Cerebrum

diencephalon
Overview of the Brain thalamus
hypothalamus
The brain is the control center of the nervous system, where sensory information is processed,
brain stem
responses are coordinated, and the higher functions of reasoning, learning, and memory occur.
midbrain
The brain occupies the cranial cavity and is surrounded by membranes, fluid, and the skull bones.
pons
DIVISIONS OF THE BRAIN
medulla
Brain can be divided into four regions with specific activities. (Fig. 9-1): oblongata
foramen
■ The cerebrum ‫ المخ‬is the most superior and largest part of the brain. It is such a predominant
magnum
portion of the brain that people often mean the cerebrum when they refer to “the brain.”
cerebellum
■ The diencephalon ‫ الدماغ البيني‬is the area between the cerebral hemispheres and the brain stem. It
includes the thalamus ‫ المهاد‬and the hypothalamus ‫ تحت المهاد‬.

■ The brain stem ‫ جذع الدماغ‬connects the cerebrum and diencephalon with the spinal cord. The
superior portion of the brain stem is the # midbrain ‫ الدماغ االوسط‬.Inferior to the midbrain is the # pons
‫( الجسر‬ponz), followed by the #medulla oblongata ‫ النخاع المستطيل‬. The pons connects the midbrain with
the medulla, whereas the medulla connects the brain with the spinal cord through a large opening in
the base of the skull (foramen magnum).

■ The cerebellum ‫( المخيخ‬ser-eh-BEL-um) is located immediately below the posterior part of

the cerebral hemispheres and is connected with the #cerebrum,# brain stem, and #spinal cord
by means of the pons. The word cerebellum means “little brain.”
 PROTECTIVE STRUCTURES OF THE BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD
meninges
The protective structures of the brain include the meninges, the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and the cerebrospinal
ventricles. # Both the meninges and the CSF also protect the spinal cord. fluid
ventricles
A. Meninges
duramater
The meninges : are three layers of connective tissue that surround both the brain and spinal cord arachnoid
to form a complete enclosure (Fig. 9-2). piamater
# duramater , the outermost of these membranes, is the thickest and toughest of the meninges.
lateral ventricles
“mother hard.” The duramater is in two layers, # the outer layer is fused to the cranial bones. In horns
interventricular
certain places, these two layers separate to provide venous channels, called dural sinuses, foramina
function:for the drainage of blood coming from the brain tissue. The dura is in a single layer around
cerebral
the spinal cord. aqueduct

#arachnoid the middle layer of the meninges. This membrane is loosely attached to the deepest of
the meninges by web like fibers, function: allowing a space for the movement of CSF between these
two membranes. (The arachnoid is named from the Latin word for spider because of its web like
appearance.)

# piamater The innermost layer around the brain, is attached to the nervous tissue of the brain and
spinal cord and follows all the contours of these structures (see Fig. 9-2). It is made of a delicate
connective tissue (pia “soft”). Function: It holds blood vessels that supply nutrients and oxygen
to the brain and spinal cord.
B. Cerebrospinal Fluid

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear liquid that circulates in and around the brain and spinal cord.
the function of the CSF is to 1- support nervous tissue and to 2- cushion shocks that would
otherwise injure these delicate structures. This fluid also3- carries nutrients to the cells and 4-
transports waste products from the cells. CSF flows freely through passageways in and around the
brain and spinal cord and finally flows out into the sub arachnoid space of the meninges. Much of
the fluid then returns to the blood through projections called arachnoid vill in the dural sinuses .

C. Ventricles

CSF forms in four spaces within the brain called ventricles (Fig. 9-4). A vascular network in each
ventricle, the choroid plexus, forms CSF by filtration of the blood and by cellular secretion.
The four ventricles that produce CSF extend somewhat irregularly into the various parts of the
brain. The #first two, the largest, are the lateral ventricles in the two cerebral hemispheres. Their
extensions into the lobes of the cerebrum are called horns. These paired ventricles communicate
with a midline space, the #third ventricle, by means of openings called interventricular foramina .
The third ventricle is surrounded by the diencephalon. Continuing down from the third ventricle a
small canal, the cerebral aqueduct, extends through the midbrain into the# fourth ventricle, which
is located between the brain stem and the cerebellum. This ventricle is continuous with the central
canal of the spinal cord. In the roof of the fourth ventricle are three openings that allow the escape
of CSF to the area that surrounds the brain and spinal cord.
SECOND LECTURE

The Cerebrum
The cerebrum, the brain’s largest portion, is divided into right and left cerebral hemispheres by a frontal

deep groove called the longitudinal fissure (Fig. 9-5). The two hemispheres have overlapping functions parietal

and are similarly subdivided. temporal

occipital
DIVISIONS OF THE CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES insula

cerebral cortex

gyri

sulci

central sulcus

lateral sulcus

Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into four visible lobes named for the overlying cranial bones. These
are the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes (see Fig. 9-5B).

