FOREST PATHOLOGY

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Acervulus - a mat of hyphae giving rise to short conidiophores closely packed together
forming a bed-like mass characteristic of melanconiales
Alternate host - one of the two species upon which a parasitic fungus must develop to
complete its life cycle
Antagonistic symbiosis - when one symbiont has a harmful effect on the other
Apothecium - an open ascocarp in which the hymenium is always exposed
Appresorium - an enlarge, usually disk-shaped structure within or at the tip of a hypha
of some parasitic fungi from which entry is made into the host
Ascocarp - a fruiting body containing asci. Characteristic of Ascomycetes
Ascus - a sac-like structure generally containing a definite number of ascospores
(typically eight)
Atrophy - symptom characterized by halting in the multiplication, growth or
differentiation of cells and tissues
Autoecism - the ability of a parasitic fungus to complete its entire life cycle on a single
host species
Basidiocarp - a fruiting body which bears basidia. Characteristic of Basidiomycetes
Basidium - a structure bearing on the surface a definite number of Basidiospores
(typically four)
Biological control - controls disease by direct or indirect measures that increase the
activity of organism that compete with or limit the growth, reproduction or survival
of the pathogen
Conidium - an asexual spore cut of or released from the tip of specialized hypha called
conidiophore
Control - the prevention of or the reduction in the development of disease, resulting in
an improvement in quantity of the plant or crop
Damping-off - a disease that results in the rapid decay of young, succulent seedlings or
other shoots
Deterioration - Physical and chemical destruction of inanimate plant parts by chemical,
physical or living agents
Disease - an alteration in one or more of the ordered series of physiological processes
of energy utilization resulting in a loss of coordination of this utilization within the
host.
Epidemic - the widespread and destructive development of a disease in a large
population. Synonymous to epiphytotic
Epiphytology - science of disease in a population, study of development / spread of the
pathogen and factors affecting spread
Epiphytotic - destructive development of disease in a community
Enzymes - organic catalyst produced by living organisms which aid in the degradation of
complex natural substances, proteins, polysaccharides, and lipids and in the
synthesis of similar from relatively simple molecules
Eradication - removal, elimination or destruction of pathogen in certain area where it is
already established

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Exclusion - deals with control measures that prevent the introduction of pathogens into
uninvaded areas
Fumigate - to apply gas, vapor or smoke for the purpose of disinfecting plant parts, soil
or storage areas
Fungicide - a chemical compound that inhibits or kills fungi
Haustorium - an absorbing organ originating on a hypha of a parasite and penetrating
into a cell of the host
Heteroecism - the necessity of two host species for the completion of the life cycle of
certain parasitic fungi
Host - a living organism on or in which a parasite is living and from which the parasite
obtain its sustenance
Hymenium - fruiting layer of fungi consisting of asci or basidia
Hypertrophy - symptom characterized by excessive multiplication, overdevelopment of
cells, tissues or organs
Incubation - begins when the inoculum reaches the infection court and ends when first
visible evidences of the disease appear
Inoculation - transfer of inoculum from the source to the infection court
Infection - begins with the first response of the plant to the pathogen and ends with the
final effects
Infection court - a place in or on the plant where the disease process will eventually
occur
Injury - harmful physiological activity caused by the transient irritation of some causal
agent
Inoculum - portions of any pathogen capable of being disseminated and of initiating
disease
Lesion - a local injury or morbid structural or functional change
Mutualistic symbiosis - when both symbionts appear to benefit from the association
Mycelium - the vegetative body of a fungus, an aggregate of many filaments (hyphae) of
the fungus
Mycorrhiza - dual structure resulting from a mutual relationship of roots of a seed plant
with the mycelium of fungus
Necrosis - the death or disintegration of the cell
Obligate parasite - an organism that can complete its life cycle or normal development
only on or in other living organisms
Parasite - an organism that obtains its food or nutrient wholly or partly from an organism
of different species
Parasitism - the phenomenon of the growth of one organism, the parasite at the
expense of another, the host
Pathogen - a living entity capable of causing disease
Pathogenecity - ability of an organism to cause a disease
Pathogenesis - the origination or development of a disease
Perithecium - closed ascocarp in which the hymenium is enclosed by a perithecial wall
Protection - deals with control measures that provide a barrier between pathogen and
host

