RAM MOHUN ROY ON SATI AND SEXISM*

CROMWELL CRAWFORD

Ram Mohun Roy is known best but understood least for his reforms in the area of
sati. The purpose of this paper is first to make a thorough historical investigation of his
role in the abolition of sati; and secondly, to understand his legacy for the woman's move-
ment as an original opponent of masculine sexism.
Cromwell Crawford is Professor at the Department of Religion, University of Hawaii,
Hawaii 968 22.

1. Sati By about the sixth century, the ancient

custom was revived in areas where Brah-
Sati (Anglicised as suttee) is a feminine manic influence was dominant — along the
noun made from the verbal root sat, mean- Ganges, Bengal, Oudh, and Rajputana
ing truth. A sati was therefore a widow ([Link].8, in Hastings Encyclopedia of
who was considered true and virtuous Religion and Ethics, Vol. XI). In the
because she allowed herself to be burnt upon opinion of R. W. Frazer, the custom was
the funeral pile of her husband (rarely, she revived under the pressure of priests "anxi-
took poison or was buried alive). A change ous to obtain command over the property
in the above meaning of virtuous wife came of the widow. In order to give the custom
about when Christian missionaries incor- a religious sanction, a passage in the Rig-
rectly referred to the act of self-immolation veda which directed the widow to rise from
itself as sati. her husband's funeral pyre and go forth in
Vedic literature suggests that during its front (agre) was altered into to go into the
times sati was a "mimetic ceremony" (M. fire iagneh) ([Link].8, in Hasting's Ency-
and J. Stutley, 1977: 273). The Atharva clopedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. XI).
Veda declares: "Get up, O Woman, to the Though sanctified by age and priestly self-
world of the living; thou liest by this one interest, sati was never universally practis-
who is deceased; come! to him who grasps ed. It was rare in parts of Punjab, and was
thy hand, thy second spouse, thou hast prohibited in most sections of the south
now entered into the relation of wife to ([Link].8 in Hasting's Encyclopedia of Re-
husband," (XVIII-I in Hastings Encyclo- ligion and Ethics, Vol. XI).
pedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. X I : 207). During the Moghul period, the custom
Both here and in the Rig Veda, ([Link].8, was "frowned upon," (Smith, 1967 : 454)
Hastings Encyclopedia of Religion and but it was never completely prohibited for
Ethics, Vol. XI : 207) the widow ascends fear of alienating the Hindu subjects. As
the funeral pyre of her dead husband as Muslim power declined, the practice was
part of her "ancient duty," but although revived. "In areas exposed to Western in-
she lies by the corpse of her husband, she fluence, such as Bengal proper, or otherwise
is told to rise and go forth with her new exposed to a high degree of social flux,
spouse to a life of "progeny and property." such as the Banaras region under the new-
Once she departs, the pyre is set ablaze. ly risen Rajas of Banaras, sati became a
Thus, the Vedic Indians ceremonialised an popular custom," (Ray, 1975: 3). In the
earlier custom enjoining widows to cremate Madras Presidency, during the second de-
themselves with their dead husbands. cade of the 19th century, the practice was
* Delivered at the Eighth Wisconsin Conference on South Asia, November 2-3, 1979, Madi-
son Wisconsin.
74 CROMWELL CRAWFORD

only known in the Telegu area and in parts inherit property or use it for bargaining
of Tanjore. In the Bombay Presidency, the purposes," these privileges were deemed
rite was limited to the Konkan district. dangerous (Ray, 1975). The safest and most
Only in the Bengal Presidency was the sanctimonious way of avoiding this danger
popularity of the custom truly felt, parti- was to persuade surviving wives to blaze
cularly in Calcutta and the neighbouring a path of virtue! Ram Mohun clearly saw
districts of Burdwan, Hooghly, Nadia, and through this proprietary greed behind the
the 24 Parganas. Almost 60 per cent of all high incidence of sati and drew the atten-
satis in the Presidency between the years tion of the Governor-General to it in his
1815 to 1826 came from these localities. Appeal.
At first it might seem strange that sati In the face of the popularisation of this
was most popular in areas most directly rite, the British found themselves in a
affected by the British impact. The fact is touchy situation where they had to respect
that the British establishment provided new the religious and social liberties of their
opportunities for upward social mobility. subjects, or else they would be courting
These opportunities were seized by the unrest and rebellion.
urbanites who became rich by the system; The great service of Ram Mohun was
but in the midst of doing puja to Mammon, to show the rulers how this dilemma which
they lost a good deal of their traditional had baffled them for upwards of a quarter
virtues and social standing. Sati provided century could be resolved. In order to ap-
these nouveaux riches with a means of de- preciate both the wisdom and courage of
monstrating their allegiance to the older this service, we must set it in its historical
norms from which life in the city had context.
seduced them. This explains "why even Warren Hastings authorised the prepara-
when the family of the suicide was prosecut- tion of a manual of Hindu law for magis-
ed, there was no loss of caste, infamy or trates in order to avoid any infringement
disgrace; they in fact gained in social of the declared policy of religious liberty.
stature and were 'backed with applause The Brahmin pandits who had a free hand
and honour.' Duress exerted on the prospec- in composing this document made sure that
tive sati was therefore a demonstration of the custom of sati was given full venera-
the piety of the faimly. No wonder the tion and thereby assured its protection by
practitioners of the rite were most ruthless government. The government accepted the
with the widow who after making the fatal custom on the terms of these authorities,
decision to commit sati later wavered (Ray, but the ensuing policy of non-interference
1975: 173). brought the administration into a collision
Other factors which helped popularise course with the Evangelicals, both at home
sati at this time were the economic motive and abroad. Often eagerness to give Ram
which was brought home to Ram Mohun Mohun all the credit for ending sati makes
with the immolation of his sister-in-law once historians overlook the daring and dedicat-
the family suffered financial reversals; and ed efforts of the Christian missionaries. Wil-
allied to this was the manipulation of liam Carey of Serampore deserves special
family property, to which Ram Mohun also recognition for his courageous efforts to stop
alludes. Property rules, gave wives and sati.
mothers a certain stake in the distribution Despite the hands-off policy of the
of property. In competitive times, "where government, Britishers acting in individual
there was a high chance that a widow would capacities took it upon themselves to follow
 RAM MOHUN ROY ON SATI AND SEXISM 75

