Sporty’s Instrument Rating Course

Video Training Study Guide and Review Notes

© 2023 by Sporty’s Academy, Inc. All Rights Reserved

05/2023

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Sporty’s Instrument Rating Course 1
Chapter 1 – Instrument Flying Fundamentals 5
Getting Started with Sporty’s Instrument Rating Course 5
The IFR Flight to Chicago Midway 6
The Path to the Instrument Training 7
Flight Instruments: Attitude and Heading Indicator 8
Instrument Scanning Techniques 9
Air Facts: Glass Cockpit Flying 11
Straight & Level, Climbs & Descents 12
Closer Look: Flight Simulators 14
Instrument Flying In Turbulence 15
Air Facts: Staying Cool Under Fire 16
Turns and Steep Turns 17
Closer Look: Electronic Flight Bags (EFB) 18
Flight Instruments - Altimeter and Airspeed Indicator 19
Partial Panel and Magnetic Compass 20
Closer Look: Instrument Failure 21
IFR Training Resources 22
Chapter 2 – Air Traffic Control and IFR 23
IFR Navigation Charts 23
GPS Navigatin and the Garmin GTN 650 25
Closer Look: ADS-B Transponders 26
VOR Navigation and Airways 27
Clearances And Flight Plans 29
Air Traffic Control and IFR 30
Closer Look: Air Traffic Control Radar 31
Departing the Terminal Area 32
IFR En Route 34
IFR Arrivals 35
IFR Planning Tips 36
ATC Expectations 37
Air Facts: Conquering Cockpit Clutter 38
Chapter 3 – Instrument Approaches 39
Introduction to Instrument Approaches 39
Approach Chart Details 40
ILS Approach Part 1 - Flying the Localizer 41
ILS Approach Part 2 - Flying the Glide Slope 42
Air Facts: ILS Approach Tips 43
RNAV/GPS Approaches 44

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 Air Facts: GPS Approach Tips 45
Unusual Approaches 46
Air Facts: Vectored Approaches 48
Flying VOR Approaches with a Jepp Chart 49
Closer Look: Procedure Turns 51
Holding 52
Circling Approaches 53
Closer Look: Designing Approaches 54
Visual Descent Points and DME 55
Closer Look: Approach Lighting Systems 56
Going To An Alternate 57
Air Facts: What Is The Alternative 58
Chapter 4 – Weather for IFR 59
Checking Weather for an IFR Flight 59
Air Facts: Developing Your Self-Weather Briefing 62
Airframe Icing 64
Air Facts: Ice As A Practical Matter 65
Closer Look: Ice Protection Systems 66
Thunderstorms 67
Convective Forecasts 68
Wind Shear and Microbursts 69
Flying with Datalink Weather 70
Air Facts: Reading The Weather Signs 73
Turbulence 74
Middle Altitude Weather 75
Air Facts: Nighttime Weather 76
Chapter 5 – Advanced IFR 77
Trainer To High Performance 77
Flight Director and HSI 78
IFR Use Of The Autopilot 79
Air Facts: Night IFR 81
Engine Instrumentation 82
Air Facts: Keep It Running 83
Principles of Turbocharging 84
Oxygen Use 85
Pressurization 86
Closer Look: Flight Level Regulations 87
Air Facts: All-Weather Airplane? 88

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Chapter 6 – IFR Flying Techniques 89
Federal Aviation Regulations 89
Air Facts: Check It Out 90
IFR Communications and ATC Reports 91
Air Facts: Radio Pro 92
Lost Communications Procedures 93
The Pilot’s Role In The System 94
Building Margins 95
Air Facts: Flight Plans, Fact & Fiction 97
Below Minimum Weather 98
Air Facts: Talking to Controllers 99
Planning For The Approach 100
Closer Look: FAA vs. Jeppesen 101
Instrument Flight Test 102
Glass Checkride 103

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Chapter 1 – Instrument Flying Fundamentals

Getting Started with Sporty’s Instrument Rating Course

Instrument Rating Chapter 1 – Video Segment 1

Welcome to Sporty's Instrument Rating Course. In this section, we'll cover how to get started
with the course and how to use each of the main features.

Review:

1. Earning an instrument rating will unlock the full potential of your private certificate and
the utility of your airplane
2. You’ll learn how to better control the airplane and work closely with ATC, allowing you to
launch on more trips and climb above the clouds.
3. Sporty's Instrument Rating Course includes lifetime access, and you can access the
training online, on iPhone/iPad, Android devices and on smart TV apps.
4. After launching the course, proceed right to the video training section of course the to
get started.
5. We recommend watching all the videos in order, from start to finish. The online, app and
TV platforms continuously sync your progress, so feel free to switch between them.
6. After completing several of the video training chapters and when you begin to feel
comfortable with the training content, head over to the Test Prep section of the course to
begin studying questions and preparing for the FAA knowledge test.
7. After studying each category group at least once, you can move on to the advanced
study modes and begin taking simulated practice tests. You can take as many practice
tests as you’d like, and your top two scores will always be shown in the progress tracker.
8. As you progress through flight training at the airport, you’ll want to reference the Flight
Maneuvers guide to prepare for the upcoming tasks in each lesson.
9. You’ll find additional study resources in the FAA Handbooks section, and a complete
digital copy of the Federal Aviation Regulations, or FARs.
10. Finally, you’ll want to use the training tools in the Checkride Prep section of the course
towards the end of your training as you prepare for the oral and flight test with an FAA
examiner.

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The IFR Flight to Chicago Midway
Instrument Rating Chapter 1 – Video Segment 2

To get started, we're going to go on an actual IFR trip to show what it's like to fly a
high-performance airplane in challenging weather conditions to a busy airport.

