Protection against Overvoltages 1.1 Causes of Overvoltages Overvoltages (or surges) on power systems are due to various causes. The normal operating voltages of the system do not stress the insulation severely. But the voltage stresses due to overvoltages can be so high that they may become dangerous to both the lines as well as the connected equipment and may cause damage, unless some protective measures against these overvolt- ages are taken. Overvoltages arising on a power system can be generally classified into two main categories as follows. 1. External overvoltages These overvoltages originate from atmospheric disturbances, mainly due to lightning. These overvoltages take the form of a unidirectional impulse (or surge) whose maximum possible amplitude has no direct relationship with the operating voltage of the system. They may be due to any of the following causes. (i) Direct lightning strokes. (ii) Electromagnetically induced overvoltages due to lightning discharge taking place near the line (commonly known as ‘side stroke’). (iii) Voltages induced due to changing atmospheric conditions along the line length. (iv) Electrostatically induced overvoltages due to the presence of charge clouds nearby. (v) Electrostatically induced overvoltages due to the frictional effects of small particles such as dust or dry snow in the atmosphere or due to change in the altitude of the line. 2. Internal Overvoltages These overvoltages are caused by changes in the operating conditions of the network. Internal overvoltages can further be divided into two groups as follows. i (i) Switching overvoltages (or Transient overvoltages of high frequency) These overvoltages are caused by the transient phenomena which appear when Scanned with CamScannerthe state of the Network is ch; e Mal fiaweaig voNgee are Beneray, by a switchin . The fi a Oscilla e Hz to a few ie Of these overvotig. i take the form of a damped tances of the circy a "is governed by ee vary from a few hundred . ni ‘Or . erent capacitar ii switching of high voltage ant S¥itching on and ott of equipment, such a pa Teactors and Switching of at bea a a transi iransformer at no loa tent nature Other examples of this type of over IS¢, the voltage wi of hy phases ca ige with respect to ground 'Y Phases can exceed the normal value until the fault is Protect on against Overvoltages 403 '6 Operation or fault condition. voltage across the contacts whose char: may reach twice that of the system vol Thee cmborary overvoinges (or steady-state overvoltages of power frequency) . oltages are the steady-state voltages of power-system frequency ola May result from the disconnection of load, particularly in the case of jong trans Transient overvoltages arising on the power system are assessed by an over- voltage factor which is defined as the ratio of the peak overvoltage to the rated peak system-frequency phase voltage. This ratio is also referred to as the amplitude factor. The examination of overvoltages on the power system includes a study of their magnitudes, shapes, duration, and frequency of occurence. This study should be performed not only at the point where an overvoltage originates but also at all other points along the transmission network through which the travel. It is also essential to know the causes and effects of these protective measures can be taken. ‘acteristics are a high amplitude which tage, and a relatively high frequency. surges may i overvoltages, so that suitable 11.2 Lightning Phenomena o sJoud to the ground is called lightning phenom- The discharge of the in ie aes air coePevhen'a cloud is raised 10 sucha enon. A lightning dischat the ground (or to a nearby cloud) that the air high potential with reSPOr property of the surrounding air is destroyed. breaks down and the NY sed by frictional effects due to atmospheric This raising of Pi pderstors) acting on the particles forming the cloud. disturbances (6.8 PUM corm two plates of a gigantic capacitor whose The cloud and the a puing thunderstorms, positive and negative charges dielectric medium is ar orair currents forming ice crystals in the upper are separated by the i in the lower part. The cloud becomes agate layer of cloud and Tr of positive charge at its top. As the separslio charged and has #97 4, the potential difference between concent UCTS charge proceeds in IM Te vertical electric field along the clow! als) fh of charges ine et potential difference between the two main charge cen creases. The 10" Scanned with CamScanner404 Power System Protection and Switchgear may vary from 100 to 1000 MV. Only a part of the total charge is released to the ground by lightning, and the rest is consumed in inter-cloud discharges. As the lower part of the cloud is negatively charged, the ground gets positively charged by induction. Lighting discharge requires breakdown of the dielectric medium, i.e. air between the negatively charged cloud and the positively charged ground. Though the electric field (potential gradient) re- quired for the breakdown of air at STP is 30 kV/cm peak in a cloud where the moisture content in the air is large and also because of the high altitude (i.¢., lower pressure) the electric field required for breakdown of air is only about 10 kV/cm. The lightning discharge mechanism is well explained with the help of Fig. 11.1. Heet tet ttttt tt Parte. ed ectctata (@) (b) Httete eee htee+ © FIGURE 11.1 Lightning mechanism When a potential gradient of about 10 kV/cm is set up in the cloud, the air immediately surrounding the cloud gets ionised and the first process of the actual lightning discharge starts, At this instant, a streamer called 4 ‘pilot streamer’ starts from the cloud towards the ground which is not visible. The Scanned with CamScannerCurrent associated with thi: Petal Most frequent velocity ah Streamer is of the order of 100 amperes, and the (i.e. 0.05 per cent of the ile ation of the streamer is about 0.15 m/us ionisation of the air surroun AG y of light), Depending upon the state of paths, stepped leader is fone the pilot streamer, it is branched into several Berea lesder because ob i siors sg ee tee) 1 calles EQmiti'Tength, The velo fy of eins aeaane ans Sots 16.6 per cent that of li 'y of propagation of these steps should be more than ee, ight. A portion of the charge in the centre fi hich thi strike originated is lowered und dey arge in the centre from which the rary conductors. This process « istributed over this entire system of tempo- fpratind, When one of the “s continues until one of the leaders strikes the BAEN{iceturn streamer, haat leaders strikes the ground, an extremely eG aes » as shown in Fig, 11.1(b) propagates upward from the g! 9 the cloud following the same path as the main channel of the downward leader. The charge distributed along the leaders is thus dis d progressively to the ground, giving rise to the very large currents associated with lightning discharges. The conventional directions of the current in the stepped leader and return streamer are the same. The current varies between 1 kA and 200 kA and the velocity of propagation of the streamer is about 10 per cent that of light. It is here that the negative charge of the cloud is being neutralized by the positive induced charge on the ground. It is this instant which gives rise to the lightning flash which is visible with our naked eye. ‘After the neutralization of the most of the negative charge on the cloud any further discharge from the cloud may have to originate from another charge centre within the cloud near the already neutralized charge centre. Such a discharge from another charge centre will, however, make use of the already jonised path, and consequently it will have a single branch and