Rift Valley University, Finfinnee Campus Business Communication by Yitebark HB

Unit One

1. Basics of Communication

1.1 Definition of Communication

Brainstorming

Q. What comes to your mind when you hear the word communication?

The word “communication” derived from the Latin word ‘communicate’ that means to impart, to participate, to
share or to make common. It is a process of exchange of facts, ideas, and opinions and as a means that
individual or organization share meaning and understanding with one another. In other words, it is a
transmission and interacting the facts, ideas, opinion, feeling and attitudes.

1.2 Communication Theory

According to Clark L. et al,(1994) there are two major theories of communication: behavioral & mathematical.
1.2.1 The Behavioral Theory
This theory postulates that communication is based on social situations in which individuals find themselves
involving:
 Social situations (culture, social class, time & place, etc.)
 Roles (sex, professional, religious, etc.)
 status (authority, respect, social/class standing, i.e. in the caste system in India)
 rules (protocol, ethics, or code of behavior)
 Clues in non-verbal communication (gestures, touch, voice inflections, rate of delivery, etc.)
This theory identifies communication networks such as:
Intrapersonal, i.e., communication with oneself
interpersonal, i.e., communication between individuals
group interaction, such as between clans, or organizations, and
cultural, i.e., between distinct cultures, such as Islamic and Christian, or African, Anglo-Saxon and
Spanish, etc. in America (Clark, L. et al, 1994).

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1.2.2 The Mathematical Theory

This was intended to assist in developing a mathematical theory of communication. It contributed to computer
science, and in making “information measurable” it gave birth to the mathematical study of “information
theory”.
Their original model consisted of five elements:
 An information source, which produces a message;
 A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals;
 A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission;
 A receiver, which „decodes‟ (reconstructs) the message from the signal;
 A destination, where the message arrives.
A sixth element, noise, is a dysfunctional factor: any interference with the message traveling along the channel
(such as “static” on the telephone or radio) which may lead to the signal received being different from that sent
(Clark, L. et al, (1994).
The strengths of Shannon and Weaver’s Model are its
 Simplicity
 Generality, and
 Quantifiability.(Hybels,S and Weaver, R 2001)
Such advantages made this model attractive to several academic disciplines. It also drew serious academic
attention to human communication and „information theory‟, leading to further theory and research.
Weaknesses of the Transmission Model of Communication
The transmission model tends to over-simplify and misrepresent the nature of human communication, reducing
it to a process of “transmitting information.” It fails to recognize that human communication is about meaning
rather than information.
The transmission model fixes and separates the roles of “sender” and “receiver”, whereas human
communication often involves simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” (not only talking, but also “body
language” and so on). In Shannon and Weaver‟s model the source is seen as the active decision-maker who
determines the meaning of the message; the destination is the passive target. It is a linear, one-way model,
ascribing a secondary role to the “receiver”, who is seen as absorbing information. There was no provision in
the original model for feedback (reaction from the receiver). Feedback enables speakers to adjust their
performance to the needs and responses of their audience. A “feedback loop” was added by later theorists, but
the model remains linear.

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For the purposes of this course, however, we shall make use of the modified version of the transmission model
of communication, highlighting some important behavioral aspects and implications of human communication.

1.3 The Communication Situation

According to Hybels, and Weaver (2001), the communication situation is said to exist when:
 There is a person (sender/transmitter) who wants to pass some information;
 There is another person (receiver) to whom the information is to be passed on;
 The receiver partly or wholly understands the message or information passed on to him;
 The receiver responds to the message or gives feedback.
These four components are essential for communication.
1.4 The Communication Process/Cycle
The transmission of sender’s ideas to the receiver and the receiver’s feedback or reaction to the sender
constitute the communication cycle. The process of communication begins when one person (the sender) wants
to transmit a fact, idea, opinion or other information to someone else (the receiver) (Hybels,S and Weaver,
R2001).This fact, idea or opinion has meaning to the sender. The next step is translating or converting the
message into a language which reflects the idea. That is the message must be encoded. The encoding process is
influenced by content of the message, the familiarity of sender and receiver and other situation of factors.
After the message has been encoded, it is transmitted through the appropriate channel or medium. Common
channel in organization includes meetings, reports, memorandums, letters, e-mail, fax and telephone calls.
When the message is received, it is decoded, by the receiver and gives feedback to the sender as the
conformation about the particular message has been carefully understand or not.

1.5 Purpose of Communication

Dear students, please list purpose of communication in your daily life
__________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

According to Harpold (2003), communication has the following advantages.

1. For instruction: The instructive function unvarying and importantly deals with the commanding nature. It is
more or less of directive nature. Under this, the communicator transmits with necessary directives and guidance

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to the next level, so as to enable them to accomplish his particular tasks. In this, instructions basically flow from
top to the lower level.
2. For integration: It is consolidated function under which integration of activities is endeavored. The
integration function of communication mainly involves bringing about inter-relationship among the various
functions of the business organization. It helps in the unification of different management functions.
3. For information: The purposes or function of communication in an organization is to inform the individual
or group about the particular task or company policies and procedures etc. Top management informs policies to
the lower level through the middle level. In turn, the lower level informs the top level the reaction through the
middle level. Information can flow vertically, horizontally and diagonally across the organization. Becoming
informed or inform others is the main purpose of communication.
4. For evaluation: Examination of activities to form an idea or judgment of the worth of task is achieved
through communication. Communication is a tool to appraise the individual or team, their contribution to the
organization. Evaluating one’s own inputs or other’s outputs or some ideological scheme demands an adequate
and effective communication process.
5. For direction: Communication is necessary to issue directions by the top management or manager to the
lower level. Employee can perform better when he is directed by his senior. Directing others may be
communicated either orally or in writing. An order may be common order, request order or implied order.
6. For teaching: The importance of personal safety on the job has been greatly recognized. A complete
communication process is required to teach and educate workers about personal safety on the jobs. This
communication helps the workers to avert accidents, risk etc. and avoid cost, procedures etc.
7. For influencing: A complete communication process is necessary in influencing others or being influenced.
The individual having potential to influence others can easily persuade others. It implies the provision of
feedback which tells the effect of communication.
8. For image building: A business enterprise cannot isolate from the rest of the society. There is
interrelationship and interdependence between the society and an enterprise operating in the society. Goodwill
and confidence are necessarily created among the public. It can be done by the communication with the
different media, which has to project the image of the firm in the society. Through an effective external
communication system, an enterprise has to inform the society about its goals, activities, progress and social
responsibility.
9. For employees orientation: When a new employee enter into the organization at that time he or she will be
unknown to the organization programs, policies, culture etc.

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Communication helps to make people acquainted with the co-employees, superior and with the policies,
objectives, rules and regulations of the organization.
10. Other: Effective decision-making is possible when required and adequate information is supplied to the
decision-maker. Effective communication helps the process of decision making. In general, everyone in the
organization has to provide with necessary information so as to enable to discharge tasks effectively and
efficiently

Activities
Q1: explain the role of communication in your everyday life
Q2: What are important situations for the occurrence of communication

__________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

1.6 The Communication Process

Brainstorming

Q. Dear students could you list down & explain what communication process mean?

__________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________Communication begins with an impulse (or
motivation) to pass on a message made up of bits of information. In the process of encoding, units of
information are selected and organized for transmission. Input is the sum of experiences that build up in the
human brain or computer. Output is the encoded message transmitted by the information source (an individual
person or group of people) (Harpold, L. (2003).He also asserted that :
 The interpretation of the message is referred to as decoding. Feedback is the response, or message that
the recipient (decoder) returns to the sender (encoder).
 Graphic presentation of this model of the process of communication:
 Impulse – input/encoding/output – relaying through potential distortion on both sides – decoding –
feedback
Example: When Peter calls Jenny on the phone and says, “Would you like to stop at the Big Rooster‟s today?”
he is drawing on his pleasant past experiences with Big Rooster‟s roast chicken and potato chips. He has

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encoded a message and transmitted it to Jenny, using the English language as the medium and the telephone
lines as channel of communication.
Jenny, in turn, has received the message, decoded (= translated) it, and on the basis of her information source (=
input = sum total of experiences), gives Peter feedback (response) by saying, “I dislike the Big Rooster
thoroughly.
Feedback in Communication: Feedback in the communication process is the response that gives us some
indication of how effectively we communicate. It is the gauge of efficiency in communication.
Example:
If a thirsty man asks for water in a culturally appropriate way, using proper means and channels of
communication, he will get the desired feedback (water to quench his thirst). Thus, the purpose of his
communication will have been achieved.
Effective Communication: We communicate with other people around us from the day we are born until
death. Most of our communication, however, will be ineffective if we do not understand the processes involved
and acquire special communication skills in order to enhance our effectiveness.
What is effective communication? Human communication is effective, if:
the input (a sum of information or experiences built up in the encoder‟s mind) is translated into an encoded
message in such a way that the output (encoded message sent) most accurately represents the input (1:1
output-input ratio),
the encoded message is easily decoded, or translated by the decoder, and
an adequate (= desired, predictable, calculated) feedback (response to the encoded message) is sent back and
duly receive (Harpold, L. (2003).
According to Pearsall (1997) the following are prerequisites for effective communication:
1. Knowledge of
 subject matter
 decoder(s)
 environment
 human psychology
2. Communication Skills: Skill means “practiced ability, expertness.” If you are good at something – whatever
this activity may be - because you approach it intelligently, have mastered and habitually employ the
techniques, then you have a skill, i.e. driving, swimming, or typing Communication skills means intelligent and
practiced ways of sending and receiving messages – talking and writing, listening and reading. This involves an

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understanding of how the process works, and sensitivity to variable factors, as well as mastery of the
techniques.
 Language skills: oral (i.e., clear pronunciation, suitable vocabulary, correct grammar/syntax, fluency,
expressive delivery), written (correct spelling, suitable vocabulary, correct grammar/syntax, good
writing or typing, suitable style, etc.), and visual/non-verbal (understanding of/control over “body
language”)
 Analytical thinking: ability to extract and prioritize information; ability to choose the appropriate
medium & channel of communication; ability to analyze the reactions of the decoder(s), etc.
3. Personality traits, such as charm, self-confidence, relaxed, easy-going and friendly manner, sensitivity,
perceptiveness, emotional stability, objectiveness and patience, open-mindedness and flexibility.
4. Motivation, practical benefit, personal interest, etc.
5. Necessary infrastructure such as telephone, fax, public address system, microphone, and computer
networks, the Internet, e-mail, visual aids, electricity supply, etc.
6. Physical/mental health and fitness: i.e., communication with a deaf, dumb, or delirious man will be
impeded, just as it will be if the encoder / decoder is exhausted physically or drunk/drugged.
Thus, good interpersonal communication skills and conducive attitudes (willingness to communicate) are the
basic requirements for effective communication

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 The sender has an idea.  The receiver gets the message.

 The idea becomes a message.  The receiver reacts & sends

 The message is transmitted. feedback to the sender.

Here below the picture shows how the communication process takes place

1.7 Elements of Communication

According to the Pearsall (1997), process of communication involves the following

elements:
1. Sender or transmitter: The person who desires to convey the message is known as
sender.
Sender initiates the message and changes the behaviour of the receiver.
2. Message: It is a subject matter of any communication. It may involve any fact, idea,
opinion or information. It must exist in the mind of the sender if communication is to take
place.
3. Encoding: The communicator of the information organises his idea into series of
symbols (words, signs, etc.) which, he feels will communicate to the intended receiver or
receivers.

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4. Communication channel: The sender has to select the channel for sending the
information. Communication channel is the media through which the message passes. It
is the link that connects the sender and the receiver.
5. Receiver: The person who receives the message is called receiver or receiver is the
person to whom the particular message is sent by the transmitter. The communication
process is incomplete without the existence of receiver of the message. It is a receiver
who receives and tries to understand the message.
6. Decoding: Decoding is the process of interpretation of an encoded message into the
understandable meaning. Decoding helps the receiver to drive meaning from the
message.
7. Feedback: Communication is an exchange process for the exchange to be complete
the information must go back to whom from where it started (or sender), so that he can
know the reaction of the receiver. The reaction or response of the receiver is known as
feedback.
8. Brain drain: On whole process there is a possibility of misunderstandings at any level
and is called brain drain. It may arise on sender side if they do not choose the adequate
medium for delivery of message, by using default channel and it may also arise when
receiver does not properly decode the message. In other words, we can say that it is
breakdown of cycle at any level.

1.8. Barriers of Communication

Brain storming question: what do you mean by communication barrier? Could you name
some the barriers of communication?

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________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Communication barrier may occur on one or both sides (encoders and decoders) due to:
 Lack of knowledge
 Lack of interest or attention
 Lack in communication skills (language use, analytical thinking)
 Lack of charm, self-confidence, sensitivity, perceptiveness, objectiveness and
patience; tense, uneasy personality, inflexibility
 Bias, prejudice, or preconceived ideas
 Distractions
 Competition for attention
 Differences in perception
 Attitudes
 Lack of motivation
 Physical/mental handicaps
 Stress (Pearsall, T 1997).
Pearsall(1997) also claimed that all of the above barriers to communication may be
classed into two broad categories:
 Distortion: resulting from inadequate use of language (incorrect grammar, syntax,
overuse of technical/obscure words, ambiguity, etc.) and other communication skills
(analytical approach to/understanding of decoders and the context/ environment
within which communication is taking place, choice of appropriate medium and
channel of communication).
 Noise, or interference:
 Physical noise : actual noise that may drown the communication
 Technical noise: a failure in the channel of communication (breakdown of
technology/equipment, etc.)
 Social noise: personality differences due to upbringing; difference in
perceptions/mentality due to diverse cultural, religious, educational, etc. backgrounds,
bias due to age, sex, social class, status, etc.

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 Psychological noise: excessive/uncontrolled emotions (anger, fear, etc.), prejudice,

stress, nervous tension, etc.

Therefore, we can say anything that prevents understanding of the message is a barrier to
communication. Barriers can exist in the sender, in the transmission of the message, in
the receiver, or in the feedback. Many physical and psychological barriers exist. Some of
them are discussed below:

 Culture, background, and bias: We allow our past experiences to change the
meaning of the message. Our culture, background, and bias can be good as they allow
us use our past experiences to understand something new, it is when they change the
meaning of the message then they interfere with the communication process.
 Noise: Equipment or environmental noise impede clear communication. The sender
and the receiver must both be able to concentrate on the messages being sent to each
other.

 Ourselves: Focusing on ourselves, rather than the other person can lead to confusion
and conflict. The "Me Generation" is out when it comes to effective communication.
Some of the factors that cause this are defensiveness (we feel someone is attacking
us), superiority (we feel we know more that the other), and ego (we feel we are the
center of the activity).

 Perception: If we feel the person is talking too fast, not fluently, does not articulate
clearly, etc., we may dismiss the person. Also our preconceived attitudes affect our
ability to listen. We listen uncritically to persons of high status and dismiss those of
low status.