Review:

1. We’ll be flying in a G1000-equipped Piper Malibu from Dayton International Airport to the
busy Chicago Midway Airport, where the IFR weather conditions will require an
instrument approach.
2. The flight preparation on the ground includes thorough weather briefing and filing an IFR
flight plan using a mobile app on an iPad.
3. Every IFR flight requires continuous communications with ATC, and you'll how this works
starting with a call to Clearance Delivery at Dayton International Airport.
4. Much of this flight takes place in the clouds, where relying on the flight instruments to
control the airplane is of utmost importance.
5. The pilots on this flight take advantage of modern technology to help with
decision-making along the way, including datalink weather on the panel and on an iPad.
6. The flight concludes with a landing at Chicago Midway, where an ILS approach is
required to get below the low cloud layer.

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The Path to the Instrument Training
Instrument Rating Chapter 1 – Video Segment 3

After the private pilot certificate, an instrument rating will take you into more new learning than
any other airplane pilot certificate or rating.

Review:

1. As you work toward the instrument rating, you are learning to control the airplane more
precisely, to navigate by GPS and radio aids, to interact with air traffic control, and to
execute instrument approaches.
2. The requirements for an instrument rating are listed in the F-A-R 61.65 and include both
ground and flight instruction.
3. There is a knowledge test which covers regulations, aircraft instruments, radio
navigation, flight planning, en route and approach procedures, and, of course, weather.
4. You must have 50 hours of cross-country flight time as pilot in command, of which 10
hours must be in airplanes for an instrument-airplane rating. A total of 40 hours of actual
or simulated instrument time is required. At least 15 of these instrument hours have to be
instruction from an authorized instructor in the aircraft category--likely airplane--for which
the instrument rating is sought.
5. One cross-country flight, performed under I-F-R, must be 250 nautical miles in length
with an instrument approach at each airport to include three different kinds of
approaches with the use of navigation systems.
6. As you progress through your instrument training, make it a point to reference the FAA
Airman Certification Standards that are included with this course. This lists the subject
matter covered on the knowledge test, and the minimum performance standards for the
oral and flight portions of the instrument practical test.
7. The practical test is structured to resemble an actual flight under instrument flight rules in
instrument conditions.

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Flight Instruments: Attitude and Heading Indicator
Instrument Rating Chapter 1 – Video Segment 4

In this section we will discuss how air driven attitude and heading instruments work by
examining the vacuum and pressure systems.

Review:
1. Vacuum air is used to drive spinning gyros which stabilize the attitude and heading
indicators, which are usually called the vacuum instruments.
2. Air under pressure is pumped, through the nozzles, spinning the rotor like a water wheel
or turbine.
3. The vacuum air is generated by a vacuum pump, which is gear driven by the engine.
4. The system includes a vacuum gauge, which shows the pressure of the air and is an
indication that the system is working properly.
5. Because of accidents, some airplanes are required to have dual pumps and there are
also standby systems available for other airplanes.
6. The air driven gyros for the attitude and heading indicators may take up to 5 minutes to
reach operating speed. Set the heading indicator to the compass heading before
taxiing.
7. In flight, precession of not more than 3 degrees in 15 minutes is considered normal for
the heading indicator.
8. If the horizon bar is not level during straight taxiing, or tilts more than 5 degrees while
making taxi turns, the attitude indicator is not reliable.
9. Many glass cockpit systems don’t include a vacuum pump, but instead rely on an
electronic Attitude and Heading Reference System (AHRS) to provide pitch and bank
information to the electronic flight instruments.

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Instrument Scanning Techniques
Instrument Rating Chapter 1 – Video Segment 5

In this section we will consider the fundamental instrument scanning skills you must develop as
you become an instrument pilot.

Review:

1. The primary instrument scanning skills are instrument scan, instrument interpretation,
and airplane control.
2. Most analog instrument panels are arranged in the standard "T" pattern.
3. The airspeed indicator is on the top left where you can see it without diverting your scan
from the runway during takeoff and landing. The attitude indicator is in the center, in
keeping with its being the center of attention. The right top of the T is the altimeter and
the vertical leg of the T is the heading indicator. The turn indicator or coordinator and the
vertical speed indicator fill in the blanks on the left and right sides.
4. Glass cockpit systems use similar organization and representation methods for the
instruments on the Primary Flight Display or P-F-D. The attitude indicator is full screen
across instrument, and Airspeed and altitude are represented by "tapes" with a digital
readout of the actual value. The airspeed is to the left and the altitude is to the right, just
as would be found in the normal T-pattern. The slip-skid indicator, the ball from the turn
indicator, is represented by a rectangle or trapezoid under a triangle at the top of the
attitude indicator. Heading indications may be given by a round H-S-I or an arc below the
attitude indicator.
5. An effective scan is looking at the right instrument or instruments at the right time.
Instrument flying substitutes the attitude indicator for the natural horizon.
6. Regardless of the references used, the four fundamentals of flight--straight and level,
climbs, descents, and turns--are all done the same way. All maneuvers involve
controlling pitch, bank, and power. The only difference between instrument and visual
flying is the horizon used. Instrument flying substitutes the attitude indicator for the
natural horizon.
7. The attitude indicator is not a performance instrument, it provides you with a direct
picture of the pitch and bank attitude. Other instruments must be scanned to determine
the performance resulting from the attitude shown.
8. As you begin instrument flying, the usual tendency is to scan too rapidly, looking at the
instruments without knowing exactly what you are looking for.
9. There are a number of scan errors you should be aware of. The first of these is omission
of an instrument or instruments.
10. Emphasizing one instrument is another error that is closely related to omitting an
instrument. The difference is you do not omit an instrument but rely too much on another
instrument.

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11. Fixation, or staring at one instrument, is also a common error. Fixation is most apt to
happen as you approach an altitude during a climb or descent or a heading during a
turn.