will be associated with a high current. This streamer of discharge is called a dart leader as shown in Fig. 11.1 (c). The velocity of propagation of the dart leader is about 3 per cent that of light. ‘The dart leader can cause more severe damage e return stroke. \ oe fh the discharge current in the return streamer is relatively large but __ Though trues only for a few microseconds, it contains less energy and since it co! ; lightning stroke. ‘The dart leader is called i samer is called a cold D hen in steam ae ven he ce in i aes ay jot lightning s mi i energy since it continues for some millis it «relatively more energy since | smaller, it contains T° onds. It has been observed th separate charged centres ok is lightning stroke is i Te erat Pang stroke takes place to a point adj “ils d with it indu a voltage on the line whi ing discharge may have currents 1 vat every thundercloud may consist of as many as 40 due to which a heavy lightning stroke may occur. led multiple (or repetitive) stroke. acent to the line, the ich is in the form of a n the range of 10 kA current associate it ave. A light is ‘a C e traveling ae ieee uration ofthe lightning lash may Pe of te onder Of to about 100 KA," re current wave form is gener™lY # unidirectional pulse Ooo micenseconds Scanned with CamScanner406 Power System Protection and Switchgear 3 ps and decays to a small values in several tens of microseconds. Thereiore, the overvoltage due to lightning will have travelling waves of very steep wave front which may be dangerous to the line and equipment of the power system and may cause damage. which rises to a peak value in about 41.3 Wave Shape of Voltage due to Lightning unidirectional voltage waves which can be Lightning sets up steep-fronted, entials, Thus represented as the difference of two expon' Vs Vie el) (1.1) where a and b are constants which determine the shape and v is magnitude of the steep voltage and V is equal to the crest (peak) value of the impulse voltage wave. The steep is depen- dent on whether the surge is induced oris the result of a direct stroke. The wave shape of this type is shown in Fig. 11.2. The wave shape is generally de- . t % ¢ fined interms of the times f, and 1, microseconds. Where ¢, is the time taken by the voltage wavefront to reach its peak value, and f, is the time taken for the tail to fall to 50 per cent of the peak value. Both times are measured from the virtual zero time point (i.e., from the start of the wave). The wave is then referred to as ¢,/t, wave. The standard wave chosen for the testing purpose is a 1/50 wave which implies that ¢, is 1 [1s and f, is 50 pis. FIGURE 11.2 Wave shape of voltage due to lightning 11.4 Overvoltages due to Lightning Lightning causes two kinds of voltage surges (overvoltage), one by direct stroke to a line conductor, and the other induced by indirect stroke when bound charges are dissipated following a lightning discharge to an object near the line conductor. A direct stroke to a phase (line) conductor is the most sever’ lightning stroke as it produces the highest Overvoltage for a given stroke current. The current ina direct stroke to a phase conductor is hardly affected by the voltage which it sets up between the conductor and 50 that a direct lightning stroke approximates to a constant current source. If a cur rent / flows ina direct stroke to a phase conductor, forward and backward travelling currents i, and i,, each of magnitude 1/2 flow in the ca 3 point of strike in both directions of the line as shown the voltage surge magnitude at the striking Point is giv nductor away from the in Fig, 11,3. Therefore, en by Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScanner408 Power System Protection and Switchgear By (11.4) vel a where, L = tower inductance, and di/dt = rate of change of current due to direct stroke. i . lbase caus In the case of an indirect stroke, a negative charge In a cloud base causes bound positive charges on the conductors of a nearby transmission line, and discharge of the cloud due to a lightning stroke in the neighbourhood Causes the conductor potential to rise to v since high insulation resistance prevents rapid dissipation of the charge. The peak value of the induced voltage surge is given by v = Eh (11.5) where, E is the mean electric field near the ground (earth) surface under a thundercloud which may vary from 0.5 kV/cm to 2.8 kV/cm, and h is the height of the phase conductor above ground. If i; be the forward travelling wave of the current and i, be the backward travelling wave of the current, then in a case where the total conductor current i = 0, we have i, = i, and V;= V, = v/2. So that forward and backward travelling waves of voltage and current set-off in opposite directions along the transmission line from the place nearest to the cloud discharge. The amplitudes of voltages induced on lines indirectly by lightning strokes ‘on a tower, ground wire or nearby ground or object, are however normally much less than those caused by direct strokes to lines. Such strokes, however, are of real concern on low voltage lines (33 kV and below) supported on small insulators. They are of little importance on high-voltage lines whose insulators can withstand hundreds of kilovolts without a flashover. 11.5 Klydonograph and Magnetic Link th 1 Klydonograph The klydonograph is an instrument for the measurement of surge voltage on transmission lines caused by lightning.. It measures voltage by means of Lichtenberg figures, when suitably coupled to the Tine whose surge volta to be measured, The klydonograph contains a rounded electrode connected 0 the line whose surge voltage is to be measured. The electrode rests on the emulsion side of a photographic film or plate, which in turn rests on the smooth surface of an insulating plate made of homogeneous insulating mate rial, backed by a metal plate electrode as shown in Fig. 11.4, The photographie plate or the film is turned or moved by a clockwork mechanism for bringing in the element of time. Three assemblies are gencrilly placed in the same box, for simultaneously measuring the voltages on the three phases of a transmission line, With this arrangement, a positive Lichtenberg figure is produced by a positive Scanned with CamScannerProtection against Overvoltages 409 Surge, and a negative Lichtenberg fig- ure By a neg: F y Line in FETS. Poste Licmentos ia in Fig. sitive Lichtenberg fi rg fig- Electrode ures are found to be superior to the bo negative ones ci iy se a for voltage measurement Ki Homogeneous Purpose, since they are much larger. ZZ 72> \nsulating Material than the negative figures for the same * Metal Fae voltage, as shown in Fig. 11.5. Diam- eter of positive Lichtenberg figure is a function of the maximum value of the FIGURE 11.8 Klydonograph impressed voltage. The shape and configuration of the figure depend on_the wave shape of the impressed voltage. Ground + Voltage Time t ‘A Negative Figure A Positive Figure Produced by a Produced by a Positive Negative Surge Surge \ ep —MW B SX \ FIGURE 11.8 Positive and negative Lichtenberg figures produced by positive and negative surge voltages of same magnitude and wave shape 11.5.2 Magnetic Link ‘The magnetic link is an instrument for the measurement of surge currents due to lightning. It coi s a small bundle of Jaminations made of cobalt-stec! inserted ina cylindrical molded plastic container, with the open end sealed in. k is placed in an unmagnetised state in the vicinity of the conductor whose surge current is desired to be measured. r : When the current flows through the conductor, a magnetic field is set up around it which is proportional to the current, The magnetising force of this field magnetizes the magnetic