In addition, there is a small fifth lobe deep within each hemisphere that cannot be seen from the surface.
Not much is known about this lobe, which is called the insula .

1-The outer nervous tissue of the cerebral hemispheres is gray matter that comprises the cerebral cortex
‫( القشرة‬see Fig. 9-2). This thin layer of gray matter (2 to 4 mm thick) is the most highly evolved portion of
the brain and is responsible for conscious thought, reasoning, and abstract mental functions. Specific
functions are localized in the cortex of the different lobes.

The cortex is arranged in folds forming elevated portions known as gyri(JI-ri), singular gyrus. These raised
areas are separated by shallow grooves called sulci (SUL-si), singular sulcus. Although there are many sulci,
the following two are especially important landmarks:

■ the central sulcus, which lies between the frontal and parietal lobes of each hemisphere at right angles
to the longitudinal fissure (see Fig. 9-5)

■ the lateral sulcus, which curves along the side of each hemisphere and separates the temporal
lobe from the frontal and parietal lobes (see Fig. 9-5)
2-Internally, ‫ اللب‬the cerebral hemispheres are made largely of white matter and a few islands of gray
matter. The white matter consists of myelinated fibers that connect the cortical areas with each other
and with other parts of the nervous system. Basal nuclei, also called basal ganglia, are masses of gray
matter located deep within each cerebral hemisphere. Function: These groups of neurons work with the
cerebral cortex to regulate body movement and the muscles of facial expression. The neurons of the basal
nuclei secrete the neurotransmitter dopamine .
The corpus callosum is an important band of white matter located at the bottom
of the longitudinal fissure (see Fig. 9-1). Function: This band is a bridge between the right
and left hemispheres, permitting impulses to cross from one side of the brain to the other.
 FUNCTIONS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX

Some of these are described below (Fig. 9-6):

■ The frontal lobe: The gyrus just anterior to the central sulcus in this lobe contains a primary motor
area, which provides conscious control of skeletal muscles. Relatively larger portions of the cortex are
devoted to muscles requiring precise control, such as those of the hand. A large region of the frontal
lobe is involved in planning and conscious thought. This lobe also contains two areas important in
speech.

■ The parietal lobe: A large region of the parietal lobe integrates information from all sensory areas like
(estimation of distances, sizes, and shapes). From the skin, such as touch, pain, and temperature, are
interpreted and from the tongue.

■ The temporal lobe: This lobe contains the auditory areas and the olfactory area, concerned with the
sense of smell.

■ The occipital lobe: This contains areas for interpreting impulses arising from the retina of the eye.

The Diencephalon
The diencephalon, or interbrain, is located between the cerebral hemispheres and the brain stem. The
diencephalon includes the thalamus and the hypothalamus (Fig. 9-7).

#The two parts of the thalamus form the lateral walls of the third ventricle (see Figs. 9-1 and 9-4).
Nearly all sensory impulses travel through the masses of gray matter '.that form the thalamus. The role
of the thalamus is to sort out the impulses and direct them to particular areas of the cerebral cortex.

#The hypothalamus is located in the midline area inferior to the thalamus and forms the floor of the
third ventricle. Function: It helps to maintain homeostasis by controlling body temperature, water
balance, sleep, appetite, and some emotions, such as fear and pleasure. Both the sympathetic and
parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system are under hypothalamic control, as is the
pituitary gland. The hypothalamus thus influences the heartbeat, the contraction and relaxation of
blood vessels, hormone secretion, and other vital body functions.

The Brain Stem

The brain stem is composed of the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata (Fig. 9-8A). These
structures connect the cerebrum and diencephalon with the spinal cord.

A. THE MIDBRAIN

The midbrain, inferior to the center of the cerebrum, forms the superior part of the brain stem (see Fig.
9-8A). Four rounded masses of gray matter that are hidden by the cerebral hemispheres form the
superior part of the midbrain. These four bodies act as centers for certain reflexes involving the eye and
the ear, for example, moving the eyes in order to track an image or to read. The white matter at
the anterior of the midbrain conducts impulses between the higher centers of the cerebrum and the
lower centers of the pons, medulla, cerebellum, and spinal cord.
 B. THE PONS

The pons lies between the midbrain and the medulla, anterior to the cerebellum (see Fig. 9-8A). It is
composed largely of myelinated nerve fibers, which connect the two halves of the cerebellum with the
brain stem as well as with the cerebrum above and the spinal cord below. Its name means “bridge,” and
it is an important connecting link between the cerebellum and the rest of the nervous system. It also
contains nerve fibers that carry impulses to and from the centers located above and below it. Certain
reflex (involuntary) actions, such as some of those regulating respiration, are integrated in the pons.