their conscience. There is the case of cap- provided she has not infant children, nor
tain Tomeyn who, in 1772, rescued a widow is pregnant, nor is in a state of unclean-
from burning and thereby stirred up a riot. liness, nor under the age of puberty; in
In 1789, M. H. Brooke, a Collector of Sha- every of such case she is not allowed to
habad, refused permission for concrema- burn herself with her husband's body.
tion, defending his position before Lord But a woman who has infant children,
Cornwallis in the following words: and can procure another person to under-
take the charge of bringing them up, is
The rites and superstitions of the Hindu
permitted to burn. It is contrary to law,
religion should be allowed with the most
as well as to the usage of the country, to
unqualified tolerance, but a practice at
cause any woman to burn herself against
which human nature shudders, I cannot
her wish, by administering drugs to
permit within the limits of my jurisdic-
stupefy or intoxicate her, (Ahmed, 1965:
tion without particular instructions
109, 110).
(Collet, 1962 : 79).
The instructions Collector Brooke receiv- Pandit Sharma went on to eulogize sati,
ed from the Governor-General was to re- quoting Sanskrit scriptures, and added that
frain from any show of force in preventing a woman who loses nerve at the critical
future satis in as much as "the public prohi- moment can "recover her purity by under-
bition of a ceremony, authorized by the going a severe penance" (Ahmed, 1965 : 10).
tenet's of the religion of the Hindus, and The Nizamat submitted its suggestions
from the observance of which they have to the government, but the administration
never been restricted by the ruling power, did not draw up any rules at that time.
would in all probability tend rather to in- Seven years later, on April 17, 1813, the
crease than diminish their veneration for it, rules were formulated based on the prin-
and consequently prove the means of render- ciple that sati be permitted whenever it is
ing it more prevalent than it is at present." countenanced by Hindu religion and law;
(Collet, 1962). and that it be prevented when prohibited
The government could not maintain its by the same authorities. The prohibitions
neutrality very long. There were atrocious included cases in which the widow was:
incidents in which young widows were drug- (1) unwilling; (2) under sixteen years of
ged into performing sati, or where gullible age; (3) pregnant; (4) drugged or intoxicat-
victims of greedy relatives and priests. The ed; (5) mother of a child under three years
government therefore decided to bring the of age, unless guardianship were secured on
custom under strict supervision without behalf of the child and a "Form of Engage-
violating the principle of non-interference. ment" duly signed (Majumdar ed., 1941 :
In a letter dated February 5, 1805, Lord 111). The last provision was added in 1815.
Wellesley requested the Sadar Nizamat Further clarification of legal disabilities
Adalat (chief judicial authority in India) preventing a widow from ending her life
to verify "by means of reference to the involved the practice of widow burying by
Pundits," the extent to which the institu- the jogi sect of East Bengal. The Hindu
tion of sati was "founded upon the religi- law officers of the Provincial Court of
ous opinion of the Hindoos," (Ahmed, Appeal for Dacca gave the opinion that in
1965: 109). The Chief Pandit, Ghanashyam conformity with the custom of the jogis
Sharma, professed that every woman of (though not founded on scriptures), it was
the four castes is allowed concremation, lawful for a widow to be buried alive with
76 CROMWELL CRAWFORD

her dead husband (Ahmed, 1965: 111). is supported by the sastras, this colossus of
On the issue of tying the widow to the Hindu dharma produced some surprising
funeral pile, or pressing her down with green findings. He stated that scriptural injunc-
bamboos to avoid escape, the pandits of the tions apply only to those who feel the pain
Sadar Diwani Adalat opined that "no of disease or separation; who act volunta-
authority permits any restraints be used rily; and that the "act of dying is not en-
(Ahmed, 1965). In case the woman extricat- joined; but merely the mode of it." If you
ed herself, the pandits stated that she could are bent on suicide, say the scriptures, "put
be restored to society "by undergoing a an end to yourself by such and such
penance, (Ahmed, 1965). means (Ahmed, 1965: 112).
In 1817, the Nizamat Adalat collated all For his part, Vidyalankar recommended
of the regulations in a minutely worked out "a life of abstinence and chastity" as more
form which was then to be released for "highly excellent" than the woman burn-
publication, but the administration changed ing herself (Ahmed, 1965).
its mind upon discovering that co-terminus The second great figure of this time was
with its efforts to control sati, incidents Ram Mohun Roy. He was certainly rein-
jumped significantly, especially in the Cal- forced in his own thinking by the scholarly
cutta Division. Statistics of sati for the opinions of Vidyalankar.
years 1815 to 1818 showed an ominous The Raja's anti-sati campaign began in
trend, soaring from a total of 378 to 2,365 1811-12 while stationed in Rangpur. The
in three years. Calcutta led with a hike fiery death of his sister-in-law (1812) forg-
from 253 to 1,528 (Collet, 1962 : 84). ed in him a determination to save all the
Reasons given by the British law officers sisters of his land from this unworthy rite.
for the upswing in the Calcutta area were: Among his early efforts he used to frequent
(1) the influence of the worship of Kali — the cremation grounds in the Calcutta area
"the idol of the drunkard and the thief"; in order to dissuade women who were about
(2) the masochistic enjoyment of pyroma- to sacrifice their lives. The Asiatic Journal
niacs; (3) and the lending of respectability reports that on one occasion he got the
to the custom by government supervision. priests to light the fire prior to the woman
Local officials considered the last factor ascending the pile, hoping that the flames
embarrassing to British humanitarianism would intimidate her. He insisted that this
for it amounted to "granting the authority procedure was directed by the scriptures.
of the Government for burning widows," Contrary to this expectations, one of the
and therefore culpability in its increase wives courageously walked into the flames
(Collet, 1962: 86). and was followed by the second. As she
British policy did not change through- stood before the flames, she addressed the
out the rules of Hastings and Amherst, but bystanders with great animation: "You
during this time foundations were being have just seen my husband's first wife per-
laid on which Bentinck could later take his form the duty incumbent on her, and will
stand. now see me follow her example. Hence-
First, there was Mrityunjay Vidyalankar, forward, I pray, do not attempt to prevent
Chief Pandit of the Supreme Court, rank- Hindu women from burning, otherwise our
ing Hindu scholar, and formidable advocate curse will be upon you" (Asiatic Journal,
of Hindu orthodoxy. Commissioned by the 1818 : 290-291).
Chief Judge of the Sadar Diwani Adalat to The reformer was not deterred. Such
determine the precise measure in which sati incidents only spurred his zeal to have the
 RAM MOHUN ROY ON SATI AND SEXISM 77