link which is placed in the vicinity of Es conductor. After the current has passed, the link is left with a residual Scanned with CamScanner410 Power System Protection and Switchgear Magnetism which isa function of the magnitude of the current Producing it for unidirectional surges. The residual magnetism may be unre by a suitable instrument, and the magnitude of the current which produces it may be determined by an experimentally obtained calibration curve of current versus, residual magnetism, or deflection on the instruments. The principle of operation of the magnetic link is based os the assumption that the surge current is unidirectional in polarity and that Surge Currents of any duration, no matter how short, leave the same residual Magnetism as a direct current of the same magnitude, The magnetic link is extensively used to measure currents in direct strokes, in transmission-line tower legs, ground wires, phase conductors, in counterpoise conductors and in ground leads of arresters. Magnetic links are generally placed in brackets fastened to the conductor so that their axes coincide with the normal direction of the magnetic lines of force 11.6 Protection of Transmission Lines against Direct Lightning Strokes Direct lightning strokes are of concern on lines of all voltage clas: s the voltage that may be set up is in most instances limited by the flashover of the path to ground. Increasing the length of insulator strings merely permits a higher voltage before flashover occurs. Therefore protective methods must be adopted to avoid flashover or breakdown of line insulators due to overvoltage caused by direct lightning strokes. The most generally accepted and effective method of protecting lines against direct strokes is by the use of overhead ground wires. This method of protec- tion is known as shielding method which does not allow an are path to form between the line conductor and ground. Ground wires are conductors running parallel to the main conductors of the transmission line, supported on the same towers (or supports) and adequately grounded at every tower or support. They are made of galvanised steel wires oF ACSR conductors. They are provided to shield the lines against direct strokes by attracting the lightning strokes to themselves rather than allowing them to strike the lines (phase conductors). When a ground wire is struck by direct lightning stroke, the impedance through which the current flows is very much reduced and a correspondingly higher current is required to cause flashover Overhead ground wires protect the lines by intercepting the direct strokes. keeping them off the phase conductors (lines), and by Providing multiple patfis for conducting the strokes current to ground. The multiple paths for the stroke current result in a reduced voltage drop. When the ground wire is struck in midspan, the current gets divided and flows towards both towers. At the tower the current again gets divided between the tower and the outgoing ground wire When the tower is struck by a direct lightning stroke and there is only 09° overhead ground wire, the current gets divided into three-path, one through the Scanned with CamScannerProtection against Overvoltages 411 st hl oe eee branches of the ground wire. In addition to the a ee ns, ground wires also reduce the voltages induced on the con- from nearby strokes by increasing the capacitance between conduc- tors and ground. In order to provide efficient protection to lines against direct strokes, the ground wires must satisfy the following requirements. (i) There should be an adequate clearance between the line conductors and the ground or the tower structure. f (ii) There should be an adequate clearance between the ground wires and line conductors, especially at the midspan, in order to prevent flashover to the line conductors up to the protective voltage level used for the line design. (iii) The tower footing resistance should be as low as economically justifiable. The ground wires should be placed at such a height above the conductors and so located that they should be well out on towers and should not be exactly over the conductors in order to avoid any possibility of a short circuit occurring in the event of conductors swinging under ice loading, etc. ‘A few terms relating to protection of transmission lines are explained below. Protective ratio The protective ratio is defined as the ratio of the induced voltage on a conductor with ground wire protection to the induced voltage which would exist on the conductor without ground wire protection. The induced voltage under discussion is the induced voltage between phase conductor and ground due to nearby stroke. Protective angle The protective angle (a) afforded by a ground wire is defined as the angle between a vertical line through the ground wire and a slanting line connecting the ground wire and the phase conductor to be protected. This angle is shown in Fig. 11.6. The protective angle (a) is in the re- gion of 20° to 45°, Experience with lines and also tests have shown that when the protective angle does not exceed 30° (on level spans), good shielding of the line conductors is obtained and the probabi- lity of direct stroke to the conductor is oO also reduced. But a protective angle of Ground Wire Phase Conductor 45° is satisfactory when the tower iSON@ ype 11.6 Protective angle a of hill-side. The angle should be decreased snared rete by the angle of the slope of the hill. Kay Protective zone ‘The protective zone is defined as the volume between the base plane che and Scanned with CamScanner412 Power System Protection and Switchgear the slanting planes ac, extending from the ground wire to the plane of the conductors, Figure 11.7 (a) shows the cross-section of this volume. The plane ac cuts the base plane at c, at a distance ky from the point b, vertically under the apex a. The ground wire is at a height ab = y above the base plane. The ratio ky/y = kis called the protective ratio. The protective zone is sometimes called the protective wedge or protective shed. $. Ground Wire (a) FIGURE 11.7 (a) Zone of protection of an overhead ground wire (b) Cone of protection of a rod or mast If the line ab in Fig. 11.7 (b) represents a rod or mast with a height y, then it is said to be protective cone around the mast. The radius on the base line is equal to ky and the protective ratio is ky/y = k. Height of ground wire For protection against direct strokes, the ground wire should be located at a height at least 10 per cent greater than y, calculated from the following equation. x 2 4 hy (hy a 2(7)-() -P(G)-G) (11.6) Where, X = horizontal spacing between the conductor and ground wire, H = height of cloud, y = height of ground wire, and h = height of conductor. Though recommendations about the protective angle and protective ratio vary, experience has shown that double-circuit lines will be completely shielded if two ground wires are used, placed one above each outer most conductor, al a height above the top conductor equal to the vertical spacing between conduc- tors. For horizontally arranged single-circuit lines, two overhead ground wires will give compete shielding if placed above the plane of the conductors al 4 height about two-thirds the spacing between conductors. The distance between the ground wires should be about equal to the spacing of conductors Coupling factor Since a voltage of the same polarity as the ground wire voltage has induced 00 the conductors, the entire ground wire or tower top voltage does not appea! across the line insulation. The ratio of this induced voltage on the conductor © the ground wire voltage is known as the coupling factor. Therefore, the voltage Scanned with