C. THE MEDULLA OBLONGATA

The medulla oblongata of the brain stem is located between the pons and the spinal cord (see Fig. 9-8A).
It appears white externally because, like the pons, it contains many myelinated nerve fibers. Internally, it
contains collections of cell bodies (gray matter) called nuclei, or centers. Among these are vital centers,
such as the following:

■ The respiratory center controls the muscles of respiration in response to chemical and other stimuli.

■ The cardiac center helps regulate the rate and force of the heartbeat.

■ The vasomotor center regulates the contraction of smooth muscle in the blood vessel walls and thus
controls blood flow and blood pressure.

# The ascending sensory fibers that carry messages through the spinal cord up to the brain travel
through the medulla , as do descending motor fibers. These groups of fibers form tracts (bundles) and
are grouped together according to function.

# The motor fibers from the motor cortex of the cerebral hemispheres extend down through the
medulla, and most of them cross from one side to the other (decussate) while going through this part of
the brain. The crossing of motor fibers in the medulla results in contralateral (opposite side) control—
the right cerebral hemisphere controls muscles in the left side of the body and the left cerebral
hemisphere controls muscles in the right side of the body. Read about this in the follow-up to Frank’s
case of stroke.
The medulla is an important reflex center; here, certain neurons end, and impulses are relayed to other
neurons.
The Cerebellum
The cerebellum is made up of three parts: the middle portion (vermis) and two lateral hemispheres, the
left and right (see Fig. 9-8B). Like the cerebral hemispheres, the cerebellum has an outer area of gray
matter and an inner portion that is largely white matter (see Fig. 9-8A). However, the white matter is
distributed in a treelike pattern. The functions of the cerebellum are as follows:

■ Help coordinate voluntary muscles to ensure smooth, orderly function. Disease of the cerebellum
causes muscular jerkiness and tremors.

■ Help maintain balance in standing, walking, and sitting as well as during more strenuous activities.
Messages from the internal ear and from sensory receptors in tendons and muscles aid the cerebellum.

■ Help maintain muscle tone so that all muscle fibers are slightly tensed and ready to produce changes
in position as quickly as necessary.
THIRD LECTURE

Cranial Nerves
There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves (in this discussion, when a cranial nerve is identified, a pair is meant). They
are numbered, usually in Roman numerals, according to their connection with the brain, beginning anteriorly
and proceeding posteriorly (Fig. 9-11). Except for the first two pairs, which connect with the cerebrum and
diencephalon, respectively, all the cranial nerves connect with the brain stem. Also note that anatomists now
have found that cranial nerve XI connects with the cervical spinal cord. The first 9 pairs and the 12th pair
supply structures in the head.

From a functional viewpoint, we may think of cranial nerve messages as belonging to one of four categories:

■ Special sensory impulses, such as those for smell, taste, vision, and hearing, located in special sense organs
in the head.

■ General sensory impulses, such as those for pain, touch, temperature, deep muscle sense, pressure, and
vibrations. These impulses come from receptors that are widely distributed throughout the body.

■ Somatic motor impulses resulting in voluntary control of skeletal muscles.

■ Visceral motor impulses producing involuntary control of glands and involuntary muscles (cardiac and
smooth muscle). These motor pathways are part of the autonomic nervous system, parasympathetic division.

NAMES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE CRANIAL NERVES

A few of the cranial nerves (I, II, and VIII) contain only sensory fibers; some (III, IV, VI, XI, and XII) contain all or
mostly motor fibers. The remainder (V, VII, IX, and X) contain both sensory and motor fibers; they are known
as mixed nerves.

All 12 nerves are listed below and summarized in Table 9-2:

I -The olfactory nerve carries smell impulses from receptors in the nasal mucosa to the brain.

II -The optic nerve carries visual impulses from the eye to the brain.

III -The oculomotor nerve is concerned with the contraction of most of the eye muscles.

IV - The trochlear nerve supplies one eyeball muscle.

V -The trigeminal (tri-JEM-in-al) nerve is the great sensory nerve of the face and head. It has three branches
that transport general sense impulses (e.g., pain, touch, temperature) from the eye, the upper jaw, and the
lower jaw. Motor fibers to the muscles of mastication (chewing) join the third branch. It is branches of the
trigeminal nerve that a dentist anesthetizes to work on the teeth without causing pain.

VI -The abducens (ab-DU-senz) nerve is another nerve sending controlling impulses to an eyeball muscle.

VII -The facial nerve is largely motor. The muscles of facial expression are all supplied by branches from the
facial nerve. This nerve also includes special sensory fibers for taste (anterior two-thirds of the tongue), and it
contains secretory fibers to the smaller salivary glands (the submandibular and sublingual) and to the lacrimal
(tear) gland.

VIII -The vestibulocochlear(ves-tib-u-lo-KOK-le-ar) nerve carries sensory impulses for hearing and equilibrium
from the inner ear. This nerve was formerly called the auditory or acoustic nerve.