practice banned. He probably had a hand Practice of Burning Widows Alive. An

in drawing up a document signed by a English translation was also made in the
great number of reputable Hindus in Cal- hopes that its arguments "might tend to
cutta. This was a counter-petition to one alter the notions that some European
presented by the orthodox community ask- gentlemen entertain on this subject" (Nag
ing the government to repeal all regulations and Burman eds., 1947 pt : 111 : 88). The
as infringements upon their religious liber- reference here is to the protection of
ties. Ram Mohun's faction charged that, religious rights in a situation where religious
claims are erroneously accepted. The whole
cases have frequently occurred, where
argument of this tract is conducted on a
women have been induced by the per-
moral plane.
suasions of their next heirs, interested in
First, the Advocate of concremation and
their destruction, to burn themselves on
postcremation (anumarari) of widows lists
the funeral piles of their husbands; that
several sacred lawgivers — Angira, Vyasa,
others, who have been induced by fear
Harita, Vishnu, Gotama — enjoining sati.
to retract a resolution, rashly expressed
The Opponent accepts these injunctions
in the first moments of grief, of burning
but points out that whereas the scriptures
with their deceased husbands, have been
are written on different levels to cater to
forced upon the pile, and there bound
the moral development of diverse indivi-
down with ropes, and pressed by green
duals, we must finally evaluate the lesser
bamboos until consumed by the flames,
moral injunctions by the higher ones. Manu
have been carried back by their relations
is the most un-impeachable witness of moral
and burnt to death. All these instances,
law. Therefore, the commands of Angira
your petitioners humbly submit, are
and the like must be judged in the light of
murders, according to every shastur, as
Manu. And on the authority of the great
well as to the common sense of all nations
lawgiver, widows are enjoined to pass their
(Majumdar ed., 1941: 115, 116).
days cheerfully by living a life of simplicity
Aware of the government's concern for and virtue.
religious liberty, the petitioners further point Furthermore, every act is qualified by its
out that sati has little basis in scripture. To motivation. The driving force behind con-
the contrary, "in the opinion of many of cremation is always some form of sensual
the most learned Brahmins, founded upon gratification. Such virtue has its own
their shasturs, all kinds of voluntary death reward; but being the product of selfish
are prohibited (Majumdar ed., 1941 : 117). desire, it sooner or later is dissipated. Rites,
Manu, the Vedanta, the Gita and the dutifully performed, may bring one to the
Smrtis are cited in support. In addition, celestial abode of the gods, but when merit
the humanitarian legislations of the British is exhausted, one is again subjected to
government are both cited and invoked. birth, disease, and death. Therefore, instead
Just as the law banned such inhumane prac- of seeking the pleasures of transient heaven,
tices as female infanticide, the hope is one should have faith in the Supreme
expressed that the government will inter- Being which leads to absorption, and from
vene to bring the evils of sati to a speedy which there is no returning to this life of
end. suffering. Such is the testimony of the
In 1818 Ram Mohun published a Bengali Upanisads.
tract entitled, A Conference between an Having been routed on the grounds of
Advocate for, and an Opponent of the scripture, the Advocate takes shelter in
78 CROMWELL CRAWFORD

tradition. The Opponent dislodges him here, explains to him that because he has grown
too, first by showing that the custom is up with the practice of sati, habit has
relatively recent; and secondly, by demons- desensitized him to the pain women undergo
trating that because a vice has become a as they writhe under the "torture of the
custom there is no good reason to believe flames."
that its guilt is mitigated. If time hallowed The Advocate is impressed and says he
guilt, "the inhabitants of the forests and shall "carefully consider." The Opponent is
mountains who have been in the habit of greatly satisfied. "By forsaking prejudice
plunder, must be considered as guiltless of and reflecting on the Sastra, what is really
sin, and it would be improper to endeav- conformable to its precepts may be per-
our to restrain their habits. The sastras, ceived, and the evils and disgrace brought
and the reasonings connected with them, on this country by the crime of female
enable us to discriminate right and wrong. murder will cease" (Nag and Burman eds.,
In those sastras such female murder is 1947 (pt : 111) : 97).
altogether forbidden. And reason also This storybook ending could only belong
declares, that to bind down a woman for to fiction. In real life, the advocates of sati
her destruction, holding out to her the were by now ready to place this Hindu
inducement of heavenly rewards, is a most heretic on a pile and do away with him.
sinful act" (Nag and Burman eds., 1947 (pt: Despite this danger, Ram Mohun was pre-
111) : 95). pared to venture all the risks that his com-
paign entailed. He was practical enough to
Displaced from scripture and tradition, hire protection, but at no time did he allow
the Advocate assumes the role of a moral threat of harm to adjust conviction to cir-
pragmatist. If women are allowed to sur- cumstance. Earlier, he had written to an
vive their husbands, these weak creatures American Unitarian that he was prepared
may go astray and bring disgrace to their to stick by the precepts of Jesus "even at
husbands. The Opponent questions such the risk of my own life." Now he was
false pragmatism. proving it.
On the brighter side, reactions of the
What can be done, if, merely to avoid the English press were supportive of his cam-
possible danger of disgrace, you are paign. The new media welcomed the above
unmercifully resolved to commit the sin tract "from the pen of the virtuous Refor-
of female murder. But is there not also mer of India," and gave it all possible
a danger of a woman's going astray dur- publicity (Majumdar ed., 1941 : 114). Said
ing the life-time of her husband, parti- the Calcutta Gazette (December 24, 1818):
cularly when he resides for a long time
in a distant country? What remedy then The Sanskrit authorities which are said
have you got against this cause of alarm? to enjoin the sacrifice of widows on the
(Nag and Burman eds., 1947 (pt: 111): 96). funeral pile of their deceased husbands,
have lately undergone a free examination
The Advocate objects to the assertion by a learned and philosophical Hindoo.
that female destruction is promoted through The question of itself is of the highest
want of feeling. The root of all his good importance, and the true interpretation
deeds are deep feelings such as mercy and of the religious law which has stained the
kindness. The Opponent acknowledges his domestic history of India for so many
charitable dispositions in other cases, but ages with blood, will no doubt diminish,
 RAM MOHUN ROY ON SATI AND SEXISM 79