 Message: Distractions happen when we focus on the facts rather than the idea. Our
educational institutions reinforce this with tests and questions. Semantic distractions
occur when a word is used differently than you prefer. For example, the word
chairman instead of chairperson may cause you to focus on the word and not the
message.

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 Environmental: Bright lights, an attractive person, unusual sights, or any other

stimulus provides a potential distraction.

 Smothering: We take it for granted that the impulse to send useful information is
automatic. Not true! Too often we believe that certain information has no value to
others or they are already aware of the facts.

 Stress: People do not see things the same way when under stress. What we see and
believe at a given moment is influenced by our psychological frames of references -
our beliefs, values, knowledge, experiences, and goals. These barriers can be thought
of as filters, that is, the message leaves the sender, goes through the above filters, and
is then heard by the receiver. These filters muffle the message. And the way to
overcome filters is through active listening and feedback (Pearsall, T 1997).

Activity

Read the following case and try to answer questions below it.

Case study:

The Board of Directors of M/S Bajaj Auto Ltd met and decided to make certain
adjustments in the existing staff of its Akurdi plant. After the meeting, the Managing
Director informally told his Secretary that there may be changes in the staffing pattern of
Akurdi plant. The Secretary told her friends during lunch break that the plant would soon
be laying off employees. Even though, she took a promise that they will not tell anybody,
her friends sounded some employees of the plant about the impending danger. The
employees union not only presented memorandum to the authorities but served a notice
to go on strike also.
Questions
1. Identify the barriers of communication in the case.
2. Was there any encoding and decoding of message?
3. What lessons do you draw from the issue by assuming you as the Managing Director?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

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Activity: Remember one event that your communication was failed due to barriers of
communication and answer the following questions:
What was that barrier, what problem happened due to the failure of your communication, what
remedial action taken to ensure effective communication between the source and receiver of the
message?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

1.9. Communication Principles

Brain storming Question

Think of how often you communicate with people during your day. You write emails,
facilitate meetings, participate in conference calls, create reports, and devise
presentations, debate with your colleagues. Could you specify the principles of
communication?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

The 7 Cs provide a checklist for making sure that your meetings, emails, conference
calls, reports, and presentations are well constructed and clear – so your audience gets
your message.

To compose effective messages you need to apply certain specific communication

principles. The basic business communication principles known as seven C’s of business
communication provide guidelines for choosing content and style of presentation.
According to Zmorenski (2009 ) the principles of communication used to achieve both
specific and general objectives of a message are collectively justified as the 7Cs. The
commonly used principles are:

1. Correctness 2. Conciseness

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3. Clarity 6. Consideration
4. Completeness 7. Courtesy
5. Concreteness

1. Correctness: when your communication is correct, it fits your audience. And correct
communication is also error-free communication.

E.g. Incorrect: We thank you in anticipation of this courtesy and assure you that it
will be a pleasure to serve you in similar manners.

Correct: I will appreciate your helping us. Let me know when I can return the favor.

2. Conciseness: Conciseness makes the message more understandable and

comprehensible.
It involves the following:
 Eliminate wordy expressions

 Include only relevant statements

 Avoid unnecessary repetition.

3. Clarity: To be clear, try to minimize the number of ideas in each sentence. Make sure
that it's easy for your reader to understand your meaning. Clarity means getting your
messages across so that the receiver will understand what you are trying to convey
you want that person to interpret your words with the same meaning you have in
mind.
4. Completeness: The message should be complete to bring desirable results. It should
include everything the reader needs for the reaction you desire.

5. Concreteness: The business writing should be specific definite unambiguous and

vivid rather than vague and general.

6. Consideration refers to you attitude, sympathy, the human touch and understanding
of human nature. Consideration means the message with the receiver in mind. You
should try to visualize your readers their desires problems emotions circumstances
and possible reaction to your request.

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7. Courtesy: To make your message courtesy, be sincere, tactful, thoughtful and

appreciative, Omit expressions that hurt, irritate, or insult. Grant apologies
graciously. Use expressions that show respect and answer your mail promptly.
Courtesy is more important and advantageous in business writing than it is in face to
face communication or conversation.

1.10 Types of Communication in Organization

Q. Discuss the difference between formal and Informal communications

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

1.10.1 The Different Types of Formal and Informal Communications

Communication is divided into external and internal communication (Murphy,

Hildebrandt and Thomas, 1997). External communications are those communications
which are occurring outside the organization like communication with other companies,
with government, general public etc. Internal communications are those which are inside
the organization. Internal communications are further divided into two parts, formal or
official and informal.

 Formal: Formal communication flows along prescribed channels which all

members desirous of communicating with one another are obliged to follow.

 Informal: Along with the formal channel of communication every organization

has an equally effective channel of communication that is the informal channel
often called grapevine, because it runs in all directions—Horizontal, Vertical,
Diagonal. It flows around water cooler, down hallways, through lunch rooms and
wherever people get together in groups( Murphy, Hildebrandt and Thomas ,1997):

o Discuss the advamtages and disadvantages of formal and infomal

communication.

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o Compare and contrast formal and infomal communication.

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
1.11 The Meaning and Concept of Verbal, Nonverbal and Oral Communication
Activity
What do you mean by verbal and non verbal communication? Give examples, and
compare their advantages.
______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

1.11.1 Verbal Communication

According to Murphy, Hildebrandt and Thomas (1997) verbal communication is
when we communicate our message verbally to whoever is receiving the message. It
is of two types oral and written which had their own advantages and disadvantages.
1.11.2 Non-verbal Communication
Non-verbal communication is usually understood as the process of communication
through sending and receiving wordless messages. Such messages can be
communicated through gesture; body language or posture; facial expression and eye
contact; object communication such as clothing, hair styles or even architecture;
symbols and info graphics. Speech may also contain non-verbal elements known as
paralanguage, including voice quality, emotion and speaking style, as well as
prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and stress. Likewise, written texts have
non-verbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, or the
use of emotions (Murphy, Hildebrandt and Thomas, 1997)
1.11.3 Oral communication
Oral communication is the communication where the message or information exchanges
by spoken words. It can be done by both face to face and also through mechanical
devices.
Formal language
(1) It is the language spoken in office, business and other formal places.

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(2) Proper and standard words are used.

(3) It consists of specific purpose words like manager, supervisor, owner, employer, etc.
(4) It is used comparatively less than informal language.
(5) It is used when the speaker is relaxed Informal language
Informal language
(1) It is the language spoken at home or with friends.
(2) Improper words and slangs are used.
(3) It has all purpose words like “boss” that stands for various personalities.
(4) It is used in daily life.
(5) It is used when speaker is in a hurry (Murphy, Hildebrandt and Thomas , 1997).

Manktelow, (2003) pointed out the advantage and disadvantage of oral communication.

The Advantages of Oral Communication:

 Swift and direct feedback
 Interactive nature of medium
 Great flexibility in the range of available persuasive/motivating tactics.
The Disadvantages of Oral Communication:
Potential interference (“technical noise”)
Memory is unreliable, and perceptions differ. In the absence of written records, oral
communication may lead to misunderstanding
Less time is available for planning, hence increased possibility of making wrong decisions
Clash of personalities may form a barrier to effective communication
The greater the number of people involved in the communication process, the more
the potential magnification of these disadvantages.

1.11.4 Skills in Oral Communication

Speaking:
Articulation
Structuring the message
Style and Tone
Delivery

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Tact [sensitivity to recipient(s)]

Listening:
Concentration
Interpretation of meta communication and paralanguage
Offering feedback
Meta communication (meta = beyond) is a form of “super communication” ,a
sum total of all signals communicated (verbal and non-verbal)
** Paralanguage (para = beside, beyond) is spoken language used to convey
a meaning greater or other than its surface meaning(Manktelow, J. (2003).
1.11.5 Effective Speaking: The Short Presentation
Manktelow (2003) argued during your business career you will be required to make a
variety of oral presentations. These may be as short as three minutes, such as for
introducing a speaker, or as long as one hour, such as for making a technical presentation.
The size of the audience may vary from one individual to hundreds, and the purpose may
vary from informative to comparative to persuasive.
Planning Your Short Presentation: Like written communications, speeches must be well
planned. Analyze your audience and note how much time is allotted to you to speak.
Planning your talk in relationship with your allotted time and audience level is very
important. However, the critical factor in planning is the organization of the presentation
itself. Just as with a written report, the communicator must carefully determine the major
topics and minor areas, then integrate them in a logical order for the greatest impact on
the audience (Manktelow, J. (2003).

The presentation itself may be divided into 3 parts, as follows: (Manktelow, J. (2003).
1. Introduction: Usually it is wise to introduce your speech by stating your purpose,
problem, and goal. This gives your audience an idea of what you will be speaking about
and how it relates to them.
2. Body: The bulk of your time should be spent on developing your main ideas and
arguments to support your central theme. The logic of the presentation is increased by
using a consistent order of development (deductive, inductive, chronological, etc.). It is

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possible to use more than one order of development in a presentation provided a logical
sense is maintained.
3. Conclusion: The conclusion usually summarizes the main ideas and urges the
audience to adopt a specific course of action.

1.11.6 Principles of Effective Public Speaking

According to Clark, L. et al, (1994), the following elements are crucial to perform
effective public speech.
 Knowledge: you should be completely familiar with your topic. This has two
advantages: first, you will be more confident as you address your audience; second,
you will be able to anticipate and answer questions addressed to you.
 Organization: If you organize your presentation logically, you will be able to stay on
track, move rapidly through your key ideas, and thereby maintain the attention and
interest of your audience.
 Advance Preparation: improves effectiveness. Preparation of ideas, supporting facts,
visual aids, attention-catching statements, etc. contributes to your confidence and
helps you speak with force and clarity.
 Honesty: when speaking, be yourself – no more, no less. If you can‟t answer a
question, say so quickly and directly and move on. Do not try to fool your audience.
 Vocabulary and Articulation: After analyzing your audience, select a vocabulary
level appropriate for your listeners. Define those terms that may be unfamiliar to
them. Pronounce your words clearly. Eliminate “cuz,” “dontcha,” “comin‟,” and so
forth.
 Rate of Delivery: The rate of your delivery is critical in maintaining and holding the
interest of your audience. Audiences bore easily while listening to a slow,
monotonous speech. On the other hand, extremely rapid speech tends to lose an
audience. For maximum effectiveness, vary the rate of your delivery at appropriate
times to hold the audience interest.
 Volume and Inflection: Vary the volume of your voice for emphasis when necessary.
Be sure you can be heard distinctly in every corner of the room. On the other hand, be

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careful the volume is not so high as to be disturbing. Use inflection to emphasize key
points, ideas, and concepts.
Rate of delivery, volume and inflection should vary with the content of a presentation and
the impact a speaker wants to make on the audience.
 Gestures: Always maintain eye contact with your audience. Avoid looking out
the window, at an open door, or at the floor. If you are sitting, sit up straight. If
you are standing, stand relaxed yet straight.
Use gestures and eye movements to communicate your ideas. A smile is well received
when it is made in keeping with the proper statement.
[Link] Effective Speaking: the Long Presentation
Sometimes you will be asked to present a rather lengthy speech to inform members of an
audience of new policies, procedures, or products, to exchange technical material, to
present research findings, or to analyze budget considerations. The long presentation
differs from the short one in several ways (Clark, L. et al, (1994).
 The length of the long presentation may vary from 10 to 60 minutes o Visuals are
used more frequently in the long presentation
 The concepts and ideas in the long presentation are usually more complex.
 Audience involvement and participation are more common in the long presentation
According to Clark, L. et al, (1994), like other presentations, long speeches contain an
introduction, a body, and a conclusion.
 Introduction: The introduction is critical since its purpose is to gain the attention of
the listeners. This may be accomplished by establishing rapport with your audience. If
you are an “outsider” they need to be reassured of your competence and honesty.
Your introduction should include a statement of the topic for discussion and how it is
relevant to the audience. If you plan to use new or technical terms, be sure you define
them in the introduction.
 Body: Organize the body of your long speech as you would a long written report.
Make sure you have researched your topic thoroughly. Organize your ideas in a
logical sequence and provide supporting data.
 Conclusion: The data presented should lead naturally to the specific points in the
conclusion. These points may be listed and emphasized. Then you well substantiated

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recommendations may follow. The way you deliver your conclusion may determine
the effectiveness of your speech. Plan the conclusion carefully, using visual aids if
appropriate to increase audience retention of key points.
[Link] Using Visual Aids to Communicate
Whether your presentation is long or short, written or oral, visual aids usually enhance it.
When business data seem complex, visuals can make the interpretation of these facts
much easier. Graphs, charts, and tables clarify the data being presented as well as
illustrate relationships amongst them. Graphics should be included to clarify, supplement,
or complement the information being presented (Clark, L. et al, (1994).

Hybels and Weaver (2001) explained that the following factors should be considered in
Choosing Visuals: The type of visual you select should be appropriate for your audience,
your communication purpose, and the type of data you are presenting.
Audience: Before selecting and designing your visual, analyze your audience carefully.
Purpose and data analysis: Always be sure your data clarifies the concept or answers the
question you are trying to explain.
Graphs & Charts: Graphs and charts are often used to express relationships among data
as well as trends in sales, losses, inventory levels, and so forth over a period of time.
Line or curve charts: These are a series of points connected by a straight or curved line
to reflect a change over a period of time. When different colored inks or different line
configurations such as a broken line, a dotted line, or a solid line are used, readers can
easily note relationships and trends among data.
Bar charts: Bar charts (either vertical or horizontal) show the relationship by using bars
of different lengths to reflect quantitative differences in the data. Sometimes the actual
numerical data is included on or near the bars. (Variations of the bar chart – component
bar chart).
Pie charts: A pie chart is drawn in the shape of a circle. The entire area of the circle is
considered to represent 100% of a given total. A pie chart that is broken into segments
without any indication of percentages has questionable reliability and should be viewed
with caution.

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Tables: Tables help to convey messages by making data easier to interpret. Tables also
permit the reader to easily contrast and compare information, retain it, and quickly note
similarities and differences. If a table is labeled and explained separately from the text, it
is considered independent of the text. If all explanatory information is in the text, the
table is considered dependent on the text.
Miscellaneous Visual Aids
Pictograms or pictographs: these charts use symbols to help the reader visualize the
product/service
Map charts: use symbols to represent quantities
Photographs: are useful to show plant sites, actual products, etc.
Exploded drawings and cutaways: these provide an in-depth view of a product or a
piece of equipment
Flowcharts: as the systems approach becomes more popular, work activities and
relationships may be illustrated by means of flowcharts
Organizational charts: these show the relationships among personnel within an
organization
Visuals for Oral Presentation
Chalkboard or whiteboard – both are easily erasable.
Flip charts are large sheets of newsprint supported on an easel. Flip charts are used easily
when it is impossible or undesirable to turn out the room lights.
Transparencies are sheets of acetate that are projected onto a screen by means of an
overhead projector. They have similar advantages to flip charts (that is, if the room lights
need not be dimmed) (Hybels,S and Weaver, R. (2001).
Slides may be used in large auditoriums to highlight main ideas. Unfortunately, room
lights must be dimmed for proper viewing.