IX -The glossopharyngeal(glos-o-fah-RIN-je-al) nerve contains general sensory fibers from the posterior tongue
and the pharynx (throat). This nerve also contains sensory fibers for taste from the posterior third of the
tongue, secretory fibers that supply the largest salivary gland (parotid), and motor nerve fibers to control the
swallowing muscles in the pharynx.
X -The vagus(VA-gus) nerve is the longest cranial nerve. (Its name means “wanderer.”) It supplies most of the
organs in the thoracic and abdominal cavities. This nerve also contains motor fibers supplying the larynx (voice
box) and pharynx and also glands that produce digestive juices and other secretions.

XI -The accessory nerve (also called the spinal accessory nerve) is a motor nerve with two branches. One
branch controls two muscles of the neck, the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid; the other supplies muscles of
the larynx.

XII -The hypoglossal nerve, the last of the 12 cranial nerves, carries impulses controlling the tongue muscles. It
has been traditional for students in medical fields to use mnemonics (ne-MON-iks), or memory devices, to
remember lists of terms. These devices are usually words (real or made-up) or sayings formed from the first
letter of each item.

We’ve used the example SLUDD for the actions of the parasympathetic system; for the cranial nerves, students
use “On Occasion Our Trusty Truck Acts Funny. Very Good Vehicle Any How.” Can you and your classmates
make up any other mnemonic phrases for the cranial nerves? You can also check the Internet for sites where
medical mnemonics are shared, but be forewarned, students often enjoy making them raunchy!
 COMMUNICATION AREAS

The ability to communicate by written and verbal means is an interesting example of how areas of the cerebral cortex are
interrelated (see Fig. 9-6). The development and use of these areas are closely connected with the learning process.

■ One of the temporal auditory areas, the auditory receiving area, detects sound impulses transmitted from the
environment, whereas the surrounding area, the auditory association area, interprets the sounds. Note that an association
area integrates all of the input the cortex receives for a particular sense, such as integrating the pitch, loudness, and
direction of sound. Another region of the auditory cortex, located on the left side in most people, is the speech
comprehension area, or Wernicke area. This area functions in speech recognition and the meaning of words. Someone who
suffers damage in this region of the brain, as by a stroke, will have difficulty in understanding the meaning of speech. The
beginnings of language are learned by hearing; thus, the auditory areas for understanding sounds are near the auditory
receiving area of the cortex. Babies often appear to understand what is being said long before they do any talking
themselves. It is usually several years before children learn to read or write words.

■ The visual areas of the occipital cortex are also involved in communication. Here, in the visual receiving area, visual
images of language are collected. The visual association area that lies anterior to the visual receiving cortex then interprets
these visual impulses as words. The ability to read with understanding also develops in this area.

■ The motor areas for spoken and written communication lie anterior to the most inferior part of the frontal lobe’s motor
cortex. The specialized cortical region known as the motor speech area, or
Broca area, plans the sequences of muscle contractions in the tongue, larynx, and soft palate required to form meaningful
sentences. People with damage in this area can understand sentences but have trouble expressing their ideas in words.
There is a functional relation among areas of the brain. Many neurons must work together to enable a person to receive,
interpret, and respond to verbal and written messages as well as to touch (tactile stimulus) and other sensory stimuli.

MEMORY AND THE LEARNING PROCESS

Memory is the mental faculty for recalling ideas. In the initial stage of the memory process,

sensory signals (e.g., visual, auditory) are retained . Short-term memory refers to the retention of bits of information for a
few seconds or perhaps a few minutes, after which the information is lost unless reinforced. Long-term memory refers to the
storage of information that can be recalled at a later time. Furthermore, the more often a memory is recalled, the more
indelible it becomes; such a memory can be so deeply fixed in the brain that it can be recalled immediately.

Physiologic studies show that rehearsal (repetition) of the same information again and again accelerates the degree of
short-term memory transfer into long-term memory.
It has also been noted that the brain is able to organize information so that new ideas are stored in the same areas in
which similar ones had been stored before.
Along the border between the cerebrum and the diencephalon is a region known as the limbic system. This system is involved
in emotional states and behavior. It is also important for the formation of short-term memories and the consolidation of
long-term memories, and thus is essential to learning. It includes the hippocampus (shaped like a sea horse), located under
the lateral ventricles, and the amygdala, two clusters of nuclei deep in the temporal lobes.
The limbic system also includes regions that stimulate the reticular formation, a network of ascending and descending
tracts that extends from the upper spinal cord through the brain stem to the diencephalon. This system includes the reticular
activating system (RAS), which has sensory neurons that travel to the cerebral cortex to govern wakefulness and sleep. The
limbic system thus links the conscious functions of the cerebral cortex and the autonomic functions of the brain stem.