if not extinguish the desire for self-immo- is quite characteristic of the reformer. He
lation. The safest way of coming to a condemned sati on moral grounds and on
right understanding on a point so inte- the basis of those very scriptures which
resting to humanity, is a rigid investiga- were held, sacred by his opponents. Thus,
tion of the rules of conduct laid down in taking the position that true Hinduism is
the books which are considered sacred both moral and rational, he was able to
by the Hindoos. This appears to have move with the winds of liberalism which
been done with great assiduity, anxiety, were blowing from the West.
and care, and the consequence has been Lord Wellesly felt a stirring of these winds
a decision hostile to the ancient custom and responded by suppressing infanticide
(Majumdar ed., 1941). on Saugor island in 1803, but skirted the
Fourteen months later, Ram Mohun issue of sati for fear of Hindu reprisal.
produced a Second Conference (February For the next twenty-five years, the winds
20, 1820) three times the length of the First. lay low with each Governor-General hoping
It is dedicated to the marchioness of that the spread of education and the
Hastings, from which we gather that he had "unostentatious exertions" of local officers,
the full backing of the Governor-General. the problem would die a natural death
The fact is that Hastings and his successors (Ballhatchet, 1957 : 275). Metcalf, in Delhi,
were hoping that the impasse in which they was the only exception. The quarter century
found themselves in respect to sati would concluded with the caution of W. B. Bayley
be lifted by the labours of Ram Mohun against trying to dig up "inveterate reli-
and other natives whose enlightened think- gious prejudices" so deeply rooted in anti-
ing on the subject would finally place the quity (Minute dated Jan. 13, 1827). A year
custom in a state of desuetude. later, the restless winds of liberalism began
The tack of the First Conference is follow- to blow again. In 1828 Lord William
ed in the Second, but with a plethora of Bentinek, a portege of Jeremy Bentham, was
scriptural quotations reinforced by moral appointed Governor-General. "In 1829 Ben-
arguments. In our discussion of sexism we tinek acted where others had called for
shall focus on his defense of Hindu women reports and suppressed suttee by Regulation
in section IX. XVII of 1829" (Smith, 1967 : 648).
The stir created by these publications was Bentinek moved fast, but he was no bull
phenomenal. "They served to arouse public in a china shop. He first gathered useful
interest on the question of sati on a scale data from key persons. In July of 1829, he
hitherto unthinkable. Public discussion on contacted Ram Mohun. The Calcutta
the subject was taken up by the vernacular Monthly Journal reports: "An eminent
newspapers which had begun to appear native philanthropist, who has long taken
after 1818" (Ahmed, 1965 : 113, 114). The the lead of his countrymen on this great
Samachar Darpan and the Sambad Kaumudi question of humanity and civilized govern-
were active campaigners, often clashing with ment, has been encouraged to submit his
the Samachar Chandrika which was pro views on it in a written form, and has been
sati. The liberal voice of the English press subsequently honoured with an audience by
could be heard through the columns of the the Governor General (Majumdar ed., 1941:
Friend of India, the India Gazette, the 138).
Bengal Hurkaru, and the Calcutta Journal. Ram Mohun helped Bentinck's decision
Ram Mohun's treatment of sati in his by breaking the moral deadlock which had
literary works and newspaper publications stymied earlier administrators — the dead-
80 CROMWELL CRAWFORD

lock between the principle of life and the conviction that the abuses in question
principle of liberty. cannot be effectually put to an end
Ram Mohun convincingly demonstrated without abolishing the practice altogether.
to the government that the custom they Actuated by these considerations, the
had pledged themselves to protect in the Governor-General in Council, without
name of religious liberty was "nowhere intending to depart from one of the first
enjoined as a duty; and that a life of piety and most important principles of the
and self-abnegation was considered more system of British government in India,
virtuous" (Sastri, 1935 : 22). that all classes of the people be secure in
On the practical side he also gave con- the observance of their religious usages,
vincing testimony that the motives behind so long as that system can be adhered
the proponents of sati were often less in- to without violation of the paramount
spired by creed as by greed. The poor, dictates of justice and humanity, has
defenseless creature upon the funeral pile deemed it right to establish the following
might have been prayed for, but, in truth, rules, which are hereby enacted to be in
she was preyed upon. force from the time of their promulga-
Thus, on the grounds of scripture and tion throughout the territories immedia-
morality Ram Mohun showed the Governor- tely subject to the presidency of Fort
General that the elimination of sati could William (Majumdar ed., 1941 : 153, 154).
not amount to an infringement of religious
freedom. The only remaining issue was the Let us now take a brief look at Bentham's
right of life. All of these considerations are Minute on sati dated November 8, 1829.
reflected in Bentincks Preamble to the sati Our purpose is to show how the Governor-
Regulation of December 4, 1829. General differed from Ram Mohun in the
execution of their common goals.
The practice of suttee, or of burning or Of all the people whose advice he sought
burying alive the widows of Hindoos, is against the abolition of sati, Bentinck refers
revolting to the feelings of human nature; to Mr. Horace Wilson, the Orientalist, and
it is nowhere enjoined by the religion of to Ram Mohun Roy. He reports Wilson
the Hindoos as an imperative duty; on the as saying that abolition will incur "extensive
contrary, a life of purity and retirement dissatisfaction" and that its "success will
on the part of the widow is more espe- only be partial." Bentinck agrees with the
cially and preferably inculcated, and by first, but doubts the latter. He acknowledges
a vast majority of that people throughout that "a similar opinion as to the probable
India the practice is not kept up nor excitation of a deep distrust of our future
observed: in some extensive districts it intentions, was mentioned to me in conver-
does not exist; in those in which it has sation by that enlightened native, Ram
been most frequent, it is notorious that, Mohun Roy, a warm advocate for the
in many instances, acts of atrocity have abolition of suttees, and of all other super-
been perpetrated which have been shock- stitions and corruptions, engrafted on the
ing to the Hindoos themselves, and in Hindoo Religion, which he considers origi-
their eyes unlawful and wicked. The nally to have been a pure Deism" (Majum-
measures hitherto adopted to discourage dar ed., 1941).
and prevent such acts have failed of Ram Mohun had recommended that the
success, and the Governor-General in practice be suppressed by the quiet and
Council is deeply impressed with the unobtrusive enforcement of regulations,
 RAM MOHUN ROY ON SATI AND SEXISM 81

with law officers standing chiefly in the Governor-General with a Petition against
background. "He apprehended that any the sati Regulation. Attached was a paper
public enactment would give rise to general of "Authorities" signed by 120 pandits.
apprehension that the reasoning would be, Twenty-eight pandits appended their signa-
'While the English were contending for tures to an additional paper of legal autho-
power, they deemed it politic to allow un- rities presented by a deputation from the
iversal toleration, and to respect our religion, interior.
but having obtained the supremacy their The petitioners charged that their religion
first act is a violation of their professions, had been betrayed by apostates who had
and the next will probably be, like the been instrumental in shaping governmental
Mahommedan conquerors, to force upon policy. In fact, "under the sanction of im-
us their own Religion" (Majumdar ed., memorial usage as well as precept, Hindoo
1941). widows perform, of their own accord and
Bentinck admits that "much truth is pleasure, and for the benefit of their hus-
contained in these remarks" but strongly dis- bands' souls and for their own, the sacrifice
sents. He then inquires into the evil, and of self-immolation called suttee, which is
the extent of danger which may practically not merely a sacred duty but a high privi-
result from abolition. He concludes that lege to her who sincerely believes in the
"from the native population, nothing of doctrine of their religion" (Majumdar ed.,
extensive combination or even partial oppo- 1941 : 156). The sati Regulation is therefore
sition may be expected from the abolition" tantamount to interference in matters of
(Majumdar ed., 1941 : 145). religion and "an unjust and intolerant dicta-
The reformer was correct in his appre- tion in matters of conscience," which is
hensions. Historians Biswas and Ganguli bound to fail (Majumdar ed., 1941).
point out that "the abrupt abolition of the Instead of relying on the "assertion of
evil custom of Sati came to be regarded men who have neither any faith nor care
by masses of conservative Hindus and even for the memory of their ancestors of their
by Muslims exactly in the same light he religion," his Lordship is asked to consult
feared. This sentiment among others served "none but pundits and brahmins, and
as a powerful motive force behind the teachers of holy lives, and known learning
Mutiny of 1857" (Collet, 1962 : 258). and authority" (Majumdar ed., 1941 : 157).
It is to the Raja's credit that once The Petition was signed by Maharaj Shree
Bentinck had cut "the Gordian knot," he Grischunder Bahadur, and 800 other per-
fully aligned himself with Government sons.
policy. He helped mobilise favourable Following a conference on the subject of
public opinion and closely briefed the the Petition, Bentinck delivered the follow-
government on community developments. ing reply:
The orthodox community reacted with
stunned dismay, but there was no resort to The Governor-General has read with
violence. Their activities were limited to attention the petition which has been
closing their ranks, publicising the injustice presented to him; and has some satisfac-
they felt perpetrated upon them, and pre- tion in observing that the opinions con-
paring petitions to countervail the new firm the supposition that widows are not,
regulation. by the religious writings of the Hindoos,
On January 14, 1830, the conservative commanded to destroy themselves; but
community of Calcutta presented the that, upon the death of their husbands,
82 CROMWELL CRAWFORD

