Contents

Fixed wing aircraft performance:.......................................................................................................1

The atmosphere and air data measurement........................................................................................1
Airspeed measurement –..................................................................................................................2
Speed of sound –...........................................................................................................................2
Shock wave:...................................................................................................................................2
Aircraft force system and equation of motion...................................................................................2
Cruising performance........................................................................................................................3
Climb and descent performance........................................................................................................3
Take-off and landing performance....................................................................................................4
Propulsion..........................................................................................................................................4
9.1 Engine – discussed in 5.3.............................................................................................................5
9.2 Propulsion system design................................................................................................................6
Flight dynamics (RPY) and Flight Control............................................................................................6
Stability and control..............................................................................................................................7

Fixed wing aircraft performance:

o Surveillance aircraft : to maintain high altitude and cover a long distance
o Types of take-off and landing:
▪ STOL – short take-off and landing - must also be able to stop within 1,500 feet
after crossing a 50-foot obstacle on landing
▪ VTOL – vertical take-off and landing – helicopter

▪ CTOL - Conventional take-off and landing. These aircrafts take-off and land
involving the use of a runway. Passenger aircraft
▪ RTOL- reduced take-off and landing

▪ STOVL- short take-off and vertical landing.

o High density altitude –decrease in climb performance
o Performance estimation – design, modification and verification (prediction of the
capabilities of the aircraft)
o Performance is the initial design phase.
o Performance measurement is the testing phase and
o Operational performance covers the certification of the aircraft and the provision of
validated operating data.

o Load factor = no of passenger / no of seats

o Passenger revenue=Revenue passenger kilometres*yield
▪ Revenue passenger kilometres=number of passengers travelling*distance
travelled
o available seats kilometre =number of seats available*distance travelled

The atmosphere and air data measurement

o PV=nRT [p-N/m2 and
▪ R0 Characteristics gas constant (287.05287)- Nm/kg-K]

▪ Universal gas constant (R) is 8.3145 J/mol.

o Cp/Cv=γ (1.4). Cp of air is 1.008 Cv of air is 0.721 kJ/kg-K (specific heat of air at constant
pressure and volume)
o 1 atm or 1.01325 bar or 101325 Pascal(N/m2) = datum atmospheric pressure
o 288.15K= 15.15°C = datum atmospheric temperature
o Nitrogen - 78%, Oxygen- 21%, Argon- 0.9%, -Carbon dioxide-0.03 %.
o Troposphere (15°C to -51°C)- 8km to 18km,
o Stratosphere (-51°C to -15°C), 18km to 50km
o Mesosphere (-143°C) and, 50km to 85km
o Thermosphere (200-2000°C.)- 85 km to 500 km and
o Exosphere -500km to 10000 km
o Secondary flight instrument- sensor and ADD (air data computer)
▪ Transducers: They are the pressure devices used to convert signal in one form of
energy to another energy form. Also called transmitters
▪ ADD measures = airspeed, mach number, temperature and height with the
help of pitot static tube
Dynamic pressure, q=1/2γPM2 = ½ ρv2 pressure mach no and specific heat
o 1 foot =0.3048m 1 knot=1.852 km/hr. 1 nautical mile=1.852km
o relation between pressure and density in an adiabatic air flow is given
by p1/p2=(ρ1/ρ2)γ

Airspeed measurement –

● Ground speed (GS) - the relative movement between the aircraft and the ground.

● True airspeed (TAS) (relative speed of aircraft with respect to the surrounding airflow),

● Calibrated airspeed (CAS) - the indicated air speed corrected for the instrument and
positional errors.
● Indicated airspeed (IAS) - the speed indicated on the airspeed indicator in the cockpit.

Speed of sound –

● Root of γRT i.e. R=287 J/kg-K, γ for air is 1.4.

● speed of sound in terms of pressure and density is given by a= root of γp/ρ where
ρ=1.225kg/m3 – for air
Shock wave:

● normal shock waves

● oblique shock waves

● expanded waves

● Recovery factor: r=Ti−T/Tt−T where T –static temperature, Ti - indicated temperature

and Tt = total temperature

Aircraft force system and equation of motion

● Inertial force: Fa+Fp+Fg=Ft = system forces acting on the aircraft

● α0 (zero lift AOA):

o for symmetric aerofoil is α0=0, Cl= 2πα
o and asymmetric airfoil α0 not =0
o Cambered airfoil α0 is negative
● Lift curve slope= dCl/dα note: for flat plate airfoil it is zero or 2pi per radian