CamScannerProtection against Overvoltages 413 Across the line insulation is the ground wire voltage times the coupling factor, neglecting the normal frequency voltage. The electromagnetic and electrostat effective radius of the ground wire is increased by a corona, in which case, electrostatic coupling increases and the electromagnetic coupling remains unaffected. The coupling factor with the effect of corona considered is ealcu- lated by the following equation. coupling factors are equal unless the the Coupling factor (C) = electrostatic coupling X electromagnetic coupling Coupling factor is calculated by the equation, = Eble (11.7) Tog 2h/r where, C = coupling factor, a = distance from conductor to ground wire, b = distance from conductor to image of ground wire, h = height of ground wire above ground and r = radius of ground wire. The electromagnetic coupling factor is calculated using the actual radius of the ground wire and the clectrostatic coupling factor is calculated by the same equation using the effective radius of the ground wire due to corona. Reduction of tower footing resistance ‘The effectiveness of a ground wire in controlling the lightning overvoltage on a line to reasonable values depends to a great extent on low tower footing resistance. The tower-footing resistance should be in the region 10-20 Q, preferably closer to 10 0. For medium voltage lines it may be even less than 10 Q. Therefore, sometimes some special means are employed to reduce the tower footing resistance, since by itself the tower footing may not be able to give a low resistance. The tower footing resistance may be reduced by driving rods near the tower and connecting them to the tower base or by burying conductors (counterpoise wires) in the ground and connecting them to the tower base. Driven rods are usually of galvanised iron, copper weld, or copper- bearing steel. Sometimes driven galvanised iron pipe is also used, Counte poise wires are usually of copper, aluminium, galvanised steel, stranded cabl or galvanized steel strip. ‘The method to be used for reducing the tower footing resistance either by driving rods or by counterpoise wires depends upon the soil conditions. Either method is satisfactory if the proper low resistance is obtained. Deep rods may be driven only in soil free from rocks, Deep-driven rods can be successfully used in the sandy soil. As regards counterpoise wires, the hand-trenching method may be used for small amounts of wire. However, if the amount of wire is considerable, it is usually installed by feeding into a trench. The trench is shallow, usually 30 to Scanned with CamScanner414 Power System Protection and Switchgear 60 cm deep, and does not require extensive filling. a Counterpoise wires are used extensively because of the difficulty encoun- tered in driving rods. They can be arranged either radially (non-continuous) or tower-to-tower (continuous). Typical ‘arrangements of ae wires are shown in Fig, 11.8, and tower-to-tower counterpois own in Figure 11.9. Base of Tower Sasi be - =k | | Counterpoise Wire (@) > Direction of Line ©) see a | i © @) (e) FIGURE 11.8 Typical arrangements of radial (non-continuous) counterpoise wires Continuous counterpoise wires are more effective than non-continuous counterpoise wires. Current is drawn into the counterpoise from 1.5 to 2.5 km away from the point of the stroke and fed into the stroke by means of the counterpoise wire and the overhead ground wires. The concentration of the current at any tower is thus reduced. The reduced current at any tower causes reduced voltage drop at the tower base, and thus the tower potential is held 10 @ value below the flashover voltage of the line insulators. 11.7 Protection of Stations and Sub-stations from Direct Strokes ‘The station structure itself is commonly built of steel members on which lines terminate and which support the buses, isolating switches, etc. The power transformers and circuit breakers usually rest on concrete pads on the ground. Scanned with CamScannerProtection against Overvoltages 415 (@) ——— > Direction of Line (b) (©) @ () FIGURE 11.9 Typical arrangements of tower-to-tower (continuous) counterpoise wires The task of protection of such stations can be resolved into two parts. The first being the protection of stations (including sub-stations) from direct lightning strokes, and the second is the protection of electrical equipment of stations from travelling waves coming in over the lines. The protection of stations from direct strokes will be discussed in this section and the protection of equipment from travelling waves will be discussed in the subsequent section. Wherever it is likely for direct strokes of lightning to strike the line at or near the station, there is a possibility of exceedingly high rates of surge-voltage rise and large magnitude of surge-current discharge. It the stroke is severe enough, the margin of protection provided by the protective device may be inadequate. The installation may, therefore, require shielding of the station and the incom- ing lines enough to limit the severity of surges particularly in the higher voltage class of 66 kV and above. This can be done by properly placed overhead masts, or rods. “Therefore protection of stations from direct strokes involves the principles already discussed in Sec. 11.6. If supports are available for overhead ground wires, these may be run over the station in such a way that the station and all apparatus will lie in the protected zone, Sufficient ground wires should be strung so that the entire station is covered, including any apparatus outside the main structure and any apparatus on top of the structure as shown in Fig. 11.10. For asmall station, it is sometimes sufficient to run one or two ground wires ground wires, Scanned with CamScanner416 Power System Protection and Switchgear Zone of nd Wires Protection ou" Equipment FIGURE 11.10 Protection of a station by overhead ground wires (elevation view) across the station from adjacent line towers as shown in Fig. 11.11 (a). For a more extensive station, extra ground wire may be used, fanning out from the towers to the station structure, as also over the station if mechanically feasible as shown in Fig. 11.11(b). If there are no isolating switches or other apparatus above the station structure, then the steel of this structure will act as a grounded object to protect the apparatus and buses below it. Ground Wires Station Station Tower Tower Tower Ground Wires fa) (b) FIGURE 11.11 (a) Overhead ground wires carried over a small station between adjacent towers (plan view) (b) Overhead ground wires carried over a large station between adjacent towers (plan view) If it is not feasible to run ground wires over the station, then it may be possible to erect masts or rods at the corners or over vertical columns, so that the buses and apparatus in the station will fall within the cone of protection of the masts or rods as in Fig. 11.7 (b). Such a cone may be assumed to have a base radius equal to twice the height of the mast. Figure 11.12 illustrates this method of protection. 