the choice of a life of a strict and severe in defiance of the most sacred authorities"
morality is everywhere expressly offered; (Collet, 1962 : 466).
that in the books usually considered of The Hindu Address, and Bentinck's reply
the highest authority, it is commanded bring to light a concern with international
above every other course, and is stated to opinion that motivated Ram Mohun and
be adapted to a better state of society; his supporters. There is also the recogni-
such as, by the Hindoos, is believed to tion, which Ram Mohun perceived very
have subsisted in former times. early in his career as reformer, that the
Thus none of the Hindoos are placed Hindus were blessed by a moral character
in the distressing situation of having to that was capable of giving a much nobler
disobey either the ordinances of the account of itself. In the words of the
government or those of their religion Englishman :
(Majumdar ed., 1941 : 162, 3).
Those who present this Address are right
The voice of Ram Mohun can very clearly in supposing that, by every nation in the
be heard in Bentinck's argument. He con- world, except the Hindoos themselves,
cludes that the abolition of sati is "an this part of their custom has always been
urgent duty of the British government," and made a reproach against them, and noth-
therefore denies the prayer. The Petitioners ing so strongly contrasted with the better
are assured that they have further legal features of their own national character,
recourse by appealing to the King in so inconsistent with the affections which
Council. unite families, so destructive of the moral
Two days later, January 16, 1830, the principles on which society is founded,
Governor-General was presented with con- has ever subsisted amongst a people, in
gratulatory addresses — one from the Christ- other respects so civilized (Collet, 1962 :
ians of Calcutta bearing 800 signatures, 466, 7).
and one from 300 native gentlemen. The
latter was presented by Ram Mohun. The In the meantime, the orthodox Hindus
opening paragraph expresses thanks for the became fully aware that a long, hard
invaluable protection which his Lordship's fight lay ahead of them, and that
government has offered to the lives of the they must form an organization to
Hindu females, and for his humane and protect their religion. Accordingly, in Janu-
successful exertions in rescuing the Indians ary of 1830, the Dharma Sabha was formed
"from the gross stigma hitherto attached to as a "means for protecting our religion and
our character, as wilful murderers of our excellent customs and usages" (Majum-
females and zealous promoters of the dar ed., 1941 : 163). The Dharma Sabha's
practice of suicide" (Collet, 1962 : 464). relationship to the government was ambi-
"Excessive jealousy" is cited as the pro- guous. On the one hand it stood as the
genitor of this custom with Hindu princes orthodox watch-dog of governmental en-
as the culprits. Under the cloak of religion, croachments; on the other, it made good
they used their arbitrary power to sanction use of government patronage. One of the
widow burning so as to prevent their wives first items of business of the fledgling orga-
from "forming subsequent attachments." nization was to look into the matter of
The system, "being admirably suited to the making an appeal to the King of England
selfish and servile disposition of the popu- relative to the regulations forbidding satis.
lace, has been eagerly followed by them, In the same year, Ram Mohun published
 RAM MOHUN ROY ON SATI AND SEXISM 83

a tract: Abstract of the Arguments Regard- the last minute retraction which can later
ing the Burning of Widows Considered as a be absolved by offering penance.
Religious Rite. Though sati was now offi- We can feel the lifting of a tremendous
cially outlawed, nevertheless it seemed moral burden as Ram Mohun concludes his
desirable to Ram Mohun that "the sub- tract with these thanks to Heaven for
stance of those publications should be con- protecting women from "cruel murder,
densed in a concise but comprehensive under the cloak of religion," and the charac-
manner, so that enquirers may with little ter of Indians, as a people, "from contempt
difficulty, be able to form a just conclusion, and pity" by all civilized nations (Nag and
as to the true light in which this practice Burman eds., 1947 : 136).
is viewed in the religion of the Hindus" By June 1832, the orthodox Hindus peti-
(Nag and Burman eds., 1947 : 131). tioned the Privy Council in England against
First, sati is at best optional, not obli- the sati Regulation, but their prayer was
gatory. Manu plainly enjoins widows to not granted. Reactions to the dismissal of
"continue till death forgiving all injuries, the case did not explode in hostility, but
performing austere duties, avoiding every became occasions for expressing disenchant-
sensual pleasure, and cheerfully practising ment with the government. Bitter feelings
the incomparable rules of virtue which also ran high against Ram Mohun, the devil
have been followed by such women as were in the pile.
devoted to one only husband." Further, Looking back over this long campaign,
should concremation be made into an obli- the man who stands out as a Goliath
gatory duty, it "would necessarily bring a among the governors is William Bentinck.
stigma upon the character of the living Whereas his peers wrote Minutes, Bentinck
widows, who have preferred a virtuous life made history. As a humanitarian and Uti-
to Concremation, as charging them with a litarian, he was of the firm conviction that
violation of the duty said to be indispensi- the inhumane rite of sati had no place in
ble" (Nag and Burman eds., 1947 : 132). the moral order of society.
Secondly, the practice of sati is not of This is the point at which the great moral
equal merit as the living of a virtuous life. reformer enters the picture. Without his
The Vedas decisively state: "From a desire, consultation, the government's solution to
during life, of future fruition life ought not the problem could at best have been coer-
to be destroyed," (Nag and Burman eds., cive — a military action. Ram Mohun help-
1947). Support for concremation is found in ed make it persuasive — a moral action.
Angira, Vyasa, Harita, and others, but The Hindu scholar showed convincingly
these authors recommend concremation "to that the moral action he appealed for was
obtain future carnal fruition." The Bhaga- rooted in the authoritative scriptures of the
vad Gita condemns such rites performed Hindus. The sting was thus taken out of the
for fruition. The Gita's position is support- charge that the British were military meddl-
ed by Manu, Yajnavalkya, and Smartta ing in religious affairs. To the contrary, Ram
Raghunandana, a modern expounder of Mohun so elevated the British intervention
Law in Bengal. that the arm of the law looked like the
The third point touches on the mode of arm of the Lord!
concremation. Where the rite is prescribed November 10, 1832, a meeting of the
in scripture, the ascent of the widow on the Brahmo Samaj of Calcutta was held at
funeral pile of her husband is always a which time it was decided to send an
voluntary act, allowing her ample scope for address of congratulations to His Majesty,
84 CROMWELL CRAWFORD