We communicate all the time, every day. Sometimes we are even aware of it! We
communicate through gesture, body language, facial expressions, and tone of voice as
well as through the words we speak. These variables can be joined in a variety of ways in
our communication. Add to this mix: language, cultural and social differences,
educational background, physical proximity, and individual fears, insecurities, strengths,

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and weaknesses. No wonder communication is complex. There is a huge amount of

information on communication and different methodologies for improvement. The
following offers one perspective on communication.

First of all, being successful in business requires effective communication. To untangle

the mix described above and to improve communication, we can focus on several key
elements:
• Purpose
• Style
• Listening (Hybels,S and Weaver, 2001).
Purpose
In business, when we communicate we usually have a purpose. Sometimes we have not
considered that purpose sufficiently before beginning the dialogue, which can lead to
confusion and mixed messages. So, first we must clarify our purpose. What do I want as
a result of this communication? What would be a successful outcome?
As an example, let's consider dialogue with an employee regarding a new assignment.
Initially, we may look at the assignment and consider that its successful completion is the
purpose. But let's break this process further down into smaller steps, with handing off the
assignment being the first step. Our desired outcome for the meeting to hand off the
assignment might be:
• Employee fully understands the assignment
• Responds to questions to ensure understanding
• Is able to paraphrase assignment requirements
• Is aware of consequences of completing or not completing assignment
• Employee has an idea of how to proceed
• Articulates next steps
• Identifies problems, etc
• Or we and employee discuss together
• Employee knows resources available
• Employee knows where to go for help

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• We and employee agree on a follow-up status check meeting (Hybels,S and Weaver,
2001).
If we have been successful in this first communication regarding the assignment, we have
already established a paradigm for communication during the assignment work, including
follow-ups to check status, make corrections, and to compliment upon completion.
Clarity in the initial communication makes a huge difference. And to back up one step,
clarifying our purpose before starting the communication can separate effective
communication from that which is unclear, does not have sufficient detail, leaves no
room for questions or advice, or does not ensure the employee can gain access to
sufficient resources.
A clearly identified purpose can mean the difference between success or failure, and
while thinking through a purpose may take time initially, we will eventually form a
consistent habit of clarifying desired outcome – which usually leads to better results.
Style
Style has to do with who we are and how who we are affects our communication. We
may engage in dialogue with little knowledge of the impact of individual differences.
Some of us may have a higher awareness of style differences and still not use this
awareness when communicating. Others of us become aware of stylistic differences only
when having a problem communicating. Let's stop for a moment and further define
"style." (Hybels,S and Weaver, R 2001).
Style is influenced by many factors, some of which were defined at the beginning of this
article. A longer list might include culture, upbringing, religion, gender, age, education,
language, race, politics - and this is not a total list. Some of the influences of our early
years are mitigated or enhanced during our growth and experience. In all, we become
who we are, and who we are influences our communication.
Let's stay at this level of detail and agree that generally at work we do not sit down and
tick off this list every time we communicate with someone! Then how do we overcome
some of our differences in order to communicate effectively?
We consider style: mine and theirs.
Some of us tend to be more direct and/or assertive, or even aggressive. Some of us tend
toward being indirect and/or passive. Here are some characteristics of each type.

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Once we have determined our style and the style of the other person, we have to consider
the dynamic of the two. Two aggressive people may have to each work harder at allowing
the other to talk and voice opinions. Two passive people may tend to come to conclusions
too quickly, or may not uncover issues or differences. One of each will have to be very
aware of the other's differences and make the effort required to accommodate those
differences. Taking the time to think about our own style, then to consider the style of the
other person, generates huge returns in communication. These returns include:
• Increased ability of the passive/indirect person to express
• Increased ability of the aggressive/direct person to listen
• Ability to allow and work out differences
• Realization that we each offer strengths as well as weaknesses
• Achieving more together than possible as individuals
Recognizing style or personal characteristics is key to successful business
communications.
Listening
Active listening takes energy; it's work. To actively listen to someone means the following:
• Focus eyes and mind on the person speaking
• Indicate listening through eye contact, note taking, and body language
• Respond appropriately with comments, questions, or paraphrasing
The first step is the most difficult: focusing solely on the person speaking versus thinking
of what we want to say next, beginning to analyze, or even coming up with a solution!
We can minimize these tendencies by making good eye contact with the person speaking
so that our focus is only on that person. Quelling the desire to analyze, problem solve,
etc. means we have to WORK hard. It takes a strong effort to halt or slow down these
urges. If we don't stop them, then our focus is not on the person but is on our own words
and thoughts, and we are not getting all of the information they are telling us. Short
circuiting active listening means we short circuit them and ourselves.

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When this does happen and we're aware of it, we can stop the person and ask him or her
to repeat what they said. We might say, "Would you please repeat that so I will have a
full understanding," to cover our embarrassment for not listening!
Making eye contact with a person may depend upon style or culture. Some cultures prefer
not to have direct eye contact. Our style assessment will help us to determine whether or
not that is true for the person with whom we are dealing.
Our assessment will also help us to establish which other mechanisms to use to indicate
we are truly focused on what the person is saying.
Responding appropriately is a real indication of active listening. When we talk with
teenagers we might ask them to repeat what we just said. If they repeat verbatim we
know they heard us and can "parrot." If they paraphrase or explain what we said in their
own words, we know they really listened and understood.
The ability to paraphrase is a powerful tool to use with our fellow employees. If we have
any doubt of their understanding, having them paraphrase is a good way to check it out.
Another appropriate response is to ask questions. If we are listening to the person, asking
appropriate questions helps that person to know we are really listening. It works the other
way as well. If an employee or colleague does not ask us questions or does not respond
appropriately, we know we need to review again, repeat using different words, draw a
diagram, or whatever else we need to do to help that person understand.
Active listening is not something we need to do all the time; in fact, we could [Link]'s
important is to determine when to use active listening. A good measurement is to say that
we should actively listen anytime not listening could result in damaging or hurtful
consequences.

1.11.7. Interview

[Link] Definition of Interview

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Interview is a formal face- to face meeting, especially, one arranged for the assessment of
the qualifications of an applicant, and for employment or admission – interviews have
been described or conversation with a purpose. An interview is a formal meeting between
a job seeker and an employer. For the employer, the purpose is to determine the most
suitable person for the job. For the job seeker, the purpose is to obtain a job, or at the very
least to progress to the next part of the selection process.

Preparing for an Interview

Planned preparation for the job interview will help the candidate:

 Develop the needed confidence

 Enter the job interview with information and understanding
 deal with interview anxiety effectively;
 sensitive to the needs and expectations of the interviewers;
 know his/her strengths and weaknesses
 strike up a positive interaction with the interviewers;
 know his/her job and the organization that he/she wants to join; and
 adapt his background, knowledge and skills to fit the job.

Thus, preparing for the job interview involves the following issues (Hybels,S and
Weaver, R 2001).

a. Self-analysis

We cannot project ourselves successfully unless we know our strengths and weaknesses
properly. It may sound foolish but it is true that most of us really do not know ourselves.
That is why a simple question like “Tell us something about yourself.” unnerves many
candidates during job interview. Self-analysis includes analyzing our background,
identifying our major accomplishments, achievements, our special interests and hobbies,
and analyzing our carrier goals in terms of the contribution we can make to the job we
aspire for.

b. Analyze your skills

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Most employers would like to see the match between the candidate’s job and may ask
you the following questions:

 How will you rate yourself for this position on a scale of one to ten?
 Why should we hire you?
 What makes you suitable for this position?
 What are your strengths?
c. Research the Organization

You must thoroughly research the organization you want to join before the interview.
Interviewers may ask a few questions to test your knowledge about the base organization
and your interest in them.

Therefore, you should have some basic information about the organization, which may
include:

 Major areas of operation

 Products/services of the organization
 Growth rate,
 Hierarchical structure of the organization,
 Work culture,
 Corporate culture,
 Recent development in the organization,
 New products, services, and projects,
 Factors making the organization successful.

There are many ways to research the organization. The first and the most obvious are
visiting the website of the organization. In addition, you can visit the library to look for
relevant information about it. You may refer to company directories, quarterly
publications, magazines, company reports and relevant business and professional
publications .You may also read the company’s brochures and recent annual report.
Finally, you may talk to concerned people to get first hand information about the
organization.

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d. Job Analysis

You should know what the job is all about. You cannot adapt your skills to fit in the job
desired unless you know about the job. Moreover, without sufficient knowledge about the
job position, you may not be able to answer questions like “Why are you interested in this
job?”, “What makes you fit for this position?”, “What do you know about this position?”
“What makes you think you are fit for this job?” with a little preparation you can answer
these questions confidently.

You should try to answer the following questions before you actually face the interview.

 What does this job involve?

 What are the responsibilities associated with this job?
 What are the special duties?
 How is this position different from similar positions at other organizations?
 What are the challenges of this position?
 What are the skills and abilities needed for this job?
 What is the level of professional knowledge needed?
 What are the areas of expertise/areas of specialization or micro specialization
related to the job?
 What are the prospects?

In order to research the job, you may use several available resources such as the internet,
the library, the organization’s public relations office, people working in the organization,
particularly alumni of your institution.

e. Revise your Subject Knowledge

You should also brush up your general awareness. The interviewers may test your
knowledge on political, economic, scientific, and environmental issues, national and
international affairs. As educated person, you are expected to be aware of day to day life.
Therefore, reading newspapers, watching news on television and visiting informative
websites to brush up your knowledge about recent developments in different areas is
essential.

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f. Develop the Interview File

Preparation for the interview demands a professional approach. Therefore, you should
develop an interview file that may contain the following papers and documents:

 Interview letter
 Original degrees certificates, and transcripts
 Experience certificates
 Reference and testimonials
 Copies of your resume
 Other relevant papers that might be needed during the interview.

[Link] Interview Questions

The candidate should understand the nature of different types of interview questions,
analyze expected questions in order to devise answering strategies, and practice these
answers.

[Link] Types of Interview Questions

You should be familiar with the nature and type of questions being asked during job
interviews so that you are ready to answer them confidently. There are seven different
types of questions that are asked to elicit certain responses from candidates. They include
open, closed, probing, reflective, loaded, hypothetical, and leading questions (Watson, T
2008).

a) Open Questions

An open question asks the candidates to ‘talk about’ something. Its main purpose is to
encourage the candidates to talk broadly about a topic or subject. It broadens the scope of
the response by forcing the candidates to engage in deeper thinking. Following are some
of the examples of open questions:

 Tell us something about yourself.

 Talk about your interests and activities.

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 Describe the most difficult situation that you recently faced.

 What are the advantages of a mixed economy?
 What do you think about the impact of multinational companies on the
Ethiopian economy?
b) Closed Questions

Unlike open questions, closed questions limit the scope of the response by asking the
candidates to provide specific information or facts. It permits the candidate no freedom of
selection as they are required to give very specific answers. Following are some such
examples:

 When did you complete your graduation?

 What was your major subject in the college?
 Where did you receive your first professional training?
 Do you know data processing?

c) Probing Questions

The main purpose of a probing question is to probe more deeply or ask for an explanation
or clarification of a statement just made. Probing questions encourage the candidate to
talk in greater depth about a topic or subject. For example, after the response ‘I believe
that students should be allowed in academic decision making’ the interviewer might ask
the probing question ‘Do you think that this should include all academic decisions?’

d) Reflective Questions

Reflective questions are asked to confirm the statements given by the candidate. The
purpose is to check that the interviewer understands what the candidate has said.
Following are some examples of reflective questions:

 That means you want the public sector companies to be totally privatized?
 Am I right in thinking that you are against economic liberalization in Ethiopia?
 Does that mean that you favor a total ban on any type of violence in movies?

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e) Loaded Questions

Loaded questions assess the candidate’s response to a sensitive issue, subject or point.
The main purpose of loaded questions is to judge the candidate’s ability to handle
difficult and sensitive situations. There may not be any right or wrong answer to loaded
questions; rather, it would be a reasonable or unreasonable response.

The following are some examples:

 You are too short. Don’t you think this is going to be a handicap for you?
f) Hypothetical Questions

A hypothetical question may involve a hypothetical situation. It may be asked to test the
possible reactions of the candidate to a certain situation. The candidate may be asked the
question. “What would you do if . . .”, or the candidate may be given a situation and
asked how he/she will deal with it. Some examples are given here

 What would you do if you face a group of angry employees who want to harm
company vehicles because one of the workers has been hurt by a company lorry?
 One of your staff has been involved in activities detrimental to your organization. He
has been doing this for money that he needs for the treatment of his ailing mother
what would you do?
g) Leading Questions

A leading question is asked to obtain a desired response. It leads the candidate to a

particular answer. Such questions generally suggest a point of view on the part of the
interviewer and call for agreement with a ‘yes’ answer. Given below are some examples.

 Don’t you agree that our company is a market leader in electronics products?
 Don’t you think that the Grand Renaissance Dam have boosted the Ethiopian
economy?
 Don’t you agree that our economy needs more privatization?

[Link] Answering Strategies

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How a question is answered is sometimes more important than the answer itself. The way
a question is answered reflects a person’s communicative ability. The following
suggestions will help you improve the quality of answer:

 Attentiveness

When a person attends job interview, he/she cannot answer the interview’s questions
correctly unless he/she is listening properly.

 Accuracy

The candidate should be brief and to the point particularly in open questions where he/she
has the scope to speak as much as he/she can.

 Focus

The candidate should be focused and specific. Very often, candidates deviate from the
question asked and do not answer specifically.

 Clarity

Candidates should answer directly and clearly. The candidate should not give the
interviewers a chance to ask for an answer to be repeated or classified. Clarity of
expression generally reflects clarity of thought and professionalism.

 Positive attitude

The candidates answer should reflect a positive attitude. Interviewers may ask negative or
sensitive questions to explore the negatives in the candidate’s personality. Therefore, it is
important to remain positive and answer even negative questions positively.

 Logical Thinking

The ability to think logically is always an asset during an interview. Answers should
always be rational and logical because illogical answers reflect a disorganized
personality. Logical arguments and illustrations should be used when answering
questions that demand careful thinking (that is, probing and hypothetical questions).

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[Link] Directions of Communication Vertical, Horizontal and Diagonal Communications

In an effective organization, communication flows in various directions: downward, upward,
and crosswise: horizontal and diagonal.

Koontz and Weihrich, (2004) also identify four kinds of information flows in the organization

In formal communication, transmission of messages is made as per the procedures specifically set
up for the purpose in the organization. Usually orders and instructions flow from the superiors to
the subordinates and reports, suggestions, and recommendations flow from the subordinates to
the superiors.