11.8 Protection against Travelling Waves Shielding the lines and stations (including sub-stations) by overhead ground wires, masts or rods undoubtedly provides adequate protection against direct lightning strokes and also reduces electrostatically or clectromagnetically induced over voltages, but such shielding does not provide protection against travelling waves which may come in over the lines and reach the terminal equipment. Such travelling waves can cause the following damage to electrical equipment. Scanned with CamScannerProtection against Overvoltages 417 Cone of Protection Masts FIGURE 11.12 Method of protecting station by vertical masts (elevation view) (i) Internal flashover caused by the high peak voltage of the surge may damage the insulation of the winding. (ii) Internal flashover between interturns of the transformer may be by the steep-fronted voltage wave. (iii) External flashover between the terminals of the electrical equipment caused by the high peak voltage of the surge may result in damage to the insulators. (iv) Resonance and high voltages resulting from the steep-fronted wave may cause internal or external flashover of an unpredictable nature causing build- ing up of oscillations in the electrical equipment. Hence it is absolutely n ry to provide some protective devices at the stations or sub-stations for the protection of equipment against the travelling waves (surges) caused by lightning. The protective devices used for U purpose are described in the following sub-sections. aused 11.8.1 Rod Gap A rod gap provides the simplest and cheapest protection to line insulators, equipment insulate :s and bushings of transformers. It is clear that in case of serious overvolta 2s, the over-insulation of any one part of the power syster1 may cause the brcakdown of the insulation of some vital and perhaps ina sible part. Thus, it is preferred that itis the line insulators that flashover rather than the bushings of a transformer breaking down. Ag is preferred that a bushing breakdown before the insulation of the transformer of which it forms a part. In the case of transformers, Busting tod gaps which are also called co- ordinating gaps are installed to pro- ect the apparatus, Rod gaps pro- 1 vide back-up protection to the bush- & 4 ings of transformers in case of the 3 primary protective devices, ie. light- a ning arresters fail. A rod gap consists of two rods of approximately 1.2 cm diameter or Square, which are bent at right angles shown in Fig. 11.13. One rod is FIGURE 11.13 Rod gap Scanned with CamScanner418 Power System Protection and Switchgear Connected to the line while the other rod is connected to ground. In case of a transformer, they aré fixed between bushing insulators. In order to avoid cascading across the insulator surface under very stecp-fronted waves, the rod ap should be adjusted to breakdown at about 20 per cent below the impulse flashover voltage of the insulation of the equipment to be protected (i.c. bushing insulator of a transformer in Fig. 11.13). Further, the distance between the gap and the insulator should be more than one-third of the gap length (i.e. L, >= ) in order to prevent the arc from being blown to the insulator. The accurate breakdown value of the rod gap cannot casily be predicted because the breakdown of air depends upon the atmospheric condi- tions (i.e., humidity, temperature and pressure), as also upon polarity, steep- ness and the waveshape of the wave. ‘The major disadvantage of the rod gap is that it does not interrupt the power frequency follow current after the surge has disappeared. This means that every operation of the rod gap creates an L-G fault which can only be cleared by the operation of the circuit breaker. Thus, the operation of the rod gap results in circuit outage and interruption of power supply. 11.8.2 Arcing Horn ‘The damage to line insulators from heavy arcs formed due to overvoltages is a serious maintenance problem. Several protective devices have been developed to keep an insulator string free from the arc. Arcing horn is one of such protective devices. It consists of small horns attached to the clamp of the line insulator string. Horns with a large spread, both at the top of the insulator and at the clamp are required to be effective, as shown in Fig. 11.14. In the case of lightning impulse, the arc formed tends to cascade the string. In order to avoid this cascading, the gap between horns should be considerably less than the length of the string. Protection of line insulators by arcing horns thus results in reduced flashover voltage. In any event, flashover persists as a power arc until the line trips out. The protection of line insulators by arcing horns is especially used in hilly areas. ‘The grading ring when used in conjunction with an arcing horn fixed at the top of the insula- tor string serves the purpose of an arcing shield. In the event of an arc forming following a flash- over caused by some type of overvoltage, the arc will usually take the path between the horn and the shield and the insulator string will remain clear from the are, 11.8.3 Lightning Arresters or Surge FIGURE 11.14 Suspension Diverters string with f . arcing horns Lightning arresters are also known as surge Scanned with CamScannerProtection against Overvoltages 419 diverters or surge arresters. They are connected between the line and ground at the substation and always act in shunt (parallel) with the equipment to be Protected, and perform their protective function by providing a low-impedance path for the surge currents so that the surge arrester’s protective level is less than the surge voltage withstanding capacity of the insulation of equipment being protected. A lightning arrester’s protective level is the voltage appearing. across the terminals of the arrester at sparkover or during the flow of current through the arrester after sparkover. The main purpose of lightning arresters is to divert or discharge the surge to the ground. The action of the surge diverter can be studied with the help of Fig. 11.15. When the travelling surge reaches the diverter, it sparks over at a certain prefixed voltage as shown by point P and provides a relatively low-impedance path to ground for the surge current. The current flowing to ground through the surge impedance of the line limits the amplitude of the overvoltage across the line and ground known as ‘residual voltage" (as shown by point Q in Fig. 11.15) to such a value which will protect the insulation of the equipment being protected. Surge Voltage ifno Protective Device is Present os Initial Peak Q__ Residual Voltage Voltage FIGURE 11.15 Voltage characteristic of surge diverter at the low-impedance path to ground must not It is however, essential th ise to exist immediately re the overvollage appears and it must c exist before ; after the voltage returns back to its normal value. van idea lightning arrester or surge diverter should possess the following characteristics. : (i) It should not draw any current at ing the normal operation. ; eit ould breakdown very quickly when the abnormal transient voltage above its breakdown value appears, SO that a low-impedance path to ground rovided. 