King of England, because the abolition of 1978: 312).

sati by the Indian Government had been Sexism is a group phenomenon. Males
confirmed by the Privy Council in England. justify themselves by the characteristics of
As a gesture of honour, it was voted that their male sexuality. To be fully human is,
Ram Mohun be entrusted with the task primarily, to be male; females are not com-
of presenting the address to the King. It pletely evolved. The sexist self-image is
was also moved, "that as the Raja had therefore negative and aggressive: "A man
devoted much labour to this matter, thanks defines himself by saying that he is 'not
were likewise due to him. The motion was a woman' and by not allowing himself to
seconded . . . and agreed to by all with great be 'feminine,' as in all sorts of fraternal
satisfaction" (Majumdar ed., 1941 : 204). organizations (Moltmann and Meeks,
Today, there is less unanimity as to who 1928).
was finally responsible for the defeat of Sexism is also the weaponry employed for
sati—Roy or Raj? The above discussion de- dominating women through psychological
monstrates the futility of this question. "The warfare. The total upbringing of a female
fact remains that Roy was an embodiment in a patriarchal society is aimed at develop-
of the anti-sati movement to both the anti- ing in her a dependency on the opposite
sati and pro-sati groups as well as to the sex. She has a uniqueness all of her own,
British rulers, And, it was only he who pro- but it is biologically defined as wife and
vided a consistent explanation of the prac- mother. This, in turn, provides the frame-
tice and a theory of reform which could work for her role and status which is,
be understood by all these three groups domestically understood.
(Nandy, 1975: 169). The biological legitimation of sexism is
only one side of the coin; the other is theo-
2. Masculine Sexism logical. God himself is conceived in the
image of man, whereas woman is the tem-
Sati is dead but its ghost lives on in the ptress. Man is therefore given charge over
form of masculine sexism. It is to the credit her, so that by his wise protection the
of Ram Mohun's reforming instincts that he "weaker vessel" will come to good.
not only tackled the overt aspects of sati, Ram Mohun does not use the word "sex-
but traced it to its roots in sexism. Social ism," but the social and psychological
analysts define sexism as: acuity with which he describes male domi-
nance renders his analysis refreshingly
The mastery of men over women on the up-to-date.
basis of the privileges that they see in He points out that for the Hindu male,
their manhood a masculine pride in the full meaning of humanity is to be found
one's own sex, favouring the special cha- in masculinity. Physical prowess, mental
racteristics of masculinity in culture, the agility, and moral integrity are all male at-
conviction that these characteristics are tributes. In the gods these attributes are
fundamentally of a biological nature and writ large.
therefore are determined, combined with By contrast, women are the "weaker sex."
the depreciation of women to the "wea- Not only are they physically weak, "women
ker sex," the devaluing of presumed are by nature of inferior understanding,
"feminine" attributes, and the exclusion without resolution, unworthy of trust, sub-
of women from full participation in the ject to passions, and void of virtuous know-
life of society (Moltmann and Meeks, ledge" (Ministry of Information, Govern-
 RAM MOHUN ROY ON SATI AND SEXISM 85

ment of India, 1977: 154). right of a widow exists in theory only

The constitutional weakness of the among the learned, but unknown to the
woman justifies the diminution of her rights populace (Nag and Burman eds., 1947 (Pt.
and privileges, and disbars her from parti- 1): 3, 4).
cipation in public affairs. The only safe The consequence is that when a widow
place in which she can live a virtuous life loses her husband, she also loses all autho-
is within the protective walls of her home; rity in the home. She must depend on the
first under the tutelage of her father; then whims and fancies of her sons and their
her husband; and finally her sons. wives who can be very cruel. Step-mothers
All of these encroachments upon her free- who are numerous in polygamous house-
dom make life for women one long misery holds, "Are still more shamefully neglected
from girlhood to the grave. in general by their step-sons, and some-
As children, they are sometimes made times dreadfully treated by their sisters-in-
the victims of infanticide. The Rajputs in law who have fortunately a son or sons by
the neighbourhood of Dooab "are accustom- their husband (Nag and Burman eds., 1947
ed to destroy their infant daughters (Govern- (Pt. 1): 4).
ment of India, 1977: 148). The lot of the The prospects of such a life of daily in-
survivors is hardly enviable. Modern legis- sults drive women to choose immolation
lators twist the scriptures to deprive daugh- over ignominy, which makes sati something
ters of their meagre inheritance (Nag and short of suicide.
Burman, ed. 1947 (Pt. 1): 7). Lower Brah- All of this inhumanity stems from mascu-
mins and Kayasthas of high caste "fre- line sexism. With courage and insight rare
quently marry their female relations to even in this time and place, Ram Mohun
men having defects and worn out by old unbears the myth of male superiority and
age or disease, merely from pecuniary con- lays the spiritual and social foundations for
sideration, (Nag and Burman ed., 1947, (Pt. woman's liberation. He makes his brief on
the basis of the Sastra and common sense.
As wives, women suffer much distress. In effect he says to the men of his day:
Ceremonially, she is considered "half of her You are bullies; victims of your own
husband," but once formalities are finished, strength. Taking advantage of the "corpo-
she is "treated worse than inferior animals real weakness" of women, you first deny
(Government of India, 1977: 156). In them the freedom to develop their natural
homes that are polygamous, the wives are excellence, and then, when nothing is pro-
"subjected to mental miseries and constant duced, you turn around and say that women
quarrel (Government of India, 1977). Pre- are unproductive! (Government of India,
ference for one wife usually takes the form 1977: 155).
of cruelty toward another. Among lower In point of fact, what you consider to
classes, "on the slightest fault, or even on be the constitutional bankruptcy of women
bare suspicion of her misconduct," a wife is a projection of your own weaknesses.
is "chastised as a thief (Government of You and the whole "Hindu community look
India, 1977: 157). down upon them as contemptible and mis-
As widows, women are deprived of their chievous creatures," but what you see is a
ancient scriptural rights of inheritance by reflection of yourselves. You hate them be-
modern interpreters of the law. Step-mothers cause you despise yourselves. When you
and mothers are "left destitute in the divi- point one finger at women for lack of
sion of their husband's property, and the understanding, of resolution of trustworthi-
86 CROMWELL CRAWFORD