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Air Facts: Glass Cockpit Flying
Instrument Rating Chapter 1 – Video Segment 6

Glass cockpit flight instrument systems are becoming more and more common in today’s
airplanes and replace the 6 traditional round flight instruments.

Review:

1. Unlike traditional cockpits, which rely on vacuum-powered instruments to display attitude

and heading, glass cockpits use solid state sensors.
2. These Attitude Heading Reference Systems (AHRS) drive the attitude displays are much
more reliable than mechanical vacuum pumps, and the heading indicator does not
require constant resetting.
3. There are some new challenges when flying with glass cockpits - first, there isn’t a lot of
“glance value” on an integrated glass cockpit. You’ll need to pause and read the exact
numbers on the airspeed and altitude tapes.
4. Set the bugs on the primary flight display whenever possible. Most glass cockpits have
knobs that allow the pilot to set bugs for the altitude and heading, and some even have
one for the airspeed.
5. Get to know how the trend lines work. These are usually magenta lines next to the tapes
on the primary flight display, showing what the airspeed or altitude will be six seconds in
the future.
6. Finally, learn the most common profiles for the airplane you fly - you’ll spend less time
chasing tapes and adjusting power.
7. Glass cockpits can vary significantly between manufacturers and even models, so you’ll
want to spend some time reading the manual for the system you fly.
8. Many newer options replace a single instrument with a digital display. These hybrid
glass-steam cockpits are more affordable than complete cockpits and more reliable than
vacuum pumps, but it’s critical you understand which instruments are driven by which
sensors.

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Straight & Level, Climbs & Descents
Instrument Rating Chapter 1 – Video Segment 7

In this section we will explain how to fly on instruments during straight-and-level, climbs, and
descents.

Review:
1. Flight instruments can be grouped instruments into a pitch, bank, or power category.
2. Starting at the top left of the T, the airspeed indicator goes into both the pitch and power
columns. The attitude indicator is equally at home in the pitch and bank columns. You've
probably already put the altimeter in the pitch column. Continuing clockwise, the vertical
speed indicator completes the pitch instruments.
3. The heading indicator, turn coordinator, or turn needle, and the ball or slip-skid indicator,
complete the lineup in the bank column.
4. Starting at the top left of the T, the airspeed indicator goes into both the pitch and power
columns. The attitude indicator is equally at home in the pitch and bank columns. You've
probably already put the altimeter in the pitch column. Continuing clockwise, the vertical
speed indicator completes the pitch instruments.
5. The instrument pilot's definition of straight and level is maintaining constant altitude,
heading, and for some phases of flight, a new addition, a constant airspeed. As the
complete instrument pilot, you should be able to maintain heading, altitude, and airspeed
at speeds ranging from cruise to approach.
6. While the attitude indicator gives us a direct picture of the pitch attitude of the airplane,
let's look at the clues the indirect instruments can provide. These indirect instruments
are the airspeed and vertical speed indicators and the altimeter.
7. Pitch corrections for level flight should be made using the attitude indicator and limited to
half, full, and one and one half bar widths corrections.
8. A one half bar width pitch change is used for altitude corrections of 100 feet or less. For
corrections of more than 100 feet, use a full bar width pitch change initially, changing to a
half bar width when the remaining altitude correction is less than 100 feet.
9. For heading corrections of 5 degrees or less, keep the wings level and use rudder
pressure to change the heading.
10. Intentional airspeed changes in level flight are normally accomplished by changing the
power. Adjust the power to the setting that you previously determined will produce the
desired airspeed. Adjust the pitch attitude to maintain altitude as the airspeed changes.
11. For a constant rate climb, increase the power to the approximate setting required for the
desired rate of climb and simultaneously raise the nose to the approximate pitch attitude
needed for that climb rate.
12. Leveling off from a climb, don't reduce power as soon as the pitch attitude is in level
flight. Instead, maintain climb power until the airspeed is within 5 knots of cruise before
reducing power.

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13. When entering a descent at an airspeed less than cruise, reduce power to the
predetermined setting and slow the airplane in level flight. As the airspeed approaches
the descent speed, lower the nose to the predetermined attitude.
14. In order to level off from a descent, you must start your level off before reaching your
desired altitude. To do this, lead the level off by about ten percent of the rate of descent.

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Closer Look: Flight Simulators
Instrument Rating Chapter 1 – Video Segment 8

In this section we will consider “flying” in a flight simulator or aviation training device in order to
earn some of your instrument time.

Review:

1. Twenty of the required forty hours of actual or simulated instrument time may be
instrument instruction by an authorized instructor in an instrument ground trainer
acceptable to the administrator of the FAA.
2. Ground trainers have the advantage of allowing you to practice the difficult parts of the
flight without spending a lot of time on the easy parts.
3. You can fly many more approaches in the same time period in a flight simulator
compared to the airplane, with all of them being different types, or at least the same
approach with different wind conditions.
4. In the airplane, the operational difficulty level of dealing with A-T-C is a function of factors
which are beyond the instructor’s control. In the trainer, the instructor can control the
ATC complexity level so as to make it fun while still keeping a light sweat on your
forehead.
5. For maximum benefit, fly the trainer with the same thought and preparation that you
would fly your airplane in the real world. Don’t approach the trainer with the attitude of,
oh well if I fail or make an error, there will be no serious consequences.

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Instrument Flying In Turbulence
Instrument Rating Chapter 1 – Video Segment 9

In this section we will consider some of the difficulties in flying instruments in turbulent
conditions.