3 earn Lit discharge current after breakdown should not be so excessive so as to damage the surge diverter itself, normal power frequency voltage, i.e. ‘Scanned with CamScanner420 Power System Protection and Switchgear (iv) It must be capable of interrupting the power frequency follow-up current after the surge is discharged to ground. Impulse ratio of lightning arresters It is defined as the ratio of the breakdown impulse voltage of a wave of specified duration to the breakdown voltage of a power-frequency wave. The impulse ratio of any lightning arrester is therefore a function of time duration of the transient wave, Types of lightning arresters (or surge diverters) The following are the main types of lightning arresters. (i) Expulsion Type Lightning Arrester (ii) Non-linear Surge Diverter (iii) Metaloxide Surge Arrester (MOA) (i) Expulsion Type Lightning Arrester This type of arrester is also known as Expulsion Gap or Protector Tube. It ONSISIs Of a fibre tube with an electode at cach end. The lower electrode is solidly grounded. The upper electrode forms a series gap with the line conductor, as shown GnMie resWhenacinge “appears on the conductor, the series gap breaks down, r ulting in formation of arc in the fibre tube between the two electrodes. The heat of the arc vaporises some of the fibre of the tube walls resulting in the generation of an inert gas. This gas is expelled violently through the arc so that arc is extinguished and the power frequency current is prevented from flowing after the surge discharge. ‘The expulsion arrester derives its name from the fact that gases formed during its operation are expelled from the tube through a vent. ray ~<— _Extemal Series Gap Upper Metal Electrode Fibre Tube Bottom Metal Electrode Vent for Gases {BGURE 11.16 Expulsion type lightning arresterProtection against Overvoliages 421 ; This type of arrester is mainly used to prevent flashover of line insulators, isolators and bus insulators. Gi) Non-linear Surge Diverter. Thi: type of diverter is also called valve type lightning arrester, or conventional non-linear type lightning arrester. It consists of a divided spark-gap (i.e several short gaps in series) in series with non-linear resistor elements. The divided spark-gap and the non-lin- oe car resistor elements are placed in = <—_ Divided leaktight porcelain housing which ee |e? ensures reliable protection against Lb beak Tight atmospheric moisture, condensation = ia and humidity (see Fig. 11.17). Figure 11.18 shows a typical valve Non-inear type lightning arrester. Een The functions of the diverter’s divided spark-gap are as follows. (a) It prevents the flow of cur- po ig rent through the diverter un- RRR 18.42. Valvortype lightning der normal conditions. arrester (non-linear (b) It sparks over at a predeter- diverter) : mined voltage. (©) It discharges high-energy surges without any change in sparkover system after @ ‘The functions of the not follow (a) ” They provide a low-impedance path for the flow of surge current after sparks over. a (b) They disse aie surge energy. (©) They provide a relatively high-resistance path for the flow of power frequency follow current from the power system, thereby assisting the divided gap to interrupt the power frequency current (i.e. reseal against system voltage). The divided spark-gap consists of a number of short-gaps in series. Each of them has two electrodes across which a grading resistor of high ohmic value is connected. The grading resistors ensure even grading of voltage between the various gaps. The system is similar to that of a number of capacitors connected in series and across each of these capacitors is a high value resistor. The voltage grading by means of resistors also makes it possible to raise the interrupting capacity of the divided spark-gap. In case of relatively slow variations in voltage, there is no sparkover across the gaps as the influence of parallel grading resistors across these gaps prevails over that of the spark-gap capacitances with regard to one another and to the Scanned with CamScanner422 Power System Protection and Switchgear Terminal for Line Connection Cap Casting (Aluminium) Spring Thyrite Discs Wet Process Procelain Container Series Gap Unit — Steam Cured Cement }— Bottom Casting (Aluminium) <— Terminal for Ground Connection |<— Foundation Base FIGURE 11.18 A typical valve-type lightning arrester ground. But when there are large rapid variations in voltage, the even grading of the voltage across the series of gaps no longer remains and the influence of unbalanced capacitances of the gaps prevails over the grading resistors. The surges are mainly concentrated on the upper spark gaps which on sparking ‘over result in the sparkover of the complete arrester. ‘The main function of the diverter is the protection of the insulation against dangerously high overvoltages and for this reason the breakdown voltage of the diverter at system frequency is made greater than 1.8 times the normal value. ‘The ideal characteristic for the non-linear resistor would be R/ = constant, since such a resistor will maintain constant voltage by changing its resistance in inverse proportion to the current. The non-linear resistor is in the form of discs of 9 cm diameter and 2.5 cm thickness. The material used for such resistors, called by trade names of “Thyrite”, and “Metrosil” is a hard ceramic substance in the form of cylindrical blocks which consist of small crystals of silicon carbide bound together by means of an inorganic binder, with the whole assembly being subjected to heat treatment. The non-linear characteristic is attributed to the properties of the electrical contacts between the grains of silicon carbide. As the material used for non-linear resistors for the arrester is Scanned with CamScannerProtection against Overvoltages 423 known by trade name as thyrite, this type of lightning arrester is also some- _ times called Thyrite type lightning 38 Static arrester. es Characteristic Figure 11.19 shows the volt-ampere i / op Dinamic characteristic of the non-linear resistor, acteristic the dotted curve being the static char- Current Stari i ‘ ‘ acteristic, while the solid curve is the FIGURE 11. 8 a a 4 11.19 Volt. ‘ampere dynamic characteristic corresponding to characteristics of the application of a voltage surge. If a . horizontal line, tangential to the dy- namic characteristic is drawn, then its intercept with the voltage a: ‘ives the residual voltage. The residual voltage is defined as the peak (crest) value of the voltage which appears between the terminals of the surge diverter at the instant when the surge current discharges through it. This voltage varies between 3 kV and 6 kV, depending on the type ice. station type or line type, the discharge current and the rate of change of this current. A non-linear resistor type lightning arrester is also known as valve type lightning arrester. The valve type arrester derives its name from the fact that the non-linear resistance (similar to valve opening) regulates itself to the flowing current and limits the voltage when high surge (lightning) currents flow through the arrester. The valve arrester works as an insulator at normal system voltage, but it becomes a good conductor of low resistance to limit the lightning (surge) voltages to a value lower than the basic impulse level of the equipment being protected. It re-establishes itself as an insulator after the discharge of the surge current. Comparison of expulsion and non-linear types of surge diverters The series gap of the expulsion-type surge diverter (lightning arrester) ac isolator under normal conditions. When the diverter is required to operate, the impedance of the series gap is very low and the arc formed in the fibre tube is also very low, with the result that the follow-up current is almost the same as that due to the line to ground (L-G) fault, its value therefore being determined by the factors used in the calculation of fault currents. Thus the current through the expulsion type diverter may become as high as several kilo amperes (kA). Secondly, 28 the follow-up current is determined by the network tinder fault conditions, it isa reactive current and lags the system voltage by 90 degree, ie. it passes through a zero value when the system voltage is maxi- Tram, Since the arc voltage at the instant of breakdown falls rapidly to a very Tow value, there is no phenomenon which may be analogous to residual voltage. Therefore, the level of protection is fixed only by the value of the impulse breakdown voltage. Itgets increasingly difficult for the expulsion gap to interrupt currents of low value, because of the small amount of deionising gas formed by it. non-linear diverter Scanned with CamScanner424 Power System Protection and Switchgear Though the sub-divided series gap of the non-linear surge