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Resistance - the inherent capacity of a plant to prevent or restrict the entry or
subsequent activities of a pathogenic agent when the plant is exposed to
inoculum under environmental conditions suitable for infection
Rhizomorph - root- like strand of fungus formed by the joining of fungus which make its
way for considerable distances through the soil, along or under the bark of woody
plants or other substrate
Saprophytes - an organism that obtains its food from dead organic matters
Sign - characteristic structure of the causal agent appearing on or in the diseased plant
Spore - the reproductive unit of a fungus
Substratum - inanimate or organic material which provides food to a microorganism
Suscept - any plant that is capable, under natural conditions, or responding to the
pathogenic activities of a given pathogen
Susceptibility - capacity of a plant to become infected by a pathogen or to be affected
by a disease
Symbiosis - a condition in which two organisms of different kinds exist together in
intimate organic association
Symptom - any reaction of a plant to a pathogen or an abiotic disease agent, usually it
refers to visible reactions
Syndrome - the pattern of symptoms or signs in a disease
Virulence - a term measuring the degree of pathogenicity in terms of time / extent of
plant affected, and quickness of kill
Forest - biological community dominated by trees.
Pathology - study of the essential nature of diseases and especially of the structural
and functional changes produced by them.
Forest Pathology - branch of botanical science that deals with disease of forest trees
for the purpose of preventing and controlling such diseases.
Disease - any deviation in the normal functioning of a plant caused by some type of
persistent biotic or abiotic agents. Irritation is continuous
- sustained physiological disturbance and resulting structural disturbances.
Infectious disease - easily transmissible, usually caused by biotic agent known as the
pathogen
Pathogen - a living entity capable of causing a disease
Non-infectious disease - non-transmissible, usually caused by abiotic agent
(Physiogen=non-living)
Injury - damage of a plant caused by physical or chemical agent, animal including man.
The causal agent is not persistent and irritation is not continuous.

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Objectives of Forest Pathology
1. To know the disease
2. To identify the causal agent.
3. To assess / evaluate losses / damage.
4. To recommend appropriate, preventive and control measures.
Damage / Losses Due to Disease
1. Reduce volume
2. Lower value
3. Kill seedlings in nursery
4. Kill trees in plantations

The knowledge in forest pathology is important in planning, establishment and

management of forest plantations.
Causal Agents of Tree Disease
I. Biotic (living)
Pathogen - an entity that can incite a disease. It is not synonymous with disease.
A. Fungi - non-chlorophyllous, heterotrophic organisms which reproduce sexually or
asexually by means of spores.
Heterotrophs - organisms that derive food from other sources.
Two distinct phases of development of fungi
a. vegetative phase
b. reproductive phase
Classes of Fungi
1. Phycomycetes - mycelium without cross walls (coenocytic) (non-septate), e.g.
Pythium sp., Phytophthora sp. (cause damping off)
2. Ascomycetes - mycelium with cross wall, with 8 ascospores internal of ascus,
produce crozier (cause leaf diseases, wood decay).
3. Basidiomycetes – mycelium. With cross wall, with 4 basidio spores external
to the basidium, produce clamp connection. (Cause root rot, stemrot, canker,
wood decay, gall).
Heterobasidiomycetes - septate basidia
Uredinates - Rust Fungi (e.g. Uromycladium teppernianum)
Homobasidiomycetes - non-septate basidia
Some examples of Families:
Agaricaceae - mushroom - hymenium on gills
Polyporaceae - shelf fungi - hymenium in tubes or pores
Hydnaceae - tooth fungi - hymenium on teeth-like structures
4. Deuteromycetes - mycelium with cross wall produce (Fungi Imperfecti)
asexual spores only.
Mycelia Sterilia - do not produce spores
Ex. Sclerotium rolfsii (cause root rot disease of seedlings)

B. Nematodes - unsegmented round worms with well developed digestive and

reproductive system. (Cause disease on seedlings and large trees).