Review:

1. The attitude indicator is quite important when instrument flying in turbulence - the only
instrument that gives a direct indication of bank.
2. An airplane is not so stable in roll. It’s of primary importance to maintain roll control of the
airplane regardless of how turbulent the air becomes.
3. How much should you let the airspeed vary before adjusting power? Well, there is no set
amount but on the average piston-engine single or twin, you might start thinking of a
power correction when the airspeed is 10 knots off normal cruise and do something
about it when 15 knots off.
4. As far as bank goes, excursions that could take the bank beyond a standard rate turn
must be addressed on an immediate basis.
5. If turbulence is enthusiastic and you are making a lot of pitch changes to maintain
altitude, the airplane will be out of trim much of the time. Leave the airplane trimmed for
cruise flight and use control pressures to correct the pitch.
6. If the air is rough enough to cause you to have difficulty maintaining altitude within 100
feet you can request a block altitude from air traffic control. This will let you, for example,
maintain a block from 5,000 to 6,000 feet.
7. The ultimate in turbulence flying comes in or near a thunderstorm. The power should be
set on a value that would yield maneuvering speed, or slower, in normal conditions and
the altitude should be allowed to vary as the airplane goes up and down with the
currents within the storm. Control movements should be as gentle as possible to avoid
adding to the turbulence-induced stresses.
8. Whenever turbulence is suspected, everything in the cabin should be secured. Seat and
shoulder belts should be pulled tight. You don't want to be beaned by a thermos full of
coffee.
9. There is usually turbulence when there is wind shear and there is wind shear close to the
ground in many of the conditions that cause instrument weather. On approach, the
critical event would be a decrease in airspeed and increase in descent rate which would
require an immediate application of power and a pitch change.

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Air Facts: Staying Cool Under Fire
Instrument Rating Chapter 1 – Video Segment 10

Flying in turbulence presents new challenges when flying in IFR conditions solely by the
instruments. This section covers practical tips to help with smoother flying.

Review:

1. The best way to get to used to turbulence is to fly simulated instruments with a safety
pilot on windy days – not enough wind to make ground handling a problem, but enough
to make the air turbulent.
2. Another thing you really should do in training is fly through some little cumulus clouds on
an IFR flight plan with your instructor.
3. The best pilot in turbulence is the pilot who is not surprised by it, and who has had
experience flying in it. But it’s also the pilot who approaches instrument flying with an
attitude you might call “actively passive.”
4. When flying this way, the airplane almost ricochets around within some parameters.
Maybe it is up 50 feet, down 50 feet, left a few degrees, right a few degrees – all on a
continuous basis.
5. On approaches, especially, you can make points by being as smooth as possible. If you
know the power settings and proper pitch attitudes you won't likely be jockeying the
throttle and making attitude changes except to compensate for wind shear.
6. At the final approach fix inbound, don't even try to fly to the needles. Just set up the
correct rate of descent for your speed and fly the inbound heading with an estimated drift
correction.

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Turns and Steep Turns
Instrument Rating Chapter 1 – Video Segment 11

In this section we will discuss turns, both standard rate and steep, while flying in reference to
instruments only.

Review:

1. The usual instrument turn for propeller airplanes is the standard rate turn which changes
the airplane heading at the rate of 3 degrees per second.
2. When flying full panel, the attitude indicator is used to establish the approximate bank
angle. You can estimate within several degrees of the angle, by dividing the true
airspeed in knots by 10 and then adding 7 to the result.
3. After establishing the approximate bank using the attitude indicator, the turn indicator is
used to fine tune the standard rate turn.
4. In most instrument flying, the bank angle used is the lesser of that for a standard rate or
30 degrees. If you are fortunate enough to have a flight director, the maximum bank it
will command is usually 25 degrees.
5. Forty-five degree bank steep turns are not normally used in instrument flying. They are,
however, a proficiency maneuver, which will enable you to react confidently and quickly
to unusual flight attitudes.
6. As bank and drag increase during a steep turn, power is required to maintain constant
altitude at cruise airspeed increases.

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Closer Look: Electronic Flight Bags (EFB)
Instrument Rating Chapter 1 – Video Segment 12

Electronic Flight Bags, which are typically in the form of consumer tablets like an iPad or
Android device, can help you plan cross-country flights, provide preflight weather briefings,
display electronic approach charts, show G-P-S moving maps and much more.

Review:

1. Even with these advances in mobile computing technology, there’s a good chance your
flight instructor will still teach you how to use paper charts, leaving your tablet on the
sidelines at least for a few lessons.
2. FAR 91.21 requires that you verify your EFB (or any electronic device for that matter) will
not cause interference with the navigation or communications systems installed on the
aircraft.
3. You’ll need to follow the guidance of Advisory Circular AC 91-78, which says two
important things: it’s ok to use an EFB in lieu of paper charts provided the application
you use displays current data, and it recommends (but does not require) bringing a
backup source of data (paper charts or 2nd EFB).
4. Beyond the legalities, another important consideration is how to secure the tablet in a
way that allows for easy operation during all phases of flight, and to make sure it doesn’t
fall out of reach when flying through rough air. The two most common forms are a
kneeboard or aircraft mounting fixture.
5. If you’re depending on a tablet as a primary reference for charts, plus situational
awareness, weather, and so much more, you need to be proficient with it.
6. A tablet is only a legal replacement for charts as long as the aviation data in the app is
current, so get in the habit of updating the databases every month.
7. Finally, resist the urge to focus too much on your tablet and let it become a distraction,
no matter how impressive its capabilities are.

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Flight Instruments - Altimeter and Airspeed Indicator
Instrument Rating Chapter 1 – Video Segment 13

In this section, let’s take a look at the altimeter and airspeed indicator.