diverter is also an isolator during normal conditions, it actually plays role in the performance of the diverter during its operation. AS the current through the idlyerter is limited to a comparatively low value by the non-linear resistors, it Is pra tically in phase with the system voltage. Because of the current being practically in phase with the system. voltage, an instant of current zero is also an instant of zero for the system voltage. Thus, the sub-divided gap interrupts the current at the first zero. As the impulse breakdown voltage is usually less than the residual voltage, it is the latter which determines the level of protection provided by the non-linear surge diverter. (iii) Metal-Oxide Surge Arrester (MOA) ‘The metal oxide surge arrester abbreviated a MOA is a recently developed ideal surge arrester. It is a revolutionary advanced surge protective device for power systems. It is constructed by a series connection of zinc oxide (ZnO) ‘elements having a highly non-linear resistance, ‘The excellent non-linear char- acteristic of zinc oxide element has enabled to make surge arresters without series connected spark gaps, i.c. fully solid-state arresters suitable for system protection up to the highest voltages. ‘As mentioned earlier, the conventional non-linear surge diverters almost exclusively use Silicon Carbide (SiC) non-linear resistors. As this material is not ideal, it is not non-linear enough and thus imposes certain design restric- tions. Also, its characteristics call for a large number of spark gaps. A new Class of non-linear material was recently developed in Japan by Japan's Matsushita Electric Company. The new ceramic material is basically formed from zine oxide together with addition of other oxides, such as bismuth and cobalt oxides. As the main constituent of this new ceramic material is zinc oxide, the non-linear resistor made of this material is popularly known as zinc ‘oxide element and surge arresters made of zinc oxide elements are called metal oxide surge arresters. Such material can be used to make resistors with a much higher degree of non-linearity over a large current range. With such resistors, ‘one can design arresters having voltage-current characteristics very close t ideal. Because of the high degree of non-linearity, this material allows: consid- rable simplification in arrester (diverter) design. ‘The metal oxide surge arrester (MOA) which consists of a series connected stack of dises of zinc oxide clements, operates in a very simple fashion. It is dimensioned so that the peak value of the phase to ground voltage in normal operation never exceeds the sum of the rated voltages of the series-connected discs. The resistive losses in the arrester in normal operation are therefore very ‘small. When an overvollage occurs, the current will rise with the wavelront according to the characteristics without delay. No breakdown occurs but 4 rather continuous transition to the conducting state is observed. At the end of the voltage transient, the current is reduced closely following the /-V curve (i-¢- in contrast to the conventional arrester, there is no follow-up current), Scanned with CamScannerProtection against Overvoltages 425 The metal oxide arrester isa sd has the following marked advantages over (i) Series spark-gap is not required. (ii) he rer simple construction and is a fully solid-state protective (iii) Significant reduction in size. (iv) Quick response for steep discharge current. (¥) Very small time delay in responding to overvoltages. (vi) Superior protective performance. (vii) Outstanding durability for multiple operating duty cycle. (viii) No abrupt transient such as that occurs at the time of sparkover in'a conventional arrester. (ix) _ Negligible power follow-up current after a surge operation. MOA is especially suitable for gas insulated sub-stations (GIS), since it can be installed directly in SF,. Figure 11.20 illustrates the difference in the operations of MOA and ‘conventional arresters, responding to an on-coming surge v(f). The voltage wave shape of MOA is smooth and can be expressed as follows. Ca-2 SEY oe Z Ede 2 je ee, SS Volt without without (a) MOA (©) Conventonal arrester PIGURE 11.20 Operation of MOA and conventional arrester responding 'o an on-coming surge V = Q(t) 2 (ue) where Zy is the surge impedance of the line and { is the instantaneous current of the arrester The voltage wave shape of the conventional arrester has « peak value at the time of sparkover of the series gap. The voltage after sparkover or the discharge voltage can be expressed by Eq. (11.10). ‘Scanned with CamScanner426 Power System Protection and Switchgear As seen from Fig. 11.20, the protection performance of the conventional arrester is controlled by both the sparkover voltage and the discharge voltage. However, the protection performance of MOA is simply related to the dis- charge voltage, given by Eq. (11.10). ‘The protection level of MOA is decided by the maximum discharge voltage encountered under normal operating conditions. Though it is difficult to get a clear-cut expression like the V-¢ curve ina conventional arrester, the individual voltage waveform should be considered in precise discussion of insulation co- ordination, For rough estimation of the voltage waveform, it is convenient to assume a fixed functional relation between the voltage and current of MOA, as follows. V=@ (11.11) The voltage waveform or the time dependence of V can be calculated by connecting Eq. (11.10) and (11.11). A graphical method of solving the equa- tion is shown in Fig. 11.21 (a). The V and / values corresponding to v(¢) are represented by Py which is the intersection point of two curves corresponding to Bgs (11.10) and (11.11). In this simple treatment, the point P, moves on the v(@) curve shown by a dotted line in Fig. 11.21(a). However, the actual V-/ point moves along the thick line which cannot be conformed to a single line. A typical V-I characteristic of conventional SiC arrester is conceptually shown in Fig. 11.21(b) for comparison. In this case, the change from sparkover voltage (S.0.V) to a lower discharge voltage is abrupt. ° (a) MOA (©) Conventional FIGURE 11.21 Transient V-/ characteristics of MOA and conventional arrester ‘The main drawback of MOA is that the absence of spark-gaps results in a continuous flow of current through the device so that there is theoretically speaking the danger of thermal runway. However, as very stable resistors have been developed, these apprehensions are almost eliminated. Furthermore, the absence of spark-gaps makes the voltage grading system unnecessary. The MOA is inherently self-regulating in that the current flow of 0.5 to 1 mA at normal supply voltage leads to reliable operation even in polluted conditions. Scanned with CamScannerProtection against Overvoltages 427 g 4 Surge modifier. It is a device which elling wave and reduces the amplitude of ergy absorption in the form isk of travelling ngth of steel conductor at the terminal end, say effect of the wire io steep fronted waves being __ A better method of reducing the risk of travelling waves is to terminate the line at a distance of 0.8 to 1.5 km from the station (or sub-station) and to connect it to the station with an underground cable. This method has the following three advantages. (a) The cable gets shielded from all electrostatic phenomena, and from accidental grounds (carths) through various causes. (b) When the travelling waves enter the cable from the overhead line, they are reduced in magnitude to about 20 per cent of their incident value because of the ratio of the natural impedances. (©) When a travelling wave is transmitted into the cable, it gets attenuated rapidly