Horizontal

Diagonal
Upward
Downward

Figure 4.1 Information flow in an Organization

1. Downward Communication
Downward communication flows from people at higher levels to those at lower levels in
the organizational hierarchy (Koontz and Weihrich). The major purposes of downward
communication are to advise, inform, direct, instruct, and evaluate employees and, to
provide information for organization members about organizational goals and policies.

The kinds of media used for downward communication include instructions, speeches,
meetings, the telephone, loudspeakers, memorandum, letters, handbooks, pamphlets,
policy statements, procedures, and electronic news displays.

In fact, many downward directives are not understood or even read. Consequently, a
feedback system is essential for finding out whether information was perceived as
intended by the sender.

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Activity: 1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of downward communication?

2. Could you Give an example of downward communication?

2. Upward Communication

Upward communication flows from individuals at lower levels of the organizational

structure to those at higher levels (Invancevich, Konopaske, and Matteson, 2005). In such
situations, the communicator is at lower level in the organization than the receiver.

Activity: Identify the functions of upward communication.

3. Crosswise Communication
Since horizontal and diagonal communications have some common characteristics, they
are called crosswise communication (Koontz and Weihrich). Crosswise communication
includes the horizontal flow of information and the diagonal flow of information. This
kind of communication is used to speed information flow, to improve understanding, and
to coordinate efforts for the achievement of organizational objectives.
Modern organizations use many kinds of oral and written crosswise communication
patterns to supplement the vertical (downward and upward) flow of information.

Activity: Define horizontal communication and diagonal communication.

a) Horizontal Communication
Horizontal communication is the flow of information among people on the same or
similar organizational levels.

b) Diagonal Communication

Diagonal communication is the flow of information among persons at different levels

who have no direct reporting relationships with one another .

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Diagonal communication is important in situations where members cannot communicate

effectively through other channels. A diagonal channel would be the most efficient in
terms of time and effort for the organization.

Unit Two: Written Business Communication

2.1 Meaning of Business Letter

The term “business letters” refers to any written communication that begins with a
salutation, ends with a signature and whose contents are professional in nature (Malcog
2001). Historically, business letters were sent via postal mail or courier, although the

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Internet is rapidly changing the way businesses communicate. There are many standard
types of business letters, and each of them has a specific focus.

2.2 Basic Parts of Letters

Malcog (2001) identifies several parts of letters (with the block style) as follow:

1. Letterhead: Letterhead contains the company’s name, address, phone number, and
fax number. Many letterheads also include a logo, an e-mail address and a web
address. The letterhead helps the reader know where the letter is coming from and
where to reply to the letter.
2. Dateline: The dateline appears below the letterhead. Date provides a reference point
for future correspondence.
3. Reference: The code given to a letter for easy identification.
4. Inside address: The inside address contains the name of the recipient, his or her title,
the company name and address.
5. Attention line (optional): If a letter is addressed to a company rather than an
individual, direct your letter by using an attention line. This line is generally
underlined. Example, Attention: General Manager.
6. Salutation or greeting: The traditional greeting for letter starts with Dear. Thus, start
your letter with “Dear Mr. John” or “Dear Client Representative” (if you don’t know
the addressee’s name). After some contact, you can generally use the person’s name
Dear John rather than title or last name.
7. Subject (optional): The subject usually appears below the salutation. If preferred, the
subject can appear above the salutation. The purpose of the subject is let the reader
know immediately what the message is about.
8. Body: The main purpose of a letter is to convey a message. This is done mainly
through the body of the letter.
9. Complementary closing: Business letters are formal and use complementary closing.
The complementary closing is typed a double space below the last line of the body.
For business letters, use sincerely or sincerely yours.
10. Writer’s Name (required): Type the writer’s name below the closing. Leave enough
space for a handwritten signature.

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11. Writer’s title (optional): For formal correspondence, it is recommended to use a title.
Type the title on the line below the name.
12. Reference initials (optional): If you type a letter for someone else, put your reference
initials in lowercase or caps a double space below the writer’s signature.
13. Enclosure notation (optional): The enclosure notation reminds the reader that
material is enclosed with the letter. If you are enclosing something with the letter,
make reference to the enclosure in the body of the letter and include an enclosure
notation.
14. File name notation (optional): documents created with word processing software
sometimes need a file name so that they can be retrieved from storage
15. Copy notation (optional): A cc (courtesy copy) notation appears on all copies and
indicates to whom copies are being sent.
16. Postscript (optional): Use a postscript (PS) for an afterthought. Position your
postscript double space below the last notation. Here are some examples:

PS. It was great to see you at the meeting!

PS: Thank you for inviting Jorge to the meeting.
PS: You can reach me at the home number indicated on the new label
copy.

The criteria for the physical makeup of a business letter relate principally to its (1)
Mechanical details and (2) General Appearance(Malcog. A.M. (2001).
MECHANICAL DETAILS
The factors of mechanical details of a business letter are its (a) Parts and (b) Layout.
LETTER PARTS
1. Letterhead
Company’s letter head is ordinarily printed at the top of the sheet. It should contain the
name, address brief description and telephone number of the business. When a printed
letterhead is not used, the address of the writer is typewritten on the right-hand corner at
the top of the sheet.

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2. Date
The date should be placed a few spaces below the letterhead, beginning half way across
the page or further to the right of the following correct styles of writing down dates, the
Americal sytel, is more popular.
American Style : August 22, 1988
English Style : 22nd August, 1988
Oxford University Style : 22 August, 1988
3. Inside Address
The inside address consists of the name and address of the addressee. It is placed a few
spaces below the date on the left-hand side. The name of an individual is preceded by a
title of respect (Mr., Mrs., Dr., Professor etc.)
4. Salutation
The salutation is a friendly greeting placed on the second line below the inside address. It
is generally followed by a colon (:) The following salutations are generally used in
business letters. For individuals: Dear Sir, Dear Madam, Gentlemen, Ladies, etc.
5. Body
The body of the letter contains the message. It is generally single spaced, with double
spacing between paragraphs. When the body of a letter is two or more pages, each page –
except the first one should be headed by addressee’s name, page number and date as
follows:
Mr. Riaz Agha – 2 – October, 10, 1988.
6. Complimentary Close
The complimentary close should begin two spaces below the last line of the body of the
letter and half way across the page. It is followed by a comma (,). The most frequently
used forms of complimentary close are “Very Truly Yours”. “Sincerely yours”,
“Cordially”, “Respectfully” is too formal to suit a business letter.
7. Signature
The signature consists of signature, name and / or designation of the writer. The name of
the company should also be written while signing on a sheet without letterhead.

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8. Initials
The initials of the typist / secretary should appear below the signature on the left-hand
side of the sheet.
OPTIONAL PARTS
In addition to the above-mentioned essential parts of a business letter, the following
optional parts may also be included when appropriate.
9. Enclosure notation should be put directly below the initials as follows: Enclosures: 2 or
Enclosures: 4 or Enclosures: Blank Form
10. Attention line: considered part of the inside address, directing a letter to a particular
person or department, is usually placed between the inside address and the salutation.
11. Subject line: indicating the message, is usually placed below the salutation, wither
including omitting the word “subject”.
12. Copy notation: stating the names of the persons to whom a copy of the letter is sent,
should be typed below the initials or the enclosures (if any), arranged in order of
importance or alphabetically.
13. Reference number of file: account, or case should be typed above the body of the
letter.
14. Mailing notation: Words such as “Registered Mail”, “Book Post”, “Special Delivery”
may be typed wither below the last line of the letter or above the inside address.
2.3 LETTER FORMATS
There is no one correct letter format.
Almost every organization has developed its own design and format for its letters. Some
use a block form; others use an indented style; some include the typist‟s and author‟s
initials; others do not. However, whichever format an organization uses should be used
consistently.
Malcog, (2001) identified the following letter formats and explained each format.
1. Full Block Form
In a full block letter every line begins at the left margin. This is easier to type.
2. Modified Block Form

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Modified block form is used frequently in business. All parts except the date,
complimentary close and signature sections begin at the left margin. The date,
complimentary close and signature area may start at the horizontal center of the page or
to the right of center.
3. Modified Block form with Paragraph Indentations
It is like the modified block form except that its paragraphs are indented. The date
complimentary close and signature area begin at the horizontal center of the page.
4. ASM simplified form
This form has been recommended by the Administrative Management Society of USA as
an important time saving step. Following are important features.
(i) Full block style and open punctuations are used.
(ii) Salutation and complimentary close are omitted, but to personalize reader’s name is
used at least in the first sentence.
(iii) Subject line is typed in capital letters and the word “subject” is omitted.
(iv) Signer’s name and business title are typed in capital letters.
5. Hanging or Inverted Paragraph Form
This form is commonly used in sales and advertising letters. The key words are
“hanging” in the left margin at the start of each paragraph with other lines indented.
Sometimes the key words are typed in capital letters for more emphasis.
The sketched of the above letters are given on the following pages.

FULL BLOCK FORMAT

LETTER HEAD
Date
_____________

Inside Address
________________________
________________________
________________________

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Salutation
_____________________

First Paragraph
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________.
Subsequent Paragraph(s)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Body ___________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Last Paragraph
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________
____________Signature___________
______________________________

MODIFIED BLOCK FORMAT

LETTER HEAD
_____________ Date _____________
_______________________________
_________ Inside Address _________
_______________________________
___________ Salutation ___________

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First Paragraph
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________.
Subsequent Paragraph(s)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________ Body
______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Last Paragraph
____________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_____________ Inside Address _________
_______________________________
____________Signature___________
_______________________________

MODIFIED BLOCK FORMAT

WITH PARAGRAPH INDENTATIONS

LETTER HEAD
_____________ Date _____________
_______________________________
_________ Inside Address _________
_______________________________

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___________ Salutation ___________

First Paragraph
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________.
Subsequent Paragraph(s)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Body ___________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Last Paragraph
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

ASM SIMPLIFIED FORMAT

LETTER HEAD
_____________ Date _____________
_______________________________
_________ Inside Address _________
_______________________________
Subject line _________________
First Paragraph
________________________________________________________________________

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________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________.
Subsequent Paragraph(s)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Body ___________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Last Paragraph
___________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Signature area
__________________

HANGING PARAGRAPH

LETTER HEAD
HANGING PARAGRAPH:
LETTER HEAD
_____________ Date _____________
_______________________________
_________ Inside Address _________
_______________________________
___________ Salutation ___________
First Paragraph
________________________________________________________________________

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________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________.
Subsequent Paragraph(s)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Body___________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Last Paragraph
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Complimentary Close _____________

_______________________________
__________Signature Area _________
_______________________________

Sample Business Letter (Full Block Style)

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Mrs. Clara Winters

12187 S. Polo Dr .
Fairfax, VA 22030

May 26, 2002

The Tiny Tots Toy Company

15456 Pyramid Way
College Park, FL 33133
Dear Customer Service Representative:
I recently purchased one of your Tiny Tents (Model #47485) for my three-year old.
Unfortunately, after viewing the components that came with the product, I discovered that four of
the parts were missing. Also, the instructions that came with the tent are in Portuguese and
Russian, but not in English or French, the two languages I speak. These two unforeseen problems
have resulted in the tent remaining unassembled and unacceptable as a toy for my daughter.
I am writing to request replacements for the missing parts, and a copy of the full set of assembly
instructions (in English or French) for the model I purchased. If reasonable arrangements are not
made within ten business days, I will return the tent to the store I purchased it from and expect a
full refund. To assist you in processing my request, I am including a copy of my sales receipt and
a list of the missing parts.
I have purchased other toys manufactured by your company in the past, and have always been
impressed with the quality and selection that Tiny Tots has made available to its customers. I
sincerely hope this is a one-time incident, and that any future purchases I make will live up to the
standard my family has come to expect from your company.
Sincerely,

Clara Winters

Enc: 2

P.O. Box 400

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Woldia University

Woldia

Ethiopia

06 July 2007

Debre Tabor university Personnel office

Debre Tabor University

P.O. Box 272

Debre Tabor

Ethiopia

Dear Sir/Madam:

Application for the post of lecturer in English language and literature

I would like to apply for the post of lecturer in English Language and Literature which I saw advertised in
‘Addis zemen’ of 01 July, 2007. I have a masters degree in literature from Bahirdar University.I have been
a lecturer at Woldia University since July 1 2005E.C and I have worked as lecturer in the department of
English Language and Literature at Woldia University .

Please look the attached curriculum vitae which indicates my qualifications to date and my experience
relevant to this post. I would be willing to attend an interview at any time suitable for you.

Thank you very much in advance for considering my application and I look forward to hearing from you at
your earliest convenience.

Yours faithfully,

Dagnachew Adefirs

Enc: CV

Activity: Discuss the formats of business letter briefly

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______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

2.4 Types of Business Letters

According to Harpold (2003) the following are common business types

Sales Letters

Typical sales letters start off with a very strong statement to capture the interest of the
reader. Since the purpose is to get the reader to do something, these letters include strong
calls to action, detail the benefit to the reader of taking the action and include information
to help the reader to act, such as including a telephone number or website link (Harpold
(2003).

Order Letters

Order letters are sent by consumers or businesses to a manufacturer, retailer or wholesaler

to order goods or services. These letters must contain specific information such as model
number, name of the product, the quantity desired and expected price. Payment is
sometimes included with the letter(Harpold (2003).

Complaint Letters

The words and tone you choose to use in a letter complaining to a business may be the
deciding factor on whether your complaint is satisfied. Be direct but tactful and always
use a professional tone if you want the company to listen to you( Harpold (2003).

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Adjustment Letters

An adjustment letter is normally sent in response to a claim or complaint. If the

adjustment is in the customer’s favor, begin the letter with that news. If not, keep your
tone factual and let the customer know that you understand the complaint (Harpold
(2003).

Inquiry Letters

Inquiry letters ask a question or elicit information from the recipient. When composing
this type of letter, keep it clear and succinct and list exactly what information you need.
Be sure to include your contact information so that it is easy for the reader to respond.

Follow-Up Letter

Follow-up letters are usually sent after some type of initial communication. This could be
a sales department thanking a customer for an order, a businessman reviewing the
outcome of a meeting or a job seeker inquiring about the status of his application. In
many cases, these letters are a combination thank-you note and sales letter (Harpold
(2003).

Letters of Recommendation

Prospective employers often ask job applicants for letters of recommendation before
they hire them. This type of letter is usually from a previous employer or professor, and it
describes the sender’s relationship with and opinion of the job seeker (Harpold (2003).

Acknowledgment Letters

Acknowledgment letters act as simple receipts. Businesses send them to let others know
that they have received a prior communication, but action may or may not have taken
place Harpold (2003)

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Cover Letter

Cover letters usually accompany a package, report or other merchandise. They are used
to describe what is enclosed, why it is being sent and what the recipient should do with it,
if there is any action that needs to be taken. These types of letters are generally very short
and succinct Harpold (2003).