Review:

1. When the altimeter is set to the current altimeter setting, note the variation between
airport elevation and indicated altitude. If the variation is plus or minus 75 feet or more
the altimeter should be checked.
2. An altimeter is a barometer. It interprets lower pressure as an increase in altitude and
higher pressure as a decrease in altitude.
3. Temperature also has an effect on indicated altitude. Temperatures higher than standard,
will cause the altimeter to indicate a lower altitude than actual, and vice versa.
4. A memory aid helps. When flying from high to low pressure or temperature, look out
below. The airplane will be lower than the altimeter indicates.
5. Nonstandard temperature has the same effect on all aircraft in the area. Vertical
separation is maintained even though true altitude may be different than indicated.
6. The airspeed indicator is the only instrument which depends on both pitot and static
pressure, while the altimeter and vertical speed indicator only use static pressure.
7. Use the alternate static source, either an installed system or an emergency system
which is activated by breaking the glass on the vertical speed indicator.
8. If the ram air and pitot drains are blocked, the airspeed indicator acts like an altimeter
(when climbing the airspeed indication will increase).
9. Before takeoff, the vertical speed indicator should read zero.

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Partial Panel and Magnetic Compass
Instrument Rating Chapter 1 – Video Segment 14

In this section we will discuss partial panel instrument flight. It can be described as controlling
the airplane by reference to a limited number of flight instruments. These instruments often
consist of the airspeed and turn and slip indicators as well as the clock and magnetic compass.

Review:

1. Instrument failure could be caused by vacuum, electrical, or pitot-static source failure.

2. If your airplane is equipped with digital instruments, an electrical failure may cause you
to rely on the standby analog instruments – airspeed indicator, attitude indicator, and
altimeter.
3. For Primary Flight Display failures, many glass equipped airplanes are capable of
displaying the full instrument panel on an alternate display.
4. The attitude indicator is usually the first instrument to slowly show a pump failure, usually
by incorrect pitch indications.
5. When a failure happens in instrument conditions, ask ATC for help.
6. Avoid the tendency to over control the airplane in partial panel conditions.
7. In the event of an actual failure, the track indication on your GPS can provide a backup.

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Closer Look: Instrument Failure
Instrument Rating Chapter 1 – Video Segment 15

In this section, let’s take a look at instrument failure.

Review:

1. An unusual attitude is any attitude not normally required for instrument flight. This can
result from turbulence, disorientation, confusion, or failure of an instrument or
instruments.
2. Direction of instrument indication, abnormal indications, or excessive rate of movement,
call for increasing the cross-check to verify whether it's really an unusual attitude, or an
instrument malfunction.
3. Up until now, you have been taught to have faith in your instruments. This is still true, but
if the instruments do not agree, one or more of them must be wrong.
4. The pitot system is one of the inputs for the airspeed indicator. The airspeed indicator,
altimeter, and vertical speed indicator use the static source.
5. Vacuum pressure operates the gyros for the attitude and heading indicators. The turn
indicator gyro is driven electrically.
6. If all instruments show straight-and-level flight, and the airspeed indicator is decreasing,
then the airspeed indicator has failed, or the pitot system has become blocked.
7. By singling out the one instrument that does not agree with the others, we can identify
the failed instrument.
8. If more than one instrument has failed, it may be a bit more difficult to find the problem
ones. Before acting on the indication of one instrument, look at the other instruments.
9. An airplane doesn't usually go instantly from stable flight to wildly diverging flight. If the
airplane was in a normal pitch and bank attitude a moment ago, chances are that it
hasn't diverged very far from that attitude.

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IFR Training Resources
Instrument Rating Chapter 1 – Video Segment 16

In this section we’ll introduce IFR navigaton charts and the FAA training handbooks you'll need
to study during your instrument training.

Review:

1. The IFR en route chart is the instrument pilot’s equivalent of a Sectional Chart. It’s used
for en route planning and depicts airports and airways. These are available as both
printed large foldable maps and as a moving map layer in aviation apps.
2. The Terminal Procedures Publication, commonly referred to as Approach Plates, is a
large collection of individual charts and procedures designed specifically for an airport.
3. Like with VFR sectionals, both the en route and terminal charts are updated every 56
days.
4. The Instrument Flying Handbook covers everything from IFR rules, to instrument flying
techniques, to instrument approaches.
5. The Instrument Procedures Handbook goes into much more detail on departure, en
route, arrival and instrument approach procedures.
6. FAR Part 61 covers topics like the requirements to earn an instrument rating, recent
experience requirements and logging of flight time.
7. FAR Part 91 is focused on general operating rules and includes things like equipment,
flight planning and inspection requirements.
8. To learn more about Air Traffic Control, communications and instrument procedures,
check out the Aeronautical Information Manual or AIM. The AIM is designed to provide
pilots with basic flight information and ATC procedures required to fly in the national
airspace system of the United States, and a lot of it was written specifically for
instrument pilots.

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Chapter 2 – Air Traffic Control and IFR

IFR Navigation Charts

Instrument Rating Chapter 2 – Video Segment 1

The bulk of your IFR flight will be the en-route phase which requires careful consideration before
departure. During your preflight planning, you’ll want to spend some time determining the best
route using VORs, airways, or GPS direct. There are a variety of FAA and third-party chart
options available to help plan an IFR flight.

Review:
1. The FAA publishes an IFR/VFR planning chart for flights below 18,000 feet, and
Jeppesen publishes IFR planning charts for both low and high altitude flight. Among
other things, the charts show radio aids to navigation, airways, mileages on airways, and
special use airspace.
2. Low altitude en route charts are the primary reference from the surface up to but 18,000'
MSL and provide navigation information for IFR flights on victor airways and RNAV
routes.
3. The IFR high altitude en route chart is useful for flights above 18,000’. This chart depicts
both Jet Airways based on VORs, and RNAV Q-Routes, both of which extend from flight
level 180 up to flight level 450.
4. The FAA issues a new set of en route charts every 56 days, in both paper and digital
formats. Each chart features a legend, which is included in most mobile applications for
reference.
5. Many aviation mobile apps also include data-driven aeronautical charts with IFR
navigation features depicted, which scale up or down automatically based on the zoom
level. These are great for in-flight use when flying with a tablet, allowing you to interact
with each VOR, airport or intersection by tapping on the map.
6. MEAs meets obstacle clearance requirements, assures a satisfactory navigation signal,
and the identification of fixes on the airway.
7. In addition to obstacle clearance, the MOCA assures reception of satisfactory navigation
signals when you are within 22 nautical miles of the navigational aid.
8. Over non mountainous terrain, the MOCA is at least 1,000 feet above the highest
obstruction within 4 miles of the centerline of the airway. Over designated mountainous
terrain, the clearance is increased to 2,000 feet for the same 4 nautical mile primary area
each side of the airway centerline.
9. The MOCA can be used as a minimum IFR altitude when within 22 miles of the station if
you are using VOR for navigation.
10. When flying direct between two airports or other waypoints, you should refer to the Off
Route Obstruction Clearance Altitude, called OROCA. The OROCA provides the same