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 Meloidogyne sp. on kaatoan bangkal seedlings
Bursaphelenchus lignoculus on Pines (pinewood nematode)
C. Bacteria - unicellular microorganism which multiply through binary fission, cell
without nuclear membrane and contain ribosomes only, (cause gall;
Agrobacterium tumefaciens)
D. Seed Plants - true or leafy mistletoes Loranthus sp. Phoradendron sp. on Narra,
Banaba, Avocado, Lanzones, etc.
E. Virus - submicroscopic organisms composed of protein and RNA. Cause phloem
necrosis.
II. Abiotic (non-living) - This include factors in the physical environment.
1. Nutritional Imbalance - this means that deficiency in any of the elements needed
for growth will cause abnormality
Macro elements - N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S
Micro elements - Fe, Mn, Zn, B, Cu, Mo, Cl
2. Air pollutants – cause both disease and injury: persistent air pollution cause
disease: non persistent air pollution cause injury.
Examples of air pollutants
SO2 – sulfur dioxide
CO2 – carbon dioxide
NO – nitrogen oxide
Fluorides – come from smelting plants of copper and other ores.
Transportation is the most important source of air pollutant.
Acid Rain – fall out of pollutants with rain.
- dilute solutions of sulfuric acid and nitric acid
The pH of rain which is 5.6 may fall to 2.4 which is the pH of vinegar
Effects of acid rain:
a. Cuticle erosion of the leaves of plants
b. Leaching of essential elements from the soil
3. High temperature
4. Water deficiency
5. Excess of water
Factors Interacting to produce a disease
1. Biotic disease - caused by living organisms
"Man and time play important roles in disease occurrence"
Host (plant)
MAN
Environment Pathogen
(Natural /man made) (Entity that can incite disease)
2. Abiotic disease
Host Unfavorable environment

Sign - the pathogen or its parts or products seen on a host

ex. vegetative and fruiting structures, exudates such as gummosis, resinosis,
slime flux
Symptoms - expression of disturbed or abnormal physiology of the host plant.

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Types of Symptoms
A. :Necrotic - symptoms due to destruction or death of tissue or cells
1. Spot - more or less discolored circular or angular lesions of foliage, fruits or
stems
2. Shothole - circular holes resulting from the removal or dropping out of diseased
tissues from the leaves
3. Rot - dead tissues in a more or less advanced stage of decay. May appear in
woody organs as well as in fleshy one or on all parts of a plant
4. Canker - localized, sharply demarked dead lesions, usually sunken or cracked in
the bark of the trunks, stem and roots.
5. Dieback - the dying backward from the tip of foliage, twigs, roots or branches
6. Blight - sudden death or browning of foliage or fruit due to physical factors
7. Wilting - flaccid condition of leaves or shoots caused by loss of turgidity
8. Yellowing - normally green tissues turn yellow due to breakdown of chloroplasts
9. Damping-off - the rapid rotting of seeds or seedlings before they emerge from
the ground (pre-emergence) or rapid rotting of bases of seedlings so that they fall
over (past - emergence) after germination
10. Hydrosis - water soaked condition of tissue caused by water leaving the cells &
filling - up the intercellular spaces
11. Bleeding - continuous oozing at sap from wounds or injuries
Slime flux - if bleedings is accompanied by fermentation
Gummosis - if bleeding is gummy
Resinosis - if bleeding occurs on coniferous or resinous trees
12. Blotch - elongated or elliptic lesions, generally on monocot leaves
13. Scald - blanching of epidermal tissues that gradually turn pale, brown or dark,
usually due to physical factors.
14. Anthracnose - brown, reddish brown or purple and often coalesced spots on
leaves, trunks and branches
B. Atrophic - symptoms due to inhibition of plant growth
1. Albication - complete suppression of green color in normally green tissues
2. Chlorosis - partial failure of the development of green color in organs that are
normally green
3. Suppression - failures of certain organs to develop at points where they normally
develop
4. Etiolation - excessive spindliness accompanied by dwarfing of foliage and flowers
and lack of natural chlorophyll development
5. Dwarfing - sysmptom characterized by the subnormal size of the whole plant or
some of its organs
6. Rosetting - crowding of foliage into a rosette formation caused by shortening of
the internodes of stems or of branches

C. Hypertrophic - symptoms due to stimulation of plant growth

1. Abcission or defoliation - premature falling of leaves, flowers and fruits caused by
the formation of abscission layer at the base of their petioles
2. Russetting (brownish, superficial roughening of the epidermis of fruits, tubers,
and other structures