● Stalling angle of attack is the angle at which we get maximum lift. Stalling angle is the
maximum angle at which the aircraft can be maintained in a steady state.
● Drag: CD=CDz+KCL2
o Parasitic drag- form drag and skin friction drag.
o lift-induced drag
o Wave drag.
o Prandtl-Glauert factor is β=root 1−M2 = applicable only in the case of subsonic
flow
o Total drag = pressure + induced drag D=YVee+ZW2/Ve2
● Power = force x velocity – rate of doing work
o Thrust producing engines - turbojet, turbofan, and rocket -propulsive force is
obtained by increasing momentum of the airflow through the engine.
o Power producing engines- get the engine and piston engine
o Net propulsive force FN - is the difference between the stream force entering and
leaving the engine
▪ FN=FG-Dm FN is net propulsive force, FG is gross thrust and Dm is
momentum drag.
▪ FN=ṁ(Vj-V) where FN is net thrust, ṁ is mass flow rate, Vj is exit velocity
and V is inlet velocity.
● Gross thrust (FG ) is the thrust produced at the exit of the nozzle.

● Momentum drag (Dm) Flow due to intake flow

 o Propeller efficiency is η=TV/P where η is propeller efficiency T is thrust and V is
true airspeed and P is shaft power. Also, it is the ratio of thrust power output by
shaft power input
o Propeller advance ratio: J=V/nD where J is propeller advance ratio, V is true
airspeed, n is rotational speed and D is propeller diameter

Cruising performance

● In cruise performance, the aircraft is considered to be a steady, level, straight, symmetric

flight with no acceleration or maneuver.
● Engine thrust= horizontal forces: T cos α=D+Wsin γ(climb angle)

● vertical forces we get the following equation: L+Tsinα=Wcosγ

● Specific endurance (SE)=V/Qf where Qf is fuel mass flow.

● Specific fuel consumption is given by C=Qf/FN where Qf is fuel mass flow and FN is
thrust produced by the aircraft. Unit kg/kW-hr
● Breguet Range expression is given by
o R1 = V/C*L/D* ln ω where V is true airspeed, C is specific fuel consumption, L is
lifted, D is a drag, and ω is fuel ratio. This Breguet Range expression comes in the
cruise method 1.
o Breguet Range expression value is maximum at 1.316 Vmd.

Climb and descent performance

● The safe height of an aircraft for take-off above the airfield is 15000m

● thrust increases with an increase in airspeed and decreases with decrease in a decrease in
airspeed
● The thrust required during the take-off is a function of weight, altitude, and temperature
i.e. WAT.
● aircraft will descend if the propulsive thrust is less than the airframe drags
o by reducing the engine thrust or by increasing airframe drag.
● The flight path can be controlled by the use of elevator control only.

● The climb gradient is decreased by a decrease in nose down pitch. This can be done
alone by elevator control. This is the situation of the airspeed less than the minimum drag
speed. If the aircraft is flying with airspeed greater than minimum drag speed then the
flight path gradient of descent can be increased by increasing airspeed.

Take-off and landing performance

● Aspect Ratio: AS=b2/S or b/c where AS is the aspect ratio, b is wingspan and S is wing
area.
● Minimum unstick speed: the minimum speed at which the aircraft becomes airborne.

● Total landing distance: ground run distance + airborne distance

● Stall speed – speed at which take off is aborted during engine failure

● Ground roll – distance aircraft has to cover in the ground before landing
o Airborne distance – the distance aircraft has to climb to clear the obstacle of 35
ft during take-off. It is also added with the ground roll.
● The height of the obstacle for commercial aircraft -35 ft and military aircraft is 50 ft

● Departure and approach are the sub phases of terminal phase

● Decision height - The height at which approach is aborted when the runway is not
in sight
● Radio altimeter - instrument is used to measure the aircraft’s altitude during the
approach phase

Propulsion
● Propulsive efficiency is defined as the ratio of obtained thrust power to the energy
expended.
● Thrust power = thrust*velocity
● Net thrust is given by gross thrust - the ram drag.
● Afterburner is used to increase Thrust produced by the jet engine. Used in fighter
aircraft for takeoff and combat
9.1 Engine – discussed in 5.3
9.1 Engines: Types of aircraft engines, components of aircraft engines, Brayton cycle and
thermodynamic performance, basics of aerothermodynamics, efficiencies (isentropic,
polytrophic), engine component performance analysis, spacecraft propulsion systems, types
of rocket engines.