23
 obstacle clearances as a MOCA, but does not guarantee NAV signal reception, radar
coverage, or communications with ATC.
11. The note, MEA GAP, indicates that there is a gap in navigation signal coverage at the
MEA. There may be a signal, but it doesn't meet the standards for an airway.
12. The length of an MEA gap is severely limited. Practically, the message is to fly the
heading which kept you on the airway until you again receive a navigation signal.
13. On a straight airway, changeover of navigation is usually made at the midpoint.
14. If a straight airway changeover point is somewhere other than the midpoint, a
changeover point is depicted as a zig zag with mileage numbers on the top and bottom.
15. Blue and green airports have a published instrument approach available for civilian
aircraft.
16. Brown airports are charted for emergencies, they don’t have a published approach but
do have runways at least 3,000 feet long.
17. Low altitude IFR RNAV routes are printed in blue and identified by the letter “T” and a
three digit number. Mileages, GPS MEAs, and magnetic reference bearings are
included. An IFR approved GPS is required to fly these RNAV routes.
18. Take the time to become acquainted with the en route charts. Flying IFR is not the time
to be studying charts and looking up information in the legend.

24
GPS Navigatin and the Garmin GTN 650
Instrument Rating Chapter 2 – Video Segment 2

In this section we’ll take a look at GPS and how to use it for IFR navigation.

Review:

1. Global Positioning System, GPS, and the Wide Area Augmentation System, WAAS, are
a part of the Global Navigation Satellite System also known as GNSS.
2. WAAS GPS navigators may be the sole IFR navigation source, but a backup is still a
good idea.
3. IFR-approved non-WAAS GPS receivers require that you have an alternate form of
navigation installed, like a VOR receiver.
4. WAAS uses two additional geostationary satellites to improve the accuracy of GPS.
WAAS augmentation allows more precise position locations in both the horizontal and
vertical planes.
5. The FARs require you to have another form of navigation available to fly an instrument
approach at the filed alternate airport if the unit is a non-WAAS GPS (e.g. VOR
approach).
6. When flying direct, use charted fixes – VORs, intersections, NDBs, or airports – to
identify the points between which you will be flying direct.
7. Most of the airports in the U.S. have one or more GPS approaches. These often allow
lower minimums than other nonprecision approaches.
8. For en route and terminal use you do not have to have a current database but you do
have to ascertain that the waypoints you use in the flight plan are current. A current
database is required to fly GPS approaches.
9. The navigator will not allow an approach if a feature called Random Autonomous
Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) is not operating. RAIM needs a minimum of five satellites in
view, or, four and a barometric altimeter input from an altitude encoder.
10. Because navigators contain so much information and capability, you do have to learn to
use each unit. You should read the GPS manual and utilize available training software.
Practice is the key here.
11. One of the easiest functions to use is the DIRECT function. Press the button and it’ll ask
you where you would like to go. Follow your GPS instructions from there.
12. Steering information for the navigator is displayed on the Default Navigation screen and,
on an installation with navigational approval, it is also displayed on the airplane’s CDI,
HSI, or PFD.

25
Closer Look: ADS-B Transponders
Instrument Rating Chapter 2 – Video Segment 3

In this section we investigate the transponder. It’s a simple device to use. All you have to do is
set in the number which is assigned by ATC for identification purposes.

Review:

1. The latest advancement is Automatic Dependent Surveillance Broadcast, or ADS-B. This

transponder type sends your aircraft GPS position data, altitude, track and speed.
2. As of January 1, 2020, it is required inside Class A, B, and C airspace, as well as within
30 nautical miles of Class B and the space above all Class C areas. The equipment is
also required at or above 10,000 feet MSL, excluding the airspace within 2,500 feet
above ground level.
3. You should leave your transponder on while taxiing, since larger airports use it to track
your location on the runways and taxiways to prevent runway incursions.
4. Transponders and altitude reporting equipment must have been tested by a certified
repair station within the preceding twenty-four calendar months.
5. If you have an ADS-B In receiver, either portable or installed in the panel, you can view
in-flight radar, text weather reports, and nearby traffic.
6. Traffic Collision Avoidance Systems (TCAS) are installed on all airliners and most
corporate aircraft and actively interrogate the transponders on nearby aircraft -
regardless of radar coverage or ADS-B ground stations - and display the relative position
and altitude of traffic.

26
VOR Navigation and Airways
Instrument Rating Chapter 2 – Video Segment 4

In this section we’ll learn how to define and how to navigate the different airways established in the
United States.

Review:
1. ATS routes or air traffic services routes is a generic term that includes the 4 different sets
of airways in the United States, as well as arrival and departure routes.
2. Victor or federal airways go from 1200 feet AGL up to but not including 18,000 feet MSL.
Practically the highest assigned altitude available on victor airways is 17,000 feet.
3. High altitude airways, called Jet Routes, start at 18,000 feet MSL and extend up to and
include flight level 450. Aircraft above flight level 450 navigate by point to point or direct
navigation.
4. Published RNAV routes are found on both the high and low altitude charts. They are
printed in blue with magnetic reference bearings.
5. Q-routes are found on the high-altitude charts. T-routes are low altitude RNAV routes
generally established for transition around busy terminal airspace.
6. Airways extend to four nautical miles on either side of the centerline. The airspace is
protected with obstacle clearance, 1,000 feet in non-mountainous areas and 2,000 feet
in designated mountainous areas.
7. V-O-R indicators show angular deviation. From center, a full scale deflection of the C-D-I
needle equals 10 degrees off the selected course.
8. When navigating with G-P-S, the deviation is normally linear. Each dot off CDI deflection
equals one mile off course with sensitivity increaseing in the terminal area and for
approaches.
9. The FAA provides a standard service volume range for each class of VOR. The
standard service volume is a planning range for flights between VORs when not flying on
a published airway.
10. Published routes may have segments beyond the standard service volume for a VOR
but these will have been flight checked and approved by the FAA.
11. To ensure reliable navigation coverage in the event that GPS becomes unavailable and
you need to use VOR for navigation, the FAA has added two new VOR classifications:
VOR Low and VOR High.
12. VORs used for airways have approximately the same power output but they are classed
as low and high [Link] usable range depends on aircraft altitude, class of VOR,
terrain conditions, and other factors.
13. The third class of VOR is called a terminal VOR and these are primarily used for
instrument approaches. Both Jeppesen and FAA low altitude en route charts identify the
terminal VORs.

27
14. A VOR receiver used under IFR must have been operationally checked and found to be
within limits within the preceding 30 days.
15. Remember that 6 degrees is the allowable tolerance only for VOR checks made when
airborne over a checkpoint. All other receiver checks, including the VOT and dual
receiver checks in the air, have a tolerance of 4 degrees.

28
Clearances And Flight Plans
Instrument Rating Chapter 2 – Video Segment 5

In this section, let’s take a look at clearances and flight plans.

Review:
1. To reduce frequency congestion, the controller will use the words cleared as filed if the
route is the same as that filed on the flight plan. The AIM calls this the abbreviated
clearance.
2. Along with the words cleared as filed the controller will always say the name of the
destination airport, the altitude to maintain, and, if a SID is assigned, the name of the
SID and transition if appropriate.
3. At an airport without an operating control tower, if there is communication with ATC, the
clearance is given over the radio. Without communication it’s received over the
telephone.
4. Because airspace is reserved for the departure aircraft, pilots who do not depart by void
time must notify ATC as soon as possible, but not more than 30 minutes after void time.
5. An IFR clearance which states VFR-on-top in lieu of an assigned altitude is essentially a
clearance to conduct the cruise portion of the flight in visual meteorological conditions.
6. For the pilot, VFR-on-top allows choice of altitude for the most favorable wind, least
turbulence, or weather avoidance.
7. A clearance variation sometimes used at the arrival end of the IFR flight is the cruise
clearance. This is used for relatively short flights in uncongested airspace. The cruise
clearance is initiated when the controller clears the aircraft to cruise an altitude.
8. Preflight planning requires the pilot to become familiar with all available information
concerning the flight, including runway lengths and alternate airports.
9. An important part of the information available is in the form of notices to airmen,
NOTAMs.
10. An IFR flight plan and an ATC clearance are required to enter controlled airspace when
weather conditions are less than required for VFR.
11. A flight plan and clearance are not required to fly under instrument flight rules or
instrument weather conditions in Class G airspace.
12. There is one variation of an IFR flight plan called the composite flight plan. One part of
the trip is IFR and the other VFR.\
13. The pilot is responsible for closing the VFR flight plan and as always, the aircraft must
remain in VFR conditions until the IFR clearance is received.

29
Air Traffic Control and IFR
Instrument Rating Chapter 2 – Video Segment 6

Let’s look at the beginnings of federal regulations and how traffic was controlled. Today, the air
traffic service is responsible for developing plans, establishing standards, and implementing air
traffic control systems.

Review:
1. The two ATC functions of most interest to instrument pilots are preflight and in-flight
services, and aircraft separation during flight in controlled airspace.
2. A pilot has the sole responsibility to see and avoid other aircraft, terrain, and obstructions
when weather permits – with ATC or not.
3. Radar has been the primary technology used to detect and monitor the location of air
traffic. Another system called Automatic Dependent Surveillance Broadcast, or ADS-B
relies on GPS position data from transponders in aircraft to ground-stations and air traffic
control facilities.
4. From flight levels 290 through 410, special aircraft and operator authorization is required
to cruise in these altitudes. This authorization is called reduced vertical separation
minimum, RVSM.
5. Vertical separation depends on your altitude. It increases from 1,000 feet to 2,000 feet
above flight level 410.
6. Non radar altitude changes can require as much as ten minutes separation to climb or
descend an aircraft through the cruise altitude of another aircraft.
7. You must file an IFR flight plan and receive an ATC clearance prior to entering controlled
airspace when the weather is less than VFR.
8. Aircraft are flown IFR in Class G airspace without a flight plan or a clearance. All the
other regulatory and procedural requirements for conducting an IFR flight must be
complied with.
9. IFR departures and arrivals for airports, not within approach control airspace, are
controlled by the center. If there is no operating control tower on the field, ATC will not
automatically close your flight plan, you must.
10. Centers are divided into sectors, the working elements of a center. Each sector has
specific geographic boundaries and is under the control of a team of controllers.

30
Closer Look: Air Traffic Control Radar
Instrument Rating Chapter 2 – Video Segment 7

As a pilot you aren't expected to know the technical details of air traffic control technology, but
there are benefits to understanding the other side of the pilot-ATC relationship.