ness, of virtuous knowledge, and subjection that never see the greater number of
to passions, you point three fingers at them after the day of marriage, and visit
yourselves (Government of India, 1977: others only three or four times in the
154, 5). course of their life (Government of India,
On the question of their supposed intel- 1977: 156).
lectual inferiority, "when did you ever
afford them a fair opportunity of exhibit- On all counts, male superiority is a myth.
ing their natural capacity? How then can The narrow identity of masculinity must be
you accuse them of want of understanding? exchanged for the expanded identity of
If, after instruction in knowledge and wis- humanity. We are all humans who happen
dom, a person cannot comprehend or retain to be of different sexes; not sexes who hap-
what has been taught him, we may consi- pen to be human.
der him as deficient; but as you keep wo- For females to realize their full human
men generaly void of education and acquire- potential, men must give them equal op-
ments, you cannot, therefore, in justice portunities in all areas — religious, social,
pronounce on their inferiority (Govern- and educational. Most important is free-
ment of India, 1977: 155). dom from want for Hindu widows, which
Could it be that you are afraid that means that the Hindu law of inheritance
should you give them opportunity, they must be changed. As long as women them-
might prove your equals? The Sastras do selves are thought of as property, there is
show that for every enlightened husband, little recognition for their need of property.
there is an enlightened wife. Kalidasa is Finally, the consciousness of women must
complimented by Bhanumati, and Yajna- be raised. They have been brain-washed
valkya by Maitreyi (Government of India, into believing all the prejudices against
1977). their sex and therefore do' not believe that
As to moral qualities, men shudder at society owes them a better deal in life. The
death, but women resolutely burn them- scriptures that are dished out to them cater
selves with the corpse of their deceased to the lower levels of consciousness. No
husbands. Whereas men are ten times more wonder some of them are prepared to em-
promiscuous than women, women are cast brace sati, thinking they will reap rewards
in the role of temptress because men are in heaven. On the other hand, if they are
managers and manipulators of public in- brought up along the path of Vedantic
formation (Government of India, 1977). consciousness, they will develop a more po-
"The medium is the massage," and the me- sitive self-appreciation, for they will dis-
dium is always male. Whereas wives desire cover that the Divine is found equally in
one husband, the husband desires many males and females everywhere, and in all
wives, and the quintessence of each passion times.
is pure selfishness. Turning to the present, Renuka Ray,
As to the accusation that women are in well-known civic leader and former Mem-
want of virtuous knowledge: ber of Parliament, states: "The role and
status of women in modern Indian society
Observe what pain, what slighting, what flows to a great extent from the cherished
contempt, and what afflictions their vir- objectives and ideals that inspired the re-
tue enable them to support! How many naissance in India and the awakening of
Kulin "Brahmans are there who marry ten women was an integral part of it (Ray,
or fifteen wives for the sake of money, 1978: 1). Raja Ram Mohun Roy was the
 RAM MOHUN ROY ON SATI AND SEXISM 87

progenitor of the woman's movement. "It the public sector become dependent when
was his activities and of those who follow- they return home because they have been
ed in his wake, that brought into existence conditioned into depending on the men in
the women pioneers of the 19th century their household. The "old feminine social
in India (Ray, 1978). values of reliance-on-others and submission-
The attitude and approach of the Raja to-authority" are therefore very much alive
and his followers are still relevant for the today and are rewarded by "protection and
Indian women today. They involve two support within the family (Dasgupta, 1978:
foci: (1) the removal of dehumanising tra- 70).
ditions; and (2) education and opportuni- There are signs that a new genre of
ties on par with men. women is emerging who refuse to submit
In respect to the first point, India's wo- to oppressive traditions. While the author
men are still bound by tradition. Their's was visiting Poona in the spring of 1979,
is a man-centred world of father, husband, a seminar was held commemorating the
and sons. Dr. Manashi Das Gupta, eminent birth of Lord Rama. The venue was the
educator and social scientist, remarks: Rama temple in Sadashiv Peth, a bastion
"Traditionally women are considered so of orthodox Brahmanism in the city. Par-
much to be 'the shadow' of their husbands ticipating in the seminar were all ranges of
that their separate identity is hardly recog- middle-class women. The subject under
nized (Dasgupta, 1978: 71). Presently, they discussion was whether it was possible to
only have a minority status, standing some- observe the traditional code of wifely duties
where between men and children. They do (Pativrata dharma) in the present situation.
have power, but it does not flow from their The Poona Herald made the following
femininity. "A woman may be able to do- report:
minate when she is old because old people
traditionally dominate the younger ones All the speakers narrate different tales
within specific limits. A young wife might, with the same substance that woman is
however, dominate her poor mother-in-law treated as an inferior being at home as
because she is a rich man's daughter and well as in society. And they are all one
her father continues to support her even in their demand that society must now
after marriage. Dominance and superior change its outlook and liberalise its atti-
status thus depend on several factors. It is tude towards women. They say that until
not a simple function of femininity (Das- the last generation woman was a virtual
gupta, 1978). The creative principle in the slave in the family. Whether as wife or
universe represented by the female deity, mother or sister or daughter, her role was
may be acknowledged, but "has not found always subservient to man. She had lost
any direct expression in Hindu social insti- her identity and had no existence as an
tutions" (Dasgupta, 1978). Mother, of course, individual. Now the times have changed
is highly respected in Hindu society, but is but the old fetters have not gone. Today,
only potentially dominant. "Had she been woman has come out of the home and
actually so the social situation would have shares work with men in office and in-
been different. The mother is eulogised not dustry. But she is still expected to observe
because she dominates but because she the same rules of conduct which are im-
gives the succour as does the sacred cow posed on her when she was confined to
(Dasgupta, 1978). the hearth and cradle within- the four
Even those women who are successful in walls of the home. Let man be assured
88 CROMWELL CRAWFORD