Letters of Resignation

When an employee plans to leave his job, a letter of resignation is usually sent to his
immediate manager giving him notice and letting him know when the last day of
employment will be. In many cases, the employee also will detail his reason for leaving
the company (Harpold ,2003).

Memorandum
A memorandum is short piece of writing used by an officer of an organization to
communicate within the organization. The literal meaning of the word memorandum is a
note to assist the memory. A memorandum is used for internal communication between
executives and subordinates. It is never sent outside the organization (Harpold (2003).

Purpose of Writing Memorandums

Memorandum (memos) may be used for any official communication. Usually, memos are
used:-
a. For conveying schedule message.
b. For submitting periodical reports.
c. For communicating changes in organization.
d. For issuing instruction to the staff.
e. For conforming a decision made at phone.
f. For asking certain special information.
g. For writing suggestions (Harpold , 2003).

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Activity: discuss the advantages of memorandum.

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Memoranda and Notices

In order to avoid misunderstandings, office workers routinely use the memorandum, or
memo. The memo acts as a record that can be filed and referred to later, if necessary.
When identical information must be transmitted to several individuals, the memo is an
essential tool. In addition, a memo can be used to confirm assignments, fix responsibility,
and document decisions or minutes of meetings.

Memo Format: The memo provides the busy executive with information quickly and
concisely. For easy use, memos have taken on an almost universal form: (Vikran Bisen
and Priya 2009)
1. Memos are usually written on full-page or half-page paper.

2. At the top, memos have a four-item heading:

To:
From:
Date:
Subject:
3. The subject line tells the reader exactly what the memo is about, eliminating the need
for an introductory paragraph. This line should be clear and specific.
4. The information in the memo should be clear and concise. Tables and headings should
be used whenever possible so the reader will note important information immediately.

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Memos are a record. Memos should be planned as carefully as a lengthy research

project. Although memos are usually brief, they make up a significant part of records in
company files.
Another medium used to communicate with large numbers of people within an
organization is the notice. The channel of communication is then the notice board on
which it is posted, the journal or newsletter in which it is displayed, etc. Notices serve the
purpose of bringing a matter to people’s attention. They are used for
 Effective impact in the presentation of a message (visually and intellectually)
 Longer-term display of the message, as a continual reminder and record
 Instruction, education, reminding or persuasion.
The format of a notice is extremely flexible. Their design should be easily seen, quickly
grasped and attractive. Notices should
 Stimulate immediate interest
 Be easy to read and comprehend
 Encourage the appropriate reaction on the part of the reader
 Stick in his/her mind

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Sample business letters

1. Letter of Enquiry

Bob Smith
2151 Columbus Road
Poplar, MI 23783

April 5, 2005

Harper Est.
64 Small Street
New York, NY 64641

Dear Sir,

With reference to your advertisement in the Silver Globe dated April 3, 2005, I would
like to have a copy your latest catalogue. I would appreciate it if you could send it at your
earliest.

Yours faithfully,

Bob Smith

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2. Acceptance of Proposal

John Doe
Sobriety Co. Ltd.
London, England

May 10, 2004

Re: Proposal for Project

Samuel Kennedy
High Engineering Works
London, England

Dear Mr. Kennedy,

We are glad to inform you that your proposal for the project has been
reviewed and accepted. We would like to arrange a meeting with you
to sign the agreement.

We are eagerly looking forward to this project and are happy to have
the opportunity to work with you.

Yours sincerely,

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John Doe

cc: Project Manager

3. Thank you Letter: (on letterhead)

Hope Company
2020 Glenn Street, Miami, FL 56870
Phone: 1234567 Email: admin@[Link]

June 15, 2000

Ms Elizabeth Brown
Colin Co Inc.
Chicago, IL 65432

Dear Ms Brown,

Thank you for giving us the opportunity to serve you. We appreciate

the confidence that you placed in us, and look forward to a continuing
relationship which will prove beneficial to all concerned.

Should you need any information, please do not hesitate to contact

any of our staff.

Yours truly,

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Kim Smith

PR Manager

4. Congratulating a new business and offering your services: (on letterhead)

Writing Services
5252 Oak Head Corner, Toronto, Canada
Phone: (123)9876543 Email: services@[Link]

September 20, 2001

The Manager
Stars Gallery
Toronto, Canada

Dear Sir,

Subject: Opening of new branch.

Congratulations on the opening of your new branch. We are very happy that your
business is expanding and that your clientele is increasing.

I understand that with the expansion of your business, you would be requiring more

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writers and book-keepers. As you are well aware we offer such services to new
businesses, and offer the same to you. I am enclosing a list of our services and their
corresponding prices. If you need clarifications on any of these, please do not hesitate
to either call us or write to us.

Yours faithfully,

Ann Doe
Enclosure: List of services and prices

5. Letter of Request

Margaret King
Hill Station Office
Dublin, Ireland

May 21, 2004

Re: Monday’s Meeting

PR Department
Slates Company
Dublin, Ireland

Attention: Mr. Tom Jones

Dear Mr. Jones,

We would like to remind you about Monday’s meeting. I am sure you

understand the importance of this meeting, and thus request you to be at our
office at 10 a.m. sharp. In case the time does not suit you, please call our
office and fix a different time with my secretary. Please bear in mind the

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urgency of this meeting and try not to delay too much.

Yours sincerely,

Margaret king

2.5 Resume and Job Application Letter

Brain storming

Have you ever heard the term curriculum vitae before?

What are elements of curriculum vitae?

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Curriculum Vitae is an outline of a person's educational and professional history,

usually prepared for job applications (Trawick, 2007).

1. Personal details

Normally these would be your name, address, date of birth although with age
discrimination laws now in force this isn't essential, telephone number and email.

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British CVs don't usually include a photograph unless you are an actor. In European
countries such as France, Belgium and Germany it’s common for CVs to include a
passport-sized photograph in the top right-hand corner whereas in the UK and the USA
photographs are frowned upon as this may contravene equal opportunity legislation - a
photograph makes it easier to reject a candidate on grounds of ethnicity, sex or age.

[Link] and qualifications

Your degree subject and university, plus A levels and GCSEs or equivalents. Mention
grades unless poor!

[Link] experience

 Use action words such as developed, planned and organised.

 Even work in a shop, bar or restaurant will involve working in a team, providing a
quality service to customers, and dealing tactfully with complaints. Don't mention
the routine, non-people tasks (cleaning the tables) unless you are applying for a
casual summer job in a restaurant or similar.

 Try to relate the skills to the job. A finance job will involve numeracy, analytical
and problem solving skills so focus on these whereas for a marketing role you
would place a bit more more emphasis on persuading and negotiating skills.

 All of my work experiences have involved working within a team-based culture.

This involved planning, organisation, coordination and commitment e.g., in retail,
this ensured daily sales targets were met, a fair distribution of tasks and effective
communication amongst all staff members.

[Link] and achievements

 Keep this section short and to the point. As you grow older, your employment
record will take precedence and interests will typically diminish greatly in length

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and importance.
 Bullets can be used to separate interests into different types: sporting, creative etc.

 Don't use the old boring cliches here: "socialising with friends".

 Don't put many passive, solitary hobbies (reading, watching TV, stamp
collecting) or you may be perceived as lacking people skills. If you do put these,
then say what you read or watch: "I particularly enjoy Dickens, for the vivid
insights you get into life in Victorian times".

 Show a range of interests to avoid coming across as narrow : if everything

centres around sport they may wonder if you could hold a conversation with a
client who wasn't interested in sport.

 Hobbies that are a little out of the ordinary can help you to stand out from the
crowd: skydiving or mountaineering can show a sense of wanting to stretch
yourself and an ability to rely on yourself in demanding situations

 Any interests relevant to the job are worth mentioning: current affairs if you
wish to be a journalist; a fantasy share portfolio such as Bullbearings if you want
to work in finance.

 Any evidence of leadership is important to mention: captain or coach of a sports

team, course representative, chair of a student society, scout leader: Anything
showing evidence of employability skills such as team working, organising,
planning, persuading, negotiating etc.

5. Skills

 The usual ones to mention are languages (good conversational French, basic
Spanish), computing (e.g. "good working knowledge of MS Access and Excel,
plus basic web page design skills" and driving ("full current clean driving
licence").

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If you are a mature candidate or have lots of relevant skills to offer, a skills-based CV
may work for you

6. References

 Many employers don’t check references at the application stage so unless the
vacancy specifically requests referees it's fine to omit this section completely if
you are running short of space or to say "References are available on request."
 Normally two referees are sufficient: one academic (perhaps your tutor or a
project supervisor) and one from an employer (perhaps your last part time or
summer job).

2.5 What is a letter of application?

 A letter of application, commonly called a “cover letter”, should accompany each

resume you send to an employer. This letter serves as an introduction - to
stimulate the reader to review your resume. In some cases the employer decides
which resume to read on the basis of the letter (Trawick, 2007).

 You should scrutinize the job advertisement closely and underline the key words
that indicate the skills and qualities sought. Ensure that you address these skills
in your cover letter.

Points to remember while writing job application letter

 Use a correct letter style.

 Personalize each letter by sending it to a specific individual (note that this may
not be possible if you are applying for a large scale, Australia-wide Graduate
Recruitment Program).

 Be sure to spell his/her name correctly and use the proper title (Miss, Ms, Mrs.,
Dr etc)

 Word your letter carefully. Keep it short and to the point.

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 Research the position and/or organization and indicate this knowledge in your
letter.

 Address the employer’s selection criteria (if appropriate).

 Realize the reader will view the letter as an example of your written
communication skills.

• Be honest and sincere. Give an impression of modest confidence.

• As with your resume, use good quality paper. Observe margins and spacing

• Proof read for spelling, grammar, punctuation and form.

• Remember to sign your letter.

• Cover letters should not be more than one page(Trawick, 2007).

2.5.1 PARTS OF application LETTER

A business letter is more formal than a personal letter. There are six parts to a business
letter (Harpold, 2003).

1. The Heading

This contains the return address (usually two or three lines) with the date on the last
line. In other words, this part contains the address of the writer and the date on which
the letter is written. Sometimes it may be necessary to include a line after the address
and before the date for a phone number, fax number, E-mail address, or something
similar.

This part is usually written at the top write corner of the paper.(Remember, there are
also other formats).

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2. The Inside Address. This is the address you are sending your letter to. Make it
as complete as possible. Include titles and names if you know [Link] is always on the
left margin, just below the heading. Skip (jump) a line after the heading before the
inside address. Skip another line after the inside address before the greeting.

3. The Greeting (Also called the salutation). The greeting in a business letter is
always formal. It normally begins with the word "Dear" and the name of the
person, or simply it may be written as “Dear Sir, Dear Madam, or Dear Sir/Madam.
Remember that every word in the greeting begins with a capital [Link] greeting in a
business letter usually ends in a comma, (sometimes in a colon).

4. The Body. The body is just the letter itself. It may be divided into several
paragraphs.

It is generally recommended that business letters should be written in a simple language

and short sentences. A business letter is never hand written. Skip a line between the
greeting and the body. Skip a line between the body and the close.

5. The Complimentary Close. This short, polite closing (like Sincerely yours,
Yours truly, or respectfully yours)) ends with a comma.

6. The Signature Line. Skip two lines (unless you have unusually wide or narrow
lines) and type out (your) name to be signed.

7. Enclosure .This is part of the letter which you ask the head personnel to read.

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P.O. Box 20

Haramaya
University
Dire Dawa

Ethiopia
30 September
2007

Mr John
Wilson

Head of
Personnel

ABC
International
University

P.O. Box 56

Addis Ababa

Ethiopia

Dear Mr
Wilson:
Application letter
Application
for the post of Head Secretary to the Vice-President

I would like to apply for the post of Head Secretary in the Academic and Research Vice-
President’s Office which I saw advertised in ‘The Reporter’ of 28 September 2007. I have been a

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secretary at Haramaya University since February 2003 and I have worked as Head Secretary in
the Faculty of Business & Economics since September 2005.

Please find tattached my curriculum vitae which indicates my qualifications to date and my
experience relevant to this post. I would be willing to attend an interview at any time suitable for
you.

Thank you very much in advance for considering my application and I look forward to hearing
from you at your earliest convenience.

Yours sincerely,

Abeba Tegegne

Abeba Tegegne

Enc: CV

Summary

The term business letters refers to any written communication that begins with a
salutation, ends with a signature and whose contents are professional in nature. Business
Letter has several parts which includes Letter head, Dateline, Inside address Attention
line, Salutation or greeting, Body, Complementary closing, Writer’s Name and Writer’s
title.

A memorandum is short piece of writing used by an officer of an organization to

communicate within the organization. The literal meaning of the word memorandum is a
note to assist the memory. Curriculum Vitae is an outline of a person's educational and
professional history, usually prepared for job applications.

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Activity 1

EDITING PRACTICE: CHECKING FOR ERRORS IN A COVERING LETTER

Read the following word-processed covering letter for a job. There are 10 errors.
Work with a partner to find the mistakes and correct them.

P.O. Box 61

Haramaya University

Dire Dawa

ETHIOPIA

Ms Susan Smith

Head of personnel

Millenium International College

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P.O. Box 95

Harar

ETHIOPIA

Dear Mrs. Smith

Application for the post of Head Secretary to the College Dean

I would like to apply for the post of Head Secretary to the Dean which I see advertised in
‘The Reporter’ of 29 September 2007. I have been a secretary at Haramaya University
since 1997 and I have worked as Head Secretary for the Dean of the Faculty of Education
since October 2004. Please find attached my curriculum vitae which indicates my
qualifications to date and my experience relevant to this post I would be willing to attend
an interview at any time suitable for you.

Thank you very much in advance for considering my application and I look forward
hearing from you at your earliest convenience.

Yours faithfully,

Fasika Ahmed

Fasika Ahmed

Enc CV

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Activity 2
Read the following external vacancy announcement and write a job application
letter to the organization.

External Vacancy Announcement

Family Guidance Association of Ethiopia volunteer based, non-political, non-for- profit national
NGO working in the areas of Sexual and Reproductive Health Rights announces a vacancy for
the position of laboratory technician.

Major duties of the position

 Collecting, preparing and processing of blood, stool, urine, and fluid samples as per the
order of the physician / nurse.
 Staining, reading and analysis of specimens.
 Ensuring all laboratory equipments and supplies meet the required standard.
Educational and qualification requirements

Diploma in laboratory technology from recognized institution

Work experience requirement: At least two years

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Salary and benefit: As per the scale of the association

Duration of work: Contract (renewable)

Duty station: Assela

All interested who meet the above criteria are invited to apply. You may submit your
application, CV, and testimonials in person or send it within 10 days of this
announcement date through the address shown below:

Family Guidance Association of Ethiopia, Central Branch Office, [Link] 59, Nazreth

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References

Clark, L. et al, (1994). Business English and Communication. Mcgraw-Hill.