Review:

1. As you fly along in the company of an air traffic controller, your airplane is a data block
on his screen. This basically tells who you are, how high you're flying, your groundspeed
and your destination.
2. ADS-B is replacing ground-based radar as the main way for ATC to identify and separate
traffic, and it requires each aircraft to be equipped with an ADS-B Out transponder.
3. These ADS-B transmissions are received by a network of over 700 ground stations, then
relayed to a controller’s screen.
4. The system will also provided an automated alert to get the controller’s attention if
there’s a collision threat between two aircraft.
5. The controller’s radar will also paint precipitation, so don’t hesitate to ask his opinion if
you’re unsure about potential weather ahead. Just remember that ATC radar is designed
to see airplanes, not weather, so it isn’t as detailed as the NEXRAD radar you’re used to
seeing online.
6. A computer is always monitoring air traffic and will alert ATC about the loss of legal
separation, 1,000 feet and 5 miles for low altitude en-route traffic between airplanes.
7. The controller has a system that can project flight paths and anticipate future conflicts. If
there's a potential conflict, then possible solutions can go into the computer to see
whether or not they will solve the potential conflict.
8. If a radar controller in a busy area gives you a round-about IFR routing and the weather
is excellent, you might ask about a VFR clearance through the Class B or C airspace.

31
Departing the Terminal Area
Instrument Rating Chapter 2 – Video Segment 8

In this section we’ll look at the various departure procedures that are in place to help you
transition from the runway to the IFR en route system.

Review:

1. A Standard Instrument Departure (SID) is a graphic departure procedure designed by

ATC to standardize traffic flow, ensure aircraft separation and provide obstacle clearance
from the terminal area to the en route environment.
2. You can find SIDs in your favorite mobile app in the same location as the instrument
approach charts. The more complex procedures will be displayed on two separate
pages, with the first showing a graphic of the routing, and the second showing a text
description.
3. The chart will provide both a departure control frequency and top altitude to climb to
during the procedure – ATC may omit these when issuing your IFR clearance to save
time.
4. If you don't wish to use standard instrument departures, you should note this in the
remarks section of your flight plan.
5. Another type of instrument departure is the ODP, or obstacle departure procedure.
Textual ODPs are located in the Takeoff Minimums section in mobile apps, while graphic
ODPs are grouped in with the SIDs, and usually include the word “Obstacle” in the title to
differentiate them from traditional SIDs.
6. An inverse "T" printed in the notes section of FAA approach charts indicates that the
airport has a published obstacle departure procedure, and/or non-standard takeoff
minimums.
7. The takeoff minimums do not apply to Part 91, not for hire operations, but it is a good
idea to abide by them anyway, especially in unfamiliar terrain.
8. The standard takeoff minimums that apply to "for hire" operations are 1 statute mile if an
airplane has 1 or 2 engines and one half mile for airplanes with 3 or more engines.
9. Obstacle clearance for a departure is based on the aircraft climbing at least 200 feet per
nautical mile and climbing to 400 feet above the departure runway elevation before
turning unless otherwise specified in a departure procedure.
10. There is a chart in the Digital Terminal Procedures Supplement that will convert required
climb gradient and groundspeed to a required rate of climb, which is the more
meaningful value in the airplane.
11. If the controller issues a “Climb via the SID” clearance, you would be expected to comply
with all the altitude restrictions on the procedure and then level off at the top altitude
noted on the chart.

32
12. The main route of a graphical SID is depicted with a thick black line, while the transition
routes are shown with a thin black line.
13. You can find SIDs in your favorite mobile app in the same location as the instrument
approach charts. The more complex procedures will be displayed on two separate
pages, with the first showing a graphic of the routing, and the second showing a text
description.

33
IFR En Route
Instrument Rating Chapter 2 – Video Segment 9

In this section we’ll investigate the en route portion of IFR flying. To get the most out of the
system, you need to understand the constraints of the en route air traffic control system as well
as the protection that's built into the system.

Review:

1. The altitude that you filed may not be available in busy areas. The minimum en route
altitudes, MEAs, are often low in flat country. The minimum obstruction clearance
altitudes, MOCAs, are even lower.
2. The air route traffic control centers handle the rest of the airspace with a general division
between low and high altitude control sectors at flight level 230, or 23,000 feet pressure
altitude.
3. When en route, you have to adapt to terminal airspace requirements. Even if you get a
clearance through the terminal area, there will likely be vectoring to keep you clear of
arrivals and departures.
4. Notify the controller any time you are unable to maintain a climb or descent rate of at
least 500 feet per minute and if your cruising airspeed varies or you experience
communication or navigation failure.
5. If any item of communications, navigational, or approach equipment becomes
inoperative, the controller should be told. In this report the pilot should tell the controller
the degree of impairment and the nature of any assistance desired from air traffic
control.
6. If you have an approved GPS or other RNAV system, you can often ask to fly long direct
legs when en route.
7. You should plan the route of flight so as to avoid active prohibited and restricted airspace
by 3 nautical miles unless permission has been obtained to operate in that airspace.
8. Review VOR operation, especially CDI deflection in various situations. For example, one
degree deflection of the CDI needle 60 miles from the station equals one mile off the
airway centerline.
9. If you find yourself in a situation with the weather closing in on you and an urgent
deviation is needed, don’t be afraid to tell ATC exactly what you need.

34
IFR Arrivals
Instrument Rating Chapter 2 – Video Segment 10

Standard Terminal Arrival Routes (STARs) are used for IFR arrivals into busy airspace, and
generally end at a fix from which you will be vectored to the final approach course.

Review:

1. If you do not wish to fly a STAR, note that fact in the remarks section of your flight plan.
2. Many arrival procedures were created in the days before GPS and relied on VOR and
DME as the primary means for navigation and identifying intersections.
3. Today you’ll see just as many procedures designed to be flown using GPS, which will
include the notation “RNAV” in the title. These incorporate a series of waypoints to fly,
just like an RNAV/GPS instrument approach, and are flown using an IFR-approved GPS
navigator.
4. The architecture of the system is