different
stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
1. Prophase – is marked by the condensation of chromosomes to form visibly distinct chromosomes.
Chromosomes become shorter and thicker.

2. Metaphase – chromosomes are aligned at the middle in a plane called metaphase phase, or the
equatorial plane.

3. Anaphase – the centromere divided and the two sister chromatids move toward the opposite poles of
the spindle.

4. Telophase – starts when the chromosomes reach their spindle poles. Chromosomes move to opposite
ends of the cell and two nuclei are formed.

MODULE 11
MEIOSIS I
 - reductional cell division, the chromosomes number is reduced by half (from 46 to 23)

MEIOSIS II
- equational cell division similar to mitosis which maintains the chromosomes number of organism
(maintain 23 chromosome)
- Reduces the chromosomes number of the parent cell so that the four daughter cells are produced

MEIOSIS I
1. PROPHASE I
2. METAPHASE I
3. ANAPHASE I
4. TELOPHASE I

PROPHASE I
 During the prophase I, each chromosome carefully aligns with its homologue partner so that the two
match up at corresponding positions along their full length.

LEPTONEMA
- Where replicated chromosomes have coiled and are already visible.

ZYGOMENA
- The homologous chromosomes begin to pair and twist each other in a highly specific manner.

SYNAPSIS
- The pairing. Because the pair consists of four chromatids it is referred to as BIVALENT.

PACHYNEMA
- Chromosomes become much shorter and thicker.

HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOME
- Set of one maternal and paternal chromosome that carries the same type genes in the same order alleles
(variation of a gene) may be different.

CROSSING OVER
- A form of process of physical exchange of a chromosome region.
- The exchange of chromosome segments between homologous chromosomes.
- Importance of crossing-over is to ENSURE GENETIC VARIABILITY.

DIPLONEMA
- Two pairs of sister chromatids begin to separate from each other

CHIASMA
- The crossing-over is shown to have taken place and the area of contact between two non-sister
chromatids

DIAKINESIS
- The four chromatids of each tetrad are even more condensed and the chiasma often terminalize or move
down the chromatids to the ends

METAPHASE I
- Spindle begins to capture chromosomes and move them towards the center of the cell (metaphase plate)
- Homologous chromosomes are tightly coiled and condensed.
- Homologous chromosomes aligned at the metaphase plates.
HOMOLOGOUS PAIRS – not individual chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate for separation

ANAPHASE I
- Homologues are pulled apart and move apart to opposite ends of the cell.
- Bivalent started to separate.
- Bivalent starts moving towards opposite poles of the cell.

TELOPHASE I
- The last stage in meiosis.
- Homologous chromosome pairs complete their migration to the two poles as a result of the action of the
spindle.

MEIOSIS II
- Conatienal cell division (similar to mitosis)

Chromosome number is maintained (maintain 23 chromosomes)

MEIOSIS II
1. PROPHASE II
2. METAPHASE II
3. ANAPHASE II
4. TELOPHASE II

PROPHASE II
- There is formation of spindle apparatus.
- The chromosomes progress toward the metaphase plate.

METAPHASE II
- Each of the daughter cells complete the formation of a spindle apparatus.
- This is the metaphase, in which homologous pairs of chromosomes are alight on the metaphase plate.

ANAPHASE II – the centromeres separate, and the two chromatids of each chromosome move to opposite poles
on the spindle.

TELOPHASE II – a nuclear envelope forms around each set of chromosomes.

CYTOKINESIS – is the division of cytoplasm in cells. At the end of the division, the mother cell produces four
haploid cell.