● Gas turbine engine – turbo jet, turbo fan, turboprop and turboshaft
● It generates mechanical power.
● High bypass turbofan engine - GE90: designed for B777 and offers thrust rating from
81000 to 115000 lb. They are efficient when aircraft is travelling at 500 to 550 mile per
hr
● RR Trent 800 – it generates the maximum thrust of 95000 lb. It was designed for B777
in 1996
● RR Trent 900: Turbofan engine for Airbus A380
● GE9X: Largest jet engine in the world B777X
● Turboprop: they are operated at a cruise speed of 200 -400mph. They are mostly
produced by Pratt & Whitney
● Turbojet: Concorde is the last aircraft to use the turbojet. It has mach 2
● Turboshaft: They are used for helicopters. They are similar to turboprop
● A choke is a butterfly valve, which controls the volume of air entering into the
venture. A venture is provided to produce low pressure in the throat of the carburettor
● carburettor - mixes fuel and air for internal combustion engines

Bryton cycle: also called Joule cycle

 2 isentropic process (compression/expansion) and 2 isobaric process (heat addition/
heat removal)
 Efficiency is directly proportional to the pressure ratio


Where rp = pressure ratio, Pb/Pa=Pc/Pd
 Regenerator: placed between compressor and heat exchanger – there is no change in
workout but increases the efficiency

 Reheating – increases the network output - decreases efficiency

o If both (regenerator and reheating) are used then efficiency and workout
both increases
 Intercooling- increases the work output – decrease in thermal efficiency
o If both (intercooling and regeneration) used – it does not change the net
output.
 o We also cannot use them in aircraft application because of the weight
increment problem

 Otto – 2 isentropic and 2 isochoric process

o Used in spark ignition


 Diesel - 2 adiabatic, 1 isobaric and 1 isochoric

 Carnot cycle- the most efficient heat engine
 Open gas cycle turbine works on – Joule cycle
 Polytrophic: A process in which no heat is supplied or rejected from the system and
entropy is constant.
o This is the general law for the expression and compression of the gasses.
o In the closed system work done by the system is always pleotropic
 Isothermal process – dQ=-dW (dU=0 temperature is constant)
 Isentropic process – dS=0
 Hyperbolic process is the isothermal process.

9.2 Propulsion system design

9.2 Propulsion system design: Combustion chamber geometry and types, combustion
process, combustion chamber performance and flame stabilization, compressor and turbine
geometry, compressor and turbine staging.

Flight dynamics (RPY) and Flight Control

 Yaw: sideslip angle (also known as AOA of vertical tail- Beta) arises – it is the
angle between the wheel of an aircraft and the direction of an aircraft. It changes
the direction in which it is pointing.
o AOA of wing- Alpha
o AOA of wing and AOA of vertical tail are major source of change in
aerodynamic forces and moments
 Reynolds no. – gives viscosity of flow
 Mach no – compressibility of flow
 Knudsen no- refraction of flow
 Equilibrium roll angle: Zero blank angle, it is also called wings level.
● Slope of pitching moment curve (CMɑ) = (wing lift curve slope) CLɑ *[Xcg-
Xac])
● Tail efficiency = dynamic pressure at wing / dynamic pressure at tail
● Tail AOA = wing AOA – downwash angle
● Location of neutral point = Xcg – moment coefficient slope/lift curve slope
● Static Margin = – (moment coefficient slope/lift curve slope)
● For the rectangular wing, Location of neutral point = chord/4
 ● for longitudinal static stability of the aircraft: the slope of moment
coefficient curve should be less than zero. Hence, slope should be negative.
Negative slope will provide static stability whereas positive slope will result in
statically unstable aircraft

Stability and control

1. Types of stability
a. Dynamic – overall tendency of aircraft, when disturbed to return to its original position.
Dynamic stability accounts for the time required for returning to original equilibrium
position
i. Positive – airplane will return to its position
ii. Negative – airplane will neither return to its position nor continue to change
iii. Neutral – airplane will move away from its position
b. Static – initial tendency of aircraft, when disturbed to return to its original position
c. Inherent – built in characteristics to enable aircraft to be either stable or unstable
i. Longitudinal stability (pitch stability)
1. Axis of rotation – lateral axis
2. It is affected by size and position of Horizontal Stabilizer and position of
CG
3. Position of CG
a. CG too far forward – stall speed increases
b. CG too far aft – stall speed decreases
ii. Lateral stability (Roll stability)
1. Axis of rotation – longitudinal axis
2. It is created through
a. Dihedral; angle at which the wings are slanted upward from
the root to the tip
i. Down going wing: greater AOA, and thus increase
lift
b. Kneel effect – when disturb weight of the aircraft acts like a
pendulum.
c. Sweepback: when one wing is dropped, the lower wing
produces more lift than the raised wing and the original
position is restored
iii. Directional stability (Yaw stability)
1. Axis of rotation – Vertical axis
It is affected by the vertical tail surface (fin and rudder)