that today's woman has not forsaken her hypocrisy of the rights granted to women
conscience and sense of responsibility; by virtue of the Indian Constitution: "What
nor has she broken the accepted norms I lament is, that, seeing the women thus
of social behaviour. But the new role dependent and exposed to every misery,
which she has begun to play as a citizen you feel for them no compassion" (Govern-
demands that she be treated with equa- ment of India, 1977 : 157). The word com-
lity by man at home and in society. Her passion means, 'suffer with.' As long as the
dignity and status as an individual must traditional sexist attitude prevails, and men
be accepted and respected (Pardhy, 1979). somehow consider themselves different
beings, marked off by masculinity, there
The equal rights of women have been can be no compassion which, as the Buddha
written into the Indian Constitution. This taught, is the basis of all ethics.
was to be expected, both on account of the The need for education and commen-
declared equality of women in the Vedas, surate opportunities is the second point
as Ram Mohun and all of the 19th century emphasised by the Raja. True, the schools
reformers pointed out; and also because of he founded were for boys, as circumstances
the courageous role assumed by Indian dictated, but his concern for female en-
women in the Freedom Movement against lightenment is unequivocal. His educational
the British. Ram Mohun was the first to emphasis was continued by the Brahmo
fight for women's rights under Law; but for Samaj and subsequently by the Arya Samaj.
all its achievements the reformer recognized But, for all these and other efforts, the
that effective law is contingent upon moral educational picture for females in modern
consciousness and the commitment of India is bleak.
society. Former U. S. Chief Justice, Earl Dr. Alevamma George, specialist in the
Warren confirms this view. He says: fields of Statistics and Demography, and
Director of the Centre for Mathematical
In civilized life, Law floats in a sea Sciences, Trivandrum, has collated some
of Ethics . . . . Without ethical understand- revealing statistics. In regards to the pro-
ing, the Law, as a Ship of State, would gress of female literacy, 1901-1971, figures
be stranded on dry land. When there is supplied by the Ministry of Education show
no ethical commitment to observe the that whereas in 1901 the percentage of female
Law, the judicial and police systems are literacy in relation to the total female popu-
really helpless, and the Law often ceases lation was 0.69, in 1971 that figure had
to operate at all*. merely crawled to 18.72. On the other hand,
male literacy for the same period rose from
To develop this moral awareness, Ram 9.83 to 39.45 — more than double the per-
Mohun showed the men of his day how centage for women in 1971. The growth
they must step out of their egos and feel as rate of female literacy since Independence
females feel. Interchanging with another has been a mere ten per cent. We agree
person's feelings dissolves ignorance and with Dr. George that "it is not an easy task
selfishness and produces true community. for a nation which has emerged from the
One can almost hear the Raja say to the clutches of foreign rule to eradicate illite-
millions of Indian males who make a daily racy of the teeming millions completely

* Earl Warren, former Chief Justice of the United States, on occasion when he was honoured
with the Louis Marshall Award of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1962.
 RAM MOHUN ROY ON SATI AND SEXISM 89

within a short period," (George, 1978 : 100) merce (5 per cent) and Engineering, Tech-
but not enough is being done to bridge the nology, etc., (1 per cent).
gap between female and male levels of All of these figures have a direct bearing
attainment. The disparity is as unhealthy as on the status of the Indian woman. Dr.
the attitudes behind it are pervasive. George laments the fact that though women
Underlying the disparity between male are the social equals of men in a theoreti-
and female levels of education is a misplac- cal and legal sense, the three decades
ed sense of values found on all levels of following Independence still find women
society. Gita Mukharji, prominent for her under male dominance, eking out their
social activities, points out that in all areas existence in the "grip of traditional roles."
of life, including education, boys are given To liberate themselves from the stigmas
preference over girls. "In the less educated that have been attached to their sex, women
or uneducated families belonging to the should come to know their constitutional
lowest income group, girls, even if enrolled rights; become economically self-sufficient;
in primary or pre-primary schools, are taken improve their living standards; and the key
out before completion of the term to help to all these closed doors is education.
in domestic work, or in the family trade
or to earn for the family, (Mukharji, 1978: Various studies conducted in India reveal
108). At the other end of the social spec- that the social status of women is signi-
trum, some wealthy families oppose female ficantly related to their aspirations, oppor-
education on traditional grounds. tunities for education and employment
The gap is being shortened among the and improvement of their standard of
lower income groups and among the middle living. Education affects employment
class, primarily for economic considerations opportunities and the decision-making
and the desire for upward social mobility. role is influenced by the education and
Returning to the Ministry of Education employment of wife. These are the factors
statistics, in respect to school enrolment in which are most often related to the
1972, out of a total of 83.0 million students status of women. It is of no doubt that
in grades primary, middle and high/higher the cultural progress of a country can be
secondary, 36 per cent were girls. This judged by the status accorded to women
means that for every 17 male enrolments in society (italics supplied), (George,
there were only 10 female enrolments. 1978: 103).
The record is still more depressing in The Concluding line is significant. All the
rural areas where the literacy rate is appro- social sciences affirm that a woman's place
ximately 29 per cent below that of urban in society is the clearest index of its civi-
areas, and literacy growth among females lization. A society in which women are
is even lower. taught nothing but how to cater to men
In regards to the enrolment of females and to bear and bring up children is a so-
in universities, the figures for 1972 are ciety on its way out.
somewhat encouraging. It is found that Ram Mohun had this same insight but
660,871 girls (26 per cent) enrolled in with even greater ramifications. He saw
General Education and 61,046 (10 per women in the context of the nation, and
cent) enrolled in Professional Educa- the nation in the context of an international
tion. The highest percentage (38 per order of civilization. This vision produced
cent) of girls was in Teacher Training, in him feelings of national embarrassment
followed by Medicine (21 per cent), Com- because of the mistreatment of women by
90 CROMWELL CRAWFORD

his countrymen. He attacked the problem cloak of religion, and our character, as a
with the fervour of a patriot, and when the people, from the contempt and pity with
fight over sati was successfully finished, which it has been regarded, on account of
we hear him offer thanks to Heaven, this custom, by all civilized nations on the
"whose protecting arm has rescued our surface of the globe" (italics supplied)
weaker sex from a cruel murder, under the (Government of India, 1977: 163).

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Ahmed, A. F. S. Social Ideas and Social Change in Bengal 1818-1835, Leiden;

1965 E. J. Brill, p. 109, 110, 10, 111, 112, 113, 114.
Asiatic Journal (March, 1818), pp. 290-291.
Ballhatchet, K. Social Policy and Social Change in Western India 1817-30,
1957 London, p. 275.
Collet, S. D. The Life and Letter of Raja Rammohun Roy, 3rd. edn., D. K.
1962 Biswas and P. C. Gunguli, eds. Calcutta : Sadharan Brahmo
Samaj, p. 79, 84, 86, 258, 464, 466, 467.
Dasgupta, Manashi "New Women in Old Society," in Role and Status of Women in
1978 India, Calcutta: Firma K L M, p. 71, 70.
George, Aleyamma "Status of Women and Education," in Role and Status of Women
1978 in India, Calcutta: Firma KLM, p. 100, 103.
Government of India Selected Works of Raja Rammohun Roy, Ministry of Informa-
1977 tion, Govt. of India: New Delhi, p. 154, 148, 156, 157, 155, 154,
155, 156, 157, 163.
XVIII.I. in Hasting's Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. XI, p. 207.
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