due to the dielectric losses taking place in the cable at high frequencies. The most modern surge absorber is the Ferranti surge absorber (Fig. 11.22). ists of an aircored inductor connected in series with each line and metallic sheet called a vator. The inductor is magnetically coupled but electrically It consi surrounded by a grounded Dissipator isolated from the dissipator. The in- Air-cored Inductor ductor is insulated from the dissipator by the air. Acts as an air This surge absorber cored transformer whose primary is the inductor and the dissipator is the short-circuited secondary of a single turn, Whenever the travelling way erranti surge absorber dont on the surge absorber, the ated in the form of heat generated in the piqure 11.22 F di the secondly, because of the ser! ies inductance. ‘Scanned with CamScanneram yas 1 10° 3@C 3x314x12x1 3x314x12 @L= = 884.60 (ii) The inductive reactance for neutralizing 95% of the capacitance will be 6 = 931,2,0 3a@C 3x314x1.2x0.95 (iii) The inductive reactance for 80% neutralization will be 1 10° ——— ee TOS SD 3a@C 3x314xK12x08 @L = 11.10 Insulation Coordination Insulation coordination is the correlation of the insulation of electrical equip- ment and lines with the characteristics of protective devices such that the insulation of the whole power system is protected from excessive overvoltages. The main aim of insulation coordination is the selection of suitable values for the insulation level of the different components in any power system and their arrangement in a reasonable manner so that the whole power system is protected from overvoltages of excessive magnitude. Thus, the insulation Strength of various equipment, like transformers, circuit breakers, etc. should be higher than that of the lightning arresters and other surge protective devices. The insulation coordination is thus the matching of the volt-time flashover and breakdown characteristics of equip- ment and protective devices, in order to obtain maximum protective mar- gin at a reasonable cost. The volt- time curves of equipment to be pro- tected and the protective device are shown in Fig. 11.24. Curve A is the pretecntetdatcetand volt-time curve of the protective de- the equipment to be vice and curve B is the volt-time Prteried curve of the equipment to be pro- tected. From volt-time curves A and B of Fig. 11.24, it is clear that any insulation having a voltage withstanding strength in excess of the insulation strength of curve B will be protected by the protective device of curve A. KV Peak —» >o _— FIGURE 11.24 Volt-time curves of 11.10.1 Volt-time Curve The breakdown voltage of any insulation or the flashover voltage of a gap depends upon both the magnitude of the voltage and the time of application of Scanned with CamScannerthe Voltage, Protection against Overvottages 431 THOT beau. Plotted against ine tad tpt heir cis ore pen wave shape Te poe ‘over for a series of impulse applications of a given associated with impulse testi the volt-time Curve is basi wave Shape but of differer Istequired. If an impulse ed on the application of impulse voltages of the same nt Peak values to the insulation whose volt-time curve So that the test specimen me Sd given wave shape and polarity is adjusted of the wave, the Malie Br ha fo jar insulation) flashes over on the front wave at which flashove ‘ ge Corresponding to the point on front of the Gfitiesamne occurs is called front flashover. If an impulse voltage z ‘Wave shape is adjusted so that the test specimen flashes over on the tail of the wave at 50 Per cent of the applications and fails to flashover on the other 50 per centof the applications, the crest value of this voltage is called the critical flashover voltage. If an impulse voltage causes flashover of the test Specimen exactly at the crest value, then it is called crest flashover. If flashover does not take place, the wave is called a full wave and if flashover does take place, the wave is called a chopped wave. The applied impulse voltage reduced to just below the flashover voltage of the test specimen is called the ‘critical withstand voltage. The rated withstand voltage is the crest value of the impulse wave that the test specimen will withstand without disruptive discharge. Figure 11.25 illustrates for an assumed impulse, its wave front flashover, Wave Front Flashover Voltage Range Wave Tail Flashover Front Flashover ° Voltage Range 2 Crest Flashover 2 2 8 Volt-Time Curve Critical Flashover Critical ‘Jail flashover 50% of Applications a . Flashovers ( 50% of Applications Critical | Donot L_/ L Flashover Fated ei ae Withstand Time of Critical Flashover __Time Range Wave Tail —>le— Time —> en Flashover "T menge No impulse Range Tyme Range Flashover ae Time in Microsecond Construction of volttime curve and the terminology associated 01 FIGURE 19.25 or npulse testing ‘Scanned with CamScanner432 Power System Protection and Switchgear crest flashover, critical flashover voltage, critical withstand voltage, rated flashover voltage, wavetail flashover and a volt-time curve. 1 Basic Impulse Insulation Level (B.-L) The insulation strength of equipment like transformers, circuit breakers, etc, should be higher than that of the lightning arresters and other surge protective devices, In order to protect the equipment of the power system from overvolt- ages of excessive magnitude, it is necessary to fix an insulation level for the system to see that any insulation in the system does not breakdown or flashover below this level and to apply protective devices that will give the apparatus effective protection. Several methods of providing coordination between insulation levels in the station and on the line leading to the station have been offered. The best method is to establish a definite common level for all the insulation in the station and bring all insulation to or above this level. This limits the problem to three fundamental requirements, namely, the selection of a suitable insulation level, the assurance that the breakdown or flashover strength of all insulation in the station will equal or exceed the selected level, and the application of protective devices that will give the apparatus as good protection as can be justified economically. The common insulation level for all the insulation in the station is known as Basic Impulse Insulation Level (B.1.L) which have been established in terms of withstanding voltages of apparatus and lines. Basic impulse insulation level can be defined as reference level expressed in impulse crest voltage with a standard wave not longer than a 1.2/50 microsec- ond wave, according to Indian standards (1.5/40 ts in USA and 1/50 pls in UK). Apparatus insulation as demonstrated by suitable tests should be equal to or greater than the BILL. The basic impulse insulation level for a system is selected such that the system could be protected with a suitable lightning protective device, e.g. @ lightning arrester. The margin between the B.L.L. and the lightning arr ster should be fixed such that it is economical and it also ensures protection to the system. The [Link]. chosen must be higher than the maximum expected surge voltage across the selected arrester. r Exercises 1, What are the causes of overvoltages arising on a power system? Why is it necessity '° protect the lines and other equipment of the power system against ae oltages? 2. Describe the phenomenon of lightning and explain the terms pilot streamer, stepped leader, return streamer, dart leader, cold lightni 3 it ; cold lightning stroke and hot lighting stroke 3. How can the magnitude of overvoltages due to direct and indirect lightaing strokes 0° overhead lines be calculated? ightnings Scanned with CamScanner