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 3. Discoloration - abnormal coloration of the tissue or organ other than yellowing or
chlorosis
e.g. Bronzing - copper tinge in epidermis
Purpling - development of anthocyanin
4. Galls (tumors) - local swellings or tumor-like growth on leaves, stems and
branches
5. Callus - new tissue growing over a wound or injury in an attempt to heal it
6. Curling - abnormal bending of shoot leaves because of excessive growth on one
side of the affected organ.
PATHOGENESIS - disease development
Phases:
1. Inoculation - transfer of inoculum from the source of the infection court
2. Incubation - entrance of pathogen into the suscept plant
- Begins when the inoculum reaches the infection court and ends when the first
visible evidence of the disease appears.
3. Infection – Interaction of pathogen with the host plant resulting to physiological and
morphological changes.
- begins with the first response of the pathogen and ends with the first effects.
4. Response – alteration of the normal physiological function showing symptoms.
PATHOGENECITY – capacity of an organism to cause disease
KOCH’s Postulate – proof of pathogenecity
- is followed in order to know whether the isolated organism is the
one causing the disease.
Steps:
1. The organism must be constantly associated with disease in all diseased plants
examined. Symptoms and sign must be described
2. The organism must be isolated and grown into pure culture on growing medium
3. Inoculate the healthy host plant with the pure culture and observe the disease
development. Compare symptoms and signs with those observed in no.1
4. The organism must be reisolated into pure culture and its characteristics must be
similar with organism in no.2
WOOD DECAY - causal organisms belong to the genera; Poria, Polyporus, Fomes and
Ganoderma. All are Basidiomycetes
Types of wood decay
1. Heart /center rot
2. Root / Butt rot
3. Sap rot
Wood decay based on enzymatic activity utilized for wood decomposition
1. White rot - cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin are degraded
2. Brown rot - cellulose, hemicellulose and small amount of lignin is degraded
3. Soft rot - decomposed cellulose in localized pockets in the secondary wall (occurs in
wood saturated with water caused by ascomycetes and fungi imperfecti)
Phenols - are hydroxylated aromatic compounds responsible for decay resistance
Pathological Rotation – a harvesting schedule that considers rate of 9 month (increase in
volume) and rate of decay

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Shigometer - an electrical measuring device able to detect decay and discoloration in
living trees
Wood Discoloration - any change in the normal coloration of wood of living trees and
wood in service
Fungus stain - surface molds, sap stain
Non-fungus stain - metal stain, manufacturing stain, weathering discoloration, chemical
brown stain, hardwood sticker stain
WOOD STAIN does not affect the strength properties of the wood
Causes of wood stain
a. Blue stain fungi (Diplodia sp., Torula sp. and Cladosporium sp.)
- discoloration is due to the color of hyphae
b. Chemical stain - due to enzymes released from living cells during drying
Principles of Disease Control
1. Avoidance
2. Exclusion
3. Eradication
4. Protection
Forest Tree Disease Control Categories
1. Regulatory
a. Quarantine
b. Inspection
2. Cultural methods - eg. crop rotation
3. Biological method
a. Mycoparasitism
b. Resistant varieties
Types of Plant Resistance
a. Specific or vertical resistance - controlled by one or few genes
b. General or horizontal resistance - controlled by group or complementary genes
4. Physical methods - ex. heat treatment, solarization
5. Chemical Control
6. Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

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Specific Forest Tree Diseases
Host Disease Causal Organism
Narra (Pterocarpus indicus) Leaf spot Phyllactora pterocarpii Pestalotia sp.
Benquet Pine (Pinus kesiya) Needle blight Oercospora pini densiflorae
Mindoro pine (Pinus merkusili) Needle blight Oercospora pini densiflorae
Carribean pine (P. caribaea) Needle blight Oercospora pini densiflorae
Mollucan sau (A. fulcataria) Canker Corticium salmonicolor
Eucalyptus grandis Canker Corticium salmonicolor
Eucalyptus saligna Canker Corticium salmonicolor
Mollucan sau Gall rust Uromycladium teppermianum
Benquet pine Stain disease Trichoderma sp.
Verticicladiella wagnerii
Eucalyptus sp. Crown gall Agrobacterium tumefasciens
Mahogany ([Link]) Root rot Sclerotium rolfsii
Narra (P. indicus) Root rot Sclerotium rolfsii
Yemane (G. arborea) Root rot Sclerotium rolfsii
Forest tree seedlings Damping-off Pythium debaryanum
a. Pre-emergence Phytophthora sp.
b. Post emergence Rhizoctonia solani
c. Top damping off Fusarium monoliforme

Conditions that favor Damping -off Disease

1. High organic content of the soil
2. High water holding capacity of the soil
3. Dense and deep sowing
4. Overshading
5. Overwatering

FRE - PATHOLOGY 9