Glavin. M. K. (2001). Communication Works. National Textbook Company

Harpold, L. (2003).How to write a thank you note. Retrieved from

[Link]
hp
Hybels,S and Weaver, R(2001). Communicating effectively. McGraw Hill.
Malcog. A.M. (2001). Letter Writing in English. USA.
Manktelow, J. (2003). Why you need to get your message across. Retrieved from
[Link]

Marsh, C., Guth, D. W., & Short, B. P. (2005). Strategic writing: Multimedia writing for
public relations, advertising, sales and marketing, and business communication. Boston:
Pearson Education.

Murphy, Hildebrandt and Thomas (1997): Effective Business Communication 7 th ed.

McGraw-Hill.

Newsom, D., & Haynes, J. (2005). Public relations writing: Form and style (7th ed.).
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

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Oliu, W. E., Brusaw, C. T., & Alred, G. J. (2007). Writing that works: Communicating
effectively on the job (9th ed.). Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s.

Pearsall, T. E. (1997). The elements of technical writing. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn
& Bacon.

Trawick,L.(2007).Sample letter. Retrieved from

[Link] [Link]/handouts/pw/p_basicbusletter.html

Vikran Bisen and Priya (2009) Business Communication. New Age International (P)
Ltd., Publishers.

Watson, T. (2008, February 4). For NASA, “the right stuff” takes on a softer tone. USA
Today, pp. 1A–2A.

Zmorenski, D. (2009, October 2). Effective communication: Turn this weakness into a
strength [Web blog post]. Retrieved from [Link] effective-
communication

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UNIT THREE

3. Meeting and Documenting

Unit Introduction

Dear student!

Welcome to this unit that deals with meeting and documenting. In this unit of the
Module, we will discuss the aspects meeting, how to write notices for a meeting, how to
design agendas, the roles of a chair person, a secretary and a member in a meeting.
Furthermore, we will see the principles of minute writing. Enjoy all these useful contents
which will improve your effectiveness as an English teacher!

Unit Objectives

At the end of this unit, the students will be able:

 Write effective notices of meeting

 Design successful agendas

 Write effective minutes

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 Effectively take –part-in meetings assuming the roles of a chairperson, a secretary

or a member

3.1. Meeting

Brain Storming Questions

1. What is a meeting?
2. How often do you attend meetings?
3. How long do you spend in a week or a month?
4. Are you an active or passive participant?
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3.1.1. The Definition of Meeting

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 Meetings are a fact of life in business, industry, and government. Project teams
get together for a meeting; sales persons meet customers, new employees meet for
training sessions.
 Meetings can be effective if they are well-planned and run by the person in
charge.

According to consultants Mosvick and Roberts Nelson, authors of We’ve Got to

Start Meeting Like This !A Guide to Successful Meeting Management as cited in
Worth, R. (2004), the number of business meetings is increasing, but that doesn’t
mean that people are getting more work done. They also reported that “over 50
percent of the productivity of the billions of meeting hours is wasted.” Why? poor
meeting preparation , they explain ,lack of training on how to conduct meetings
effectively are the major problems. The biggest waste in time is meeting when it
is not necessary. You would be surprized by how many of your weekly meetings
can be eliminated when you decide to meet only when it is absolutely necessary.

Some tips for deciding if a meeting is worth your time

1. Has a goal been set for the meeting?

Is there a purpose for a meeting, a goal to achieve? Every meeting should

have an objective and if the one you have been asked to attend doesn’t,
consider recommending that a memo or an e-mail be sent instead.

2. Has an agenda been created ahead of time?

An agenda is the basis for an effective meeting. Creating and distributing the
meeting agenda one or two days before the meeting begins gives participants
an opportunity to prepare for the meeting. Having an agenda during the
meeting also focuses the discussion and helps your group stay on track.

3. Will the appropriate people be attending?

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If the appropriate people are not present, then important decisions get put on
hold. It will also take time to update key individuals on what took place in the
meeting they missed. It is better to put the meeting on hold until all of the
right people can be in the room.

4. Could the information be covered in an e-mail or meme?

The purpose of all meetings is sharing information and updating others. If

possible make an effort to substitute by these types of meetings with an e-
mail! Simply send one e-mail all the people who would have attended the
meeting. This will save everyone time, they will still be up-to-date on what is
happening and they will be grateful for having one less meeting to attend that
week.

3.1.2. Writing Notices

If we decide the importance of a meeting, the first step is to write a notice. Meeting
notices are information that notifies the meeting. Notifying a meeting is one of the
arrangements for the meeting made by the person responsible.

Meeting notices should include the following:

 Whether the meeting is regular or special

 The day, date, time, place, purpose of the meeting.

 Should be given a week or two-weeks in advance or even more

 May be type-written or telephone-based if the group is small

 Forms may be developed and used particularly for regular meetings. If it includes
small people, individual letters may be used.

3.1.3. Designing Agenda

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Agenda is a systematic schedule and list of topics to be covered in meetings prepared

well in advance by the person in charge.

• Meetings are run smoothly if an agenda is distributed in advance, though it can be

modified at the beginning of meeting.

• Agenda helps participants get pared by telling them what will be discussed.

• It helps keep them on track once the meeting begins.

• Helps so that as little time as possible is wasted.

Components and Format of Agenda

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PLANNING COMMITTEE MEETING

TUESDAY, JUNE 21, 2016

10:00 A.M

EXECUTIVE CONFERENCE ROOM

I. Call to Order
II. Roll Call

III. Approval of Agenda

IV. Approval of Minutes from Previous Meetings

V. Chairperson’s Report

VI. Subcommittee Reports

A. New Markets

B. New Products

C. Finance

VII. Unfinished Business

VIII. New Business

A. Carson & Canfield

B. Reassignments

IX. Announcements

X. Adjournment

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3.1.4. Involving in a Meeting

Participants in a meeting undertake the role of a chair person, a secretary and a member.

I. A chair person

Conducting a meeting requires high quality of leadership. Here by leadership we mean

that the chair person possesses the ability of taking a non-consensual decision. There may
be decision on policies which are tough, harmful in short term or to a group of people,
but they are beneficial for all-for the organization as well as the society in the long run. It
implies that the chair person is a person who has vision, and keeps in his/her mind the
overall picture of his/her organization. He/she has the capability to resist the pressure of
the lobby of vested interest. He/she must have tact, patience and a sense of humour.

A meeting chairperson is a meeting leader or a presiding person, who has the following
duties:

 Setting the agenda

 Pacing the meeting

 Appointing a note-taker

 Following the agenda

 Stimulating participation and discussion

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 Summarizing the debate

 Reviewing recommendation

 Circulating the minutes

Skills of Chairing Meetings

The chairperson/leader of the meeting controls a meeting and processes the discussion of
the agenda in a serial manner, initiates the discussion by a brief statement, and lets
members to talk : providing information, diagnosing the problem, giving their opinions.
He/she also evaluates fact and opinion, and decides on the issue.

The members seek further information and clarification. They ask several types of
questions. The chairperson channelizes the questions raised by the members in the
following manner:

 Overhead Question

Overhead Question, i.e. a question or a point made by a member is directed by the

chairperson to be addressed to the group as a whole. This is called overhead questions.
This approach engages the attention of all the members. There is a good chance that
someone will reply.

 Direct Questions

The chairperson may address a question to a particular member to find out his/her expert
opinion on the matter. This is also the way of dealing with talkative and problem people.

 Re-directed Questions

Chairperson may re-direct the points raised by a member to some other person in the
meeting. It helps in avoiding the meeting moving back and forth without coming to a
decision.

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 Relay Questions

A question put to the chair is relayed to members for reply. This is useful, when the
chairperson does not want to open his/her mind on the matter or does not wish to express
any views or get involved in an argument or influence the conclusion of the group.

 Reverse Questions

The person posing the question is asked to answer him/herself. The device is useful in
letting the member to speak his/her mind, which perhaps, he/she is trying to conceal.

II.A secretary

A meeting secretary is a person in charge to take- note/write minutes assigned or

appointed by a chairperson. He/she has the following duties:

 Records the proceedings/the points of the meetings (important information,

discussions and decisions) as a rough draft
 Writes the minutes immediately after the meeting while events and actions
taken are still fresh in his mind.

 Submits the draft to the presiding officer and to those who made reports for
approval

 Prepares the final copy (typed with care and standard)

III. A member

Participating in a company meeting is a chance to get noticed by your peers and

superiors. What you bring to a meeting and what you don’t bring can give others a
positive or erroneous impression of you. Prepare yourself for business meetings and

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follow a few simple rules to make yourself stand out like a star performer instead of a
sore thumb.

 Be Prepared
Prepare for the meeting by reading the agenda and brushing up on what’s going on. If
you’re not sure what the meeting’s about, ask someone so you can prepare. If the meeting
is a regular meeting with minutes taken, read minutes of past meetings to learn what’s
already been discussed and decided. If the meeting is organized, the participants might
follow Robert’s Rules of Order. This includes participants making a motion, one person
seconding each motion, discussion, then a vote called by the meeting chair.

 Pick your Battles

If someone makes an error or you disagree with him, think before you speak. Don’t show
someone up if you can correct him later. Even if the person is a subordinate or someone
you don’t like, others in the room will wonder if you won’t have their back in the future.

 Contribute
Don’t leave a meeting without contributing, if it’s appropriate. Some meetings are
primarily for giving information. Others are more interactive. Either way, take an
opportunity to ask a question, make a comment or just lend your support. Be careful not
to appear insincere by simply stroking a superior. Look for opportunities to make specific
comments. If you’re going to compliment someone, tell the room exactly what you feel is
positive about the idea or information.

 Choose your Timing

Don’t be the first one to comment on a presentation or proposal if you’re not senior
management or an expert. Your questions and comments might be answered by someone
else who goes after you and you might learn that you misinterpreted what was said. Wait
until you are confident that your input is needed and correct before you raise your hand.

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 Don’t Dominate
Even if you have several valuable questions and comments that contribute to the meeting,
don’t dominate the discussion. After you make a point, wait for others to chime in -- they
might make another point you were going to add, giving you a chance to sit back and
contribute later.

 Soften Objections
If you see problems with ideas or proposals, try to frame your concerns in a positive way.
Instead of telling someone she is wrong, point out the problem by asking a question,
instead. This gives the person a chance to show they have the situation covered, and
covers you if it turns out you were wrong. For example, instead of saying, “We can’t
produce that many units in one week,” ask, “How do you see us ramping up production to
meet that demand?”

Some Tips of Meeting

To ensure an effective meeting, all participants should:

 Undertake any necessary preparation prior to the meeting.

 Arrive on time.

 Keep an open mind.

 Listen to the opinions of others.

 Participate.

 Avoid dominating the proceedings.

 Avoid conflict situations.

 Avoid side conversations which distract others.

3.1.5. Principles of Writing a Minute

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The written record of the proceedings of a meeting is called the minutes of the meeting.
Nearly every business has a number of committees that meet periodically, perhaps
weekly, biweekly, or monthly. In addition, special meetings are called from time to time
for the purpose of settling important matters that arise. In most cases, a written record-
called minutes- of the proceedings is required. The minutes serve as a permanent record
of the decisions reached and the actions that are to be taken and inform those who were
not present at the meeting about what took place..

[Link]. Identifying Details and Important Points

There is probably no one best way to record what happens at a meeting. The secretary of
the meeting must be the judge of what is unimportant (and hence not worth recording). If
an agenda of the meeting has been prepared beforehand, the secretary should receive a
copy. The agenda lists briefly the issue to be entertained and acts as a guide to the person
who presides at the meeting. The agenda also helps the secretary check to be sure that all
scheduled items are accounted for in the minutes. Much of the success of good note-
taking revolves around the personal efficiency of the secretary.

[Link]. Writing and Summarizing the Main Points

These days, many of us find ourselves in the position of taking minutes without a clue of
how to go about it.
Have you ever been asked to take the minutes of a meeting yet were not sure how to
begin? Are you an expert at taking minutes but would like to learn some new tips? Then
take a look at the following important tips for Writing Minutes of Meetings.
 Identify what the meeting is about.
Review the agenda including the names of attending participants in order to become
familiar with the context of the meeting. The more you know about the upcoming
discussions and participants, the more effective your notes will be.
 Use the agenda to format the minutes.
Before the meeting begins, prepare a template with the agenda and leave plenty of space
for notes. Remember to include all pertinent information, the date and time, agenda,

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participants, time adjourned, next meeting date, etc. Prepare an attendance checklist
especially if you are not familiar with the group or committee.
 Where possible, the note taker should not be a participant.
Be impartial and objective. It is very difficult to take minutes of a meeting that you are
expected to participate in. As note taker you are not in charge of the meeting, the
chairperson is. Your focus must be on capturing the discussion of the meeting, not on
leading the discussion.
 Writing minutes is not the same as transcribing.
Keep your minutes brief and to the point. The minutes of a meeting should be a snapshot
of discussions and decisions. Effective minute taking does not mean you are recording
every word that was said, this could lead to missing important points.

 Attach any documentation given out at the meeting.

If any materials or brochures were distributed at the meeting, include copies with
the meeting notes.
 Type up minutes as soon as possible.
It is good practice to put together a draft of the minutes as soon as possible, while it is
still fresh in your mind. The longer you put this first draft off, the greater the probability
of forgetting something crucial.
 Proofing
Be sure to check and double-check your draft before sending to the participants. Keep all
rough notes until the minutes have been approved.
 Record meetings if possible. If possible, use a tape recorder to record the
meeting and then prepare your notes from the recording.

To avoid wasting your time spent in meetings, be sure your notes and minutes answer
these 10 questions:

1. When was the meeting?

2. Who attended?

3. Who did not attend? (Include this information if it matters.)

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4. What topics were discussed?

5. What was decided?

6. What actions were agreed upon?

7. Who is to complete the actions, by when?

8. Were materials distributed at the meeting? If so, are copies or a link available?

9. Is there anything special the reader of the minutes should know or do?

10. Is a follow-up meeting scheduled? If so, when? where? why?

Distribute (by email) the agenda before the meeting, so that members of the group have a
chance to prepare for the meeting.

Do's and Don'ts:

Do write minutes soon after the meeting-preferably within 48 hours. That way,
those who attended can be reminded of action items, and those who did not attend
will promptly know what happened.

Don't skip writing minutes just because everyone attended the meeting and
knows what happened. Meeting notes serve as a record of the meeting long after
people forget what happened.

Don't describe all the "he said, she said" details unless those details are very
important. Record topics discussed, decisions made, and action items.

Don't include any information that will embarrass anyone (for example, "Then
Terry left the room in tears").

Do use positive language. Rather than describing the discussion as heated or angry,
use passionate, lively, or energetic--all of which are just as true as the negative
words.

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Do have a new year filled with productive meetings captured efficiently in crisp,
clear meeting notes!

What do the minutes contain?

Before each meeting an agenda should be drawn up, detailing the matters to be discussed
at the meeting. A set of minutes should normally include the following information:
• time, date and place of meeting;
• list of people attending;
• list of absent members of the group;
• approval of the previous meeting's minutes, and any matters arising from those
minutes;
• for each item in the agenda, a record of the principal points discussed and
decisions taken;
• time, date and place of next meeting;
• name of person taking the minutes.
Components of Minutes

1. Date, time (beginning & ending) and place of meeting

2. Type of meeting
3. Presiding officer
4. Officers, Secretary and members present & absent
5. Approval or correction of the minutes of a previous meeting
6. Reports of officers and committees
7. Action on unfinished business from a previous meeting
8. Transaction of new business, including motions and resolutions
9. Appointment of Committees
10. Election of officers
11. Adjournment

Summary

This unit has attempted to show various aspects of meeting, how to write notices for a
meeting, how to design agendas. In addition, it clearly put the roles of a chair person, a

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secretary and a member in a meeting. The principles of minute writing were also covered
including the components.

Unit Self-Assessment Questions

Dear student!

You have studied the third unit in this Module. Below there are some of the most important points

drawn from the Unit you have been studying. Please try all of them.

1. If there are no goals to achieve, what alternative is recommended instead

of holding a meeting?
2. To give participants an opportunity to prepare for the meeting, what
should you do one or two days before the meeting begins?

3. If the purpose of the meeting is sharing information and updating others,

what would be a good substitute for these types of meetings?

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________________________________________________________________________
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References

Worth, R. (2004). Communication Skills.2nd ed. Facts on file, Inc. New York.

Prasad, P. (2012). The Functional Aspects of Communication Skills. S.K. Kataria and

Sons. New Delhi.

Unit Four

4. Business Reports

Unit Introduction

Dear student!

This unit pays attention to designing and delivering business reports. It specially trains
the learners in drafting business report conventions. It examines categories, functions,
organization formats, and writing styles of reports.

Unit Objectives

At the end of the unit, the learners will be able to:

 identify business report types.

 discuss business report conventions.

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 draft a business report.

 deliver effective business speech.

Task 1: Brainstorming

Try to answer the following questions.

1. Have you ever prepared a report?

2. What parts should a report include?

4.1. Definition of Business Report

Reports are a fact of life in business. A business report is an impartial, objective, planned
presentation of facts to one or more persons for a specific business purpose, or an orderly,
objective message used to convey information from one organizational area to another or
from one institution to another to assist in decision making or problem solving.

Reports have been classified into numerous ways by management and by report
preparation authorities. We classify reports based on their forms, uses, contents, etc.

4.2. Purpose of Reports

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Purpose of Reports Common Examples Distribution

To monitor and control Plans, operating reports, Internal reports move upwards
operations personal activity reports on recurring basis; external
reports go to selected
audience.

To implement policies and Lasting guideline, position Internal reports move

procedures papers downwards or on a non-
recurring basis

To comply with regulatory Reports, Human Rights External reports are sent on a
requirements Commission recurring basis

To obtain new business or Sales proposals External reports are sent on

findings non-recurring basis

To document client work Interim progress reports, final External reports are sent on
reports non-recurring basis

To guide decisions Research reports, justification Internal reports move upwards

reports, troubleshooting on a non-recurring basis
reports

4.3. Classification of Report

Formal or Informal
Formal reports are carefully structured; they stress objectivity and organization, contain
much detail, and are written in a style that tends to eliminate such elements as personal
pronouns.
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Informal reports are usually short messages with natural, casual use of language. The
internal memorandum generally can be described as an informal report.
Short or Long Reports
‗Short-or-long‘ can be a confusing classification for reports. A one-page memorandum is
obviously short, and a term paper of twenty pages is obviously long. What about in-
between lengths? One important distinction generally holds true: as a report becomes
longer, it takes on more characteristics of formal report. Thus, the formal-informal and
short-long classifications are closely related.
4.4. What Makes A Good Business Report?
Business reports are like bridges spanning time and space. Organizations use them to
provide a formal, verifiable link among people, places, and time. Some reports are
needed for internal communication; others are vehicles for corresponding with outsiders.
Some are required as a permanent record; others are needed to solve an immediate
problem or to answer a passing question. Many move upward through the chain of
command to help managers monitor the various units in the organization; some move
downward to explain management decisions to lower-level employees responsible for
day-to-day operations.
The purpose of a business report is to convey essential information in an organized,
useful format. Despite technological advances, the ability to accumulate data, organize
facts, and compose a readable text remains a highly marketable skill.
A well-prepared business report will provide COMPLETE, ACCURATE information
about an aspect of a company‘s operations. The subject of a report may vary from
expenses to profits, production to sales, marketing trends to customer relations. The
information provided by a report is often meant to influence decisions, to determine
changes, improvements, or solutions to problems. Therefore, the report must also be
CLEAR, CONCISE, and READABLE.

The format of a business report may vary from a brief informal report intended for in-
house use to a voluminous formal report intended for a national public distribution. Some
reports consist entirely of prose while others consist of statistics; and still other reports
may employ a combination of prose, tables, charts, and graphs.

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The style of a report depends upon the audience. An informal report meant to be read
only by close associates may be worded personally. In such reports personal pronouns ‘I
or We’ are acceptable. A formal report, on the other hand, must be impersonal and
expressed entirely in the third person. Note the difference in the following examples:
Informal:
I recommend that the spring campaign concentrate on newspaper and television
advertising.
Formal:
It is recommended that the spring campaign concentrate on newspaper and television
advertising.
Informal:
After discussing the matter with our department managers, we came up with the
following information.
Formal:

The following report is based upon information provided by the managers of the
Accounting, Marketing, Personnel, and Advertising Departments.

4.5. Deciding on Format and Length

4.5.1 Pre-printed form: It is basically for ―fill in the blanks reports. Most are
relatively short (five or fewer pages) and deal with routine information, often mainly in
numerical form. Use this format when it‘s requested by the person authorizing the report.
4.5.2 Letter Reports
Common for reports, of five or fewer pages, those are directed to outsiders. These reports
include all the normal parts of a letter, but they may also have headings, footnotes, tables,
and figures.
Letter reports are of two types:
1. Informational Letter reports include
• A staff report to financial officer regarding issues concerning personnel turnover in the
sales department
• A report in reply to inquiry about product and services provided by your Company
2. Analytical Letter Reports

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These include investigation of an issue or problem

• Calculation of financial ratios of a company in order to control its financial condition.
Format
A letter report is simply a report in letter form; it is often used when sending information
to a reader outside your organization. It includes:
1. Date
2. Inside Address
3. Salutation
4. Body (the heart of the report)
5. Complimentary close
6. Signature
7. Reference section

Often the letter report has a subject line, usually placed a line or two below the salutation.
Its length may range from two to five (seldom more) pages. And it may have two
purposes: informational or analytical. For your report to be effective, it must be logical. If
you learn how to think logically, you‘ll also write more log
4.5.3 Memo Reports
Common for short (fewer than ten pages) informal reports distributed within an
organization. Memos have headings at the top: To, From, Date, and Subject. In addition,
like longer reports, they often have internal headings and sometimes have visuals.
(Organizational plan)
A memo report is a cross between interoffice memo and a formal report
Memo reports can be used to:
• Answer a request for information
• Report progress
• Make recommendations
• State facts
• Communicate ideas
• Send statistical data
• Explain trend within an organization

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There are two types of Memo Reports:

(1) Informational Memorandum Reports
The central purpose of informational reports is to inform and summarize information. It is
similar to speech. Obviously, these reports vary widely in content, depending on type of
business, purpose, topics discussed, and readers‘needs.
Information Memo reports will:
• Inform
• Summarize some information requested
• Organize information objectively
• Make recommendation
Conference Reports
Topics for conference reports range from summaries of personal sales called conferences
to write-ups of meetings attended by hundreds of persons. For example, a credit or
collection manager or account executive may make similar reports after conferences with
clients. The text of such reports is usually organized by topics discussed or presented
simply in a chronological order. Some firms have standardized headings for the often-
written reports to ensure that the same information or main topics are recorded in all of
them.
Progress Reports
Progress reports show, progress, accomplishments, or activity over time or at a given
stage of a major assignment. The organizational plan is usually inductive, including
topics similar to these.
1. Introduction (purpose, nature of project)
2. Description of accomplishments during the reporting period.
3. Unanticipated problems (if any)
4. Plans for the next reporting period.
5. Summary (overall appraisal of progress to date)
Periodic Reports
They are routine reports prepared at regular time interval-daily, weekly, monthly
quarterly or annually.
Examples of such reports are:

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1. Sales Reports
2. Financial Reports
These reports are prepared on pre-printed form.
(2) Analytical Memorandum Reports
This analytical memorandum report seeks to analyze a situation or problem; it may end
with or without a specific recommendation.
Such reports have the following subjects.
• On the causes of decline in Sales Volume
• On the evaluation of a person before recruitment
• On individual being considered for promotion
• On the analysis of a particular book

Recommendation-Justification Reports
Many analytical reports will have a special purpose: to recommend a change or remain
with the status quo (policy), support the idea that something is desirable or undesirable
(value), or defend the accuracy of information (fact). Your report may be in response to a
specific request, or it may be voluntary.
While organizing memo reports take care of the following
• Itemize the information
• Present the fact with absolute fairness and accuracy
• Be careful not to mix your opinion with the facts you report
• Reserve your comments for your conclusions and recommendations
4.5 Deciding on Approach
Audience attitude is the basis for decisions about an organization. If the audience is
considered, either receptive or open minded, use the direct approach. Lead off with a
summary of your key findings, conclusions, and recommendations. This up-front
approach is by far the most popular and convenient order for business reports because it
saves time and makes the best of the report which is easy to follow. For those who have
questions or want more information, later parts of the report provide complete findings
and supporting details. In addition to being more convenient for readers, the direct

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approach also produces a more forceful report. You are sure of yourself when you state
your conclusions confidently at the outset.
4.6 Some common errors to avoid in business report
1. Lack of objectivity
Seeing only the facts that support your views and ignoring any contradictory information.
For example,‖ Although half the survey population expressed dissatisfaction with our
current product, a sizable portion finds it satisfactory.‖ (You may be tempted to ignore the
dissatisfied half instead of investigating the reasons for their dissatisfaction.)
2. Hasty generalization
Forming judgments on the basis of insufficient evidence or special cases, for example:
―Marketing strategy Z increased sales 15 percent in Lahore supermarkets. Let‘s try it in
Karachi.‖ (Lahore and Karachi are probably vastly different markets).

3. Hidden assumptions
Hiding a questionable major premise: for example,
―We are marketing product X in Print media because we marketed product Y in Print
media.‖ (Who says product X and product Y should be marketed the same way?)
4. Either or scenarios
Setting up two alternatives and not allowing for others: for example,
―We must open a new plant by spring, or we will go bankrupt.‖ (Surely there are other
ways to avoid bankruptcy).
5. False causal relationships
Assuming that event A caused event B merely because A preceded B: for example,
―Sales increased 20 percent as soon as we hired the new sales director.‖ (Something
besides the new sales director might have been responsible for increased sales).
6. Begged questions. Assuming as proven what you are seeking to prove: for example,
―We need a standard procedure so that we will have standard results. (But why is
standardization important?)
7. Personal attacks or appeals to popular prejudice
Thinking people or ideas you don‘t like by chaining them to irrelevant but unpopular
actions or ideas: for example,

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―Mr. Naeem mishandled the budget last years, so he can‘t be expected to motivate his
staff.‖ (Mr. Naeem's accounting ability may have nothing to do with his ability to
motivate staff members).
4.7 Main Features of the Report
Following are main features of a report.
The Opening
As the name suggests, the opening is the first section in any report. A good opening
accomplishes at least the following three things:
i) Introduces the subject of the report
ii) Indicates why the subject is important

iii) Previews the main ideas and the order in which they will be covered. Here are some
common errors to avoid.

If you fail to provide readers with these clues to the structure of your report, they‘ll read
aimlessly and miss important points; much like drivers trying to find their way through a
strange city without a map.
Headings and Lists
A heading is a brief title at the start of a subdivision within a report that cues readers
about the content of the section that follows. Headings are useful markers for clarifying
the framework of a report. They visually indicate shifts from one idea to the next and
when subheadings (lower level headings) and headings are both used, they help readers
see the relationship between subordinate and main ideas. In addition, busy readers can
quickly understand the gist of a document simply by scanning the headings.
Headings within a given section that are of the same level of importance should be
phrased in parallel form. In other words, if one heading begins with a verb, all same-level
headings in that section should begin with verbs. If one is a noun phrase, all should be
noun phrases. Putting comparable ideas in similar terms tell readers that the ideas are
related. The only exception might be such descriptive headings as ―Introduction‖ at the
beginning of a report and ―Conclusions‖ and ―Recommendations‖ at the end. Many
companies specify a format for headings.

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A list is a series of words, names, or items arranged in a specific order. Setting off
important ideas in a list provides an additional structural clue. Lists can show the
sequence of ideas or visually heighten their impact. In addition, they facilitate the
skimming process for busy readers. Like headings, list items should be phrased in parallel
form. You might also consider multilevel lists, with subentries below each major item
(much like an outline).
Previews and Reviews
You may have heard the old saying ―tell‘em what you‘re going to tell‘em; then tell ‗em
what you just told‘em.‖ The more formal way of giving this advice is to tell you to use
preview sections before and review sections after important material in your report. Using
preview section to introduce a topic helps readers get ready for new information.
Previews are particularly helpful when the information is complex or unexpected. You
don‘t want the reader to get halfway into a section before figuring out what it‘s all about.
Review sections, obviously enough, come after a body of material and summarize the
information for your readers. Summaries that come at the end of chapters in some
textbooks are review sections. Long reports and reports dealing with complex subjects
can often benefit from multiple review sections, and not just a single review at the very
end.
The Ending
Research shows that the ending, the final section of a report, leaves strong and lasting
impression. That‘s why it‘s important to use the ending to emphasize the main points of
your message. In a report written in direct order you may want to remind readers of your
key points or your conclusions and recommendations. If your report is written in direct
order, end with conclusions and recommendations. If your report is written in indirect
order, end with a summary of key points (except in short memos). In analytical reports,
end with conclusions and recommendations as well as key points. Be sure to summarize
the benefits to the reader in any report that suggests a change of course or some other
action. In general, the ending ties up all the pieces and reminds readers how those pieces
fit together. It provides a final opportunity to emphasize the wholeness of your message.
Furthermore, it gives you one last chance to check what you really wanted to say.

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4.8 Organizational Plan for Short Informal Reports

A. Format
1. For brief external reports, use letter format including a title or a subject line after the
reader‘s address that clearly states the subject of the document.
2. For brief internal reports, use memo or manuscript format.
3. Present all short informal reports properly.
a. Single-space the text.
b. Double-space between paragraphs.
c. Use headings where helpful, but try not to use more than three levels of headings.
d. Call attention to significant information by setting it off visually with lists or indention.
e. Include visual aids to emphasize and clarify the text.

B. Opening
1. For short, routine memos, use the subject line of the memo form and the first sentence
or two of the text as the introduction.
2. For all other short reports, cover these topics in the introduction: purpose, scope,
background, restrictions (in conducting the study), sources of information and methods of
research, and organization of the report.
3. If using direct order, place conclusions and recommendations in the opening.
C. Body (Findings and Supporting Details)
1. Use direct order for informational reports to receptive readers, developing idea around
subtopics (chronologically, geographically and categorically).
2. Use direct order for analytical reports to receptive readers, developing points around
conclusions or recommendations.
3. Use indirect order for analytical reports to skeptical or hostile readers, developing
points around logical arguments.
4. Use an appropriate writing style.
a. Use an informal style (I and you) for letter and memo reports, unless company custom
calls for the impersonal third person.

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b. Use an impersonal style for more formal short reports.

5. Maintain a consistent time frame by writing in either the present or the past tense,
using other tenses only to indicate prior or future events.
6. Give each paragraph a topic sentence.
7. Link paragraphs by using transitional words and phrases.
8. Strive for readability by using short sentences, concrete words, and terminology that is
appropriate for your readers.
9. Be accurate, though, and impartial in presenting the material.
10. Avoid including irrelevant and unnecessary details.
11. Include documentation for all material quoted or paraphrased from secondary
sources, using a consistent format for all quoted and paraphrased documents.
D. Ending
1. In informational reports summarize major findings at the end, if you wish.
2. Summarize points in the same order in which they appear in the text.
3. In analytical reports using indirect order, list conclusions and recommendations at the
end.
4. Be certain that conclusions and recommendations follow logically from facts presented
in the text.
5. Consider using a list format for emphasis.
6. Avoid introducing new material in the summary, conclusions, or recommendations.
Model Business Report -I
Report on the Low Admission Rate in a newly opened branch of a school

October 10, 2006

The Principal,

The School, Main Branch,

Lahore.

Dear Madam,

Subject: Causes of Low Admission Rate

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This report is in response to your directive No. 123 September 20 which demands certain reasons
of very poor admission rate in this branch. My findings are given below:

I. The location of our School building is not ideal.

II. The building itself is very old.
III. It does not appeal the visitors.
IV. We had been facing the problem of permanent faculty because direct conveyance is yet not
available.
V. Parents lodged several complaints against the management, but we could not help it.

Considering these problems, I propose that:

1. The building of the school should be shifted to a main road.

2. Permanent faculty should be appointed.

Yours sincerely,

Model Business Report -II

A Report on Slow Sales and Rising Complaints

TO: Rana Abid, Vice President of Marketing
FROM: Bashir Ahmad, National Sales Manager
DATE: September 12, 2006
SUBJECT: Major accounts sales problems

INTRODUCTION
This report outlines the results of my investigation into the recent slowdown in sales and
the accompanying rise in sales-and service-related complaints from some of our largest
customers.
As we discussed at last quarter‘s management meeting, major account sales dropped 12
percent over the last four quarters, whereas overall sales went up 7 percent. During the
same time, we have noticed an increase in both formal and informal complaints from
larger customers regarding how confusing and complicated it has become to do business
with us.

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My investigation started with in-depth discussions with the four regional sales managers,
first as a group and then individually. The tension felt in the initial meeting eventually
bubbled to the surface during my meetings with each manager. Staff members in each
region are convinced that other regions are booking orders they don‘t deserve, with one
region doing all the legal work only to see another region get credited with the sale and,
naturally, the commission and quota credit.

I followed up the sales manager‘s discussions with informal talks and e-mail exchanges
with several sales reps from each region. Virtually everyone who is involved with our
major national accounts has a story to share. No one is happy with the situation and I
sense that some reps are walking away from major customers because the process is so
frustrating.

Organizational Issues
When we divided the national sales force into four geographical regions last year, the
idea was to focus our sales efforts and clarify responsibilities for each prospective and
current customer. The regional managers have got to know their market territories very
well, and sales have increased beyond even our most optimistic projections.
Unfortunately, while solving one problem, we seem to have created another. In the past
12 to 18 months, several regional customers have grown to national statuses. In addition,
a few national retailers have taken on (or expressed interest in) our products. As a result,
a significant portion of both our current sales and our future opportunities lie with these
large national accounts.
I uncovered more than a dozen cases in which sales reps from two or more regions found
themselves competing with each other by pursuing the same customer from different
locations.
Moreover, the complaints from our major accounts about overlapping or nonexistent
account coverage are a direct result of the regional organization.
Recommendations
In the light of the above findings I recommend:

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(i) Areas may be reallocated.

(ii) A coordination cell may be set up in the head office to monitor the working of these
regional offices.
(iii) A bulletin giving area wise sales achievements of every region may be circulated.
If there is anything else you would like to know, please call me.

Yours truly,

4.9 Parts of a Formal Report

A formal report‘s format and impersonal tone convey an impression of professionalism.
A formal report can be either short (fewer than 10 pages) or long (10 pages or more). It is
informational or analytical, direct or indirect. It may be targeted to readers inside or
outside the organization.

There are three basic divisions of a formal report:

1. Prefatory Parts
2. Text Parts
3. Supplementary Parts
1. Prefatory Parts are:
a) Cover
b) Title fly
c) Letter of authorization
d) Letter of acceptance
e) Letter of transmittal
f) Table of contents
g) List of illustrations
h) Synopsis or executive summary
2. Text Parts:
a) Introduction
b) Body

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c) Summary
d) Conclusions
e) Recommendations
f) Notes
3. Supplementary Parts:
a) Appendixes
b) Bibliography
c) Index
1. Prefatory Parts
Cover
Use a cover only for long reports. Use a sturdy, plain, light cardboard with good page
fasteners. With the cover on, the open pages should remain flat. Center the report title and
your name four or five inches from the upper edge.
Title Fly
It is a plain sheet of paper with the title of the report on it.
Title Page
1. The title of the report
2. The name, title and address of the person group etc that authorized the report prepared
for submitted to

3. The name, title and address of the person, group etc that prepared the report, prepared
by, submitted by

4. The date on which the report was submitted.

The title page signals the readers by giving the report title, author‘s name, name of person
or organization to which the report is addressed, and date of submission. Choose title
information but not long, A Report of, A Study of, or A Survey of etc.
Your title promises what your report will deliver by stating the report‘s purpose and
content. A title in order to be effective must be clear, accurate, comprehensive, specific,
concise and appropriately.
Place of Title Page Items

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Do not number your title page, but count it as page (I) of your prefatory pages. Centre the
title horizontally on the page, three to four inches below the upper edge, using all capital
letters. If the title is longer than six or eight words, centre it on two or more lines.
Letter of Authorization and Letter of Acceptance
If you receive written authorization (a letter or memo) you may want to include. It
usually has direct request plan. Letter of Acceptance (or memo of acceptance)
acknowledges the assignment. It follows good- news plan confirming time and money
restriction and other pertinent detail. This letter is rarely included in report.
Letter of Transmittal (or memo of transmittal)
It conveys your report to the audience. It says what you‘d say if you were handing the
report to the person who authorized you. It has less formal tone.
Depending on the situation, your letter might:
• Acknowledge those who helped with the report
• Refer readers to sections of special interest
• Discuss the need and approaches for follow-up investigations
• Suggest some special uses of the information
• Urge the reader to take immediate action
• Use good news plan
Table of Contents
This table outlines the text and list Prefatory Parts
1. List preliminary items (transmittal letter, abstract) in your table of contents, numbering
the pages with small roman numerals. (Make list of items that appear at the end of the
report; glossary, appendix, notes and bibliography section. number these pages with
Arabic numerals, continuing the page sequence of the report). List the first page of your
report text.
2. Include no heading in the table of contents not listed as headings or subheadings in the
report. Your report text may, however, contain certain sub-headings.
3. Use different types of styles and indentations to show the various levels of heads.
List of Illustrations
For simplicity sake, some reports prefer to include all visual aids as illustration or
exhibits.

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Put the list of figures and table on separate page if they won‘t fit on one page with the
table of content.
Synopsis or Executive Summary
A synopsis is a brief overview (one page or less) of report‘s most important point. It is
also called abstract. Executive summary is a fully developed mini version of the report
and is comprehensive.
1. Make your summary able to stand alone in meaning – a mini-report
2. Make it intelligible to the general reader. Readers of summaries will vary widely in
expertise, perhaps much more than those who read the report itself. So translate all
technical data into plain English.
3. Add no new information. Simply summarize the report
4. Stick to the order of your report
5. Emphasize only major points.

2. Text of the Report

 Introduction
It has a number of functions, covers a wide variety of topics and helps the reader to
follow and understand information.
 Body
The section contains information that supports conclusion and recommendation as well as
analysis, logic, interpretation of the information.
 Closing

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You summarize the main idea of your report highlighting your conclusion or
recommendation and list any course of action. In long report, this section may be labeled
Summary, Conclusion & Recommendation.
3. Supplementary Parts
 Appendix/Appendixes
They contain materials related to the report but not included in the text because they were
lengthy or not directly relevant. They include:
1. Statistics or measurements
2. Maps
3. Complex formulas
4. Long quotations
5. Photographs
6. Related correspondence (letters of inquiry etc.)
7. Texts of laws, regulations etc.
 Bibliography

A bibliography is a list of source materials on a particular subject. In a formal report it

shows what books and other library materials were consulted and it includes all the works
mentioned in the footnotes. As part of the reference matter, it follows the appendix or
appendices.

 Index

An index is an alphabetical list of names, places and subjects mentioned in the report,
along with the page on which they occur. They are rarely included in unpublished
reports.

RESTLESSNESS AMONG WORKERS

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Prepared for

Ahmad Hassan

General Manager

ABC TEXTILE Mills

Prepared by

Asad Ali

Manager Cost Accounting Services

ABC Textile Mills Ltd

March 6, 2015

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1. Letter of Transmittal

2. Introduction

3. Present Situation

4. Effect on Business

a)

b)

5. Causes of Restlessness

a)

b)

6. Recommendation

a)

b)

7. Conclusion

Contents

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Letter of Transmittal
ABC Textile Mills Ltd

Raiwand Road Lahore

September 16, 2015

Managing Director

ABC Textile Mills Ltd.

Raiwand Road, Lahore

Dear Sir,

Subject: Report on Restlessness among Workers

This is in reference to your letter no. 11 of September 3 in which I was asked to compile
a report on the restlessness now prevalent among our workers. I have completed my
investigations, and my findings with recommendations are given in a detailed report
which is enclosed.

I would be obliged if I could have your comments after you have gone through the report.
If, in the course of your reading, you would like to discuss some points with me, I shall
be happy to do so at any time convenient to you.

Respectfully submitted

Yours truly,

Asad Ali

Manager cost accounting services

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4.10 Business Speeches

4.10.1 Definition

Business Speech is a condition where you may present ideas to your colleagues, make
sales presentations to potential customers, or engage in other kinds of spoken
communication throughout your career.

4.10.2 Steps of Business Speeches

There are three general steps for most speeches and formal presentations:

i) Prepare to speak
ii) Develop your speech or presentation

iii) Deliver your speech or presentation

4.10.3 Preparing to Speak

When you prepare to speak in business, you define your purpose, analyze your
audience, and plan your speech by establishing the main idea, organising an outline,
estimating length, and deciding on style.

i) Define your purpose:- Speeches and presentations can be categorized into four
according to their purpose: to inform, to persuade, to motivate, and to entertain.

Analyze your audience:-gear the content, organisation, and style of your message to
the audience’s size, composition, background and attitude so as to achieve your
purpose.

ii) Plan your speech: - similar to planning writing.

 Establishing the main idea:- look for one-sentence generalization that links your
subject and purpose to the audiences frame of reference, much as an advertising
slogan points out how a product can benefit consumers.

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 Organizing an outline:- structure a short speech like a letter or memo.

 Plan your introduction to arouse interest and to give preview of what is to

come.

 In the body your presentation be prepared to explain the who, what, when,
why, and how of your subject.

 In the final paragraph(s) review of the points you have made, close with a
statement that will help your audience remember the subject of your speech.

 Estimating length: tailor your material to the available time. You should be sure
that your subject, purpose, and organisation are compatible with the time
available. The average speaker can deliver about 125 to 150 words per minute.
You can use your outline to estimate the time your speech will take.

 Deciding on Style:- choose your style to fit the size of your audience, the
subject, your purpose, your budget, and time available.

 Use casual style for small groups; use formal style for large groups and
important events.

4.10.4 Develop your speech

This is much like writing a formal report.

 The introduction: arouses your audiences interest in your topic, establishes your
credibility, prepares the audience for what will follow.
 The body: is devoted to a discussion of three or four main points in your outline
emphasizing structure and holding the audience’s attention by relating your
subject to the audience’s needs, using clear, vivid language, and explaining the
relationship between your subject and familiar ideas.

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 Close of speech is as important as the beginning. This is because the audience

attention peeks at this point. It leaves a strong and lasting impression. It ends by
restating the main idea, by describing the next steps, and by a positive note.

 The question-and-answer period: allow in your speech an opportunity for

questions and answers. In this session anticipate as many questions as you can and
rehearse your answers.

 The visual aids: create interest and clarify important points. It also helps the
speaker and the audience remember the important points. You have to select the
right medium: handouts, chalkboards and whiteboards, flip charts, overheads,
slides, computers, and others.

 Mastering delivery: begin practising delivery. Delivery methods to choose from

are memorizing, reading, speaking from notes, impromptu speaking, etc.
Speaking from notes is generally the best way to handle delivery.

 Getting ready to deliver speech:- before you speak, practice and prepare the
location.

4.10.5 Deliver the Speech

Consider the following steps to convey your speech:

i) Establish eye contact

ii) Speak clearly and distinctly

iii) Do not go too fast

iv) Be sure everyone can hear

v) Speak in your own natural style

vi) Stand up straight

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vii) Use gestures in a natural appropriate way

viii) Encourage questions:

a) allow questions during the presentation if the group is small

b) ask the audience to hold their questions until the end if the group is large
or hostile

ix) Respond to questions without getting side-tracked

x) Maintain control of your feelings in spite of criticism

Summary

Dear student!

In this unit of the module, you have learnt about business reports. In the discussion, it is
mentioned that business reports can be classified as formal/informal or short/long. In
addition, you have seen how to design and deliver business speech.

Unit Self-Assessment Questions

Dear student!

Try to answer the following question.

1. Define business report.

2. Explain the difference between formal and informal reports.

1.______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2.______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

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________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Reference
Guffey,M. et al. (2000). Business Communication: Process and Product. 2nd ed. Nelson

Thomson Learning Ltd. Canada.

Prasad, P. (2012). The Functional Aspects of Communication Skills. S.K. Kataria and

sons, New Delhi

Siddons, S. (2008).The Complete Presentation Skills Handbook. Replika Press Pvt

[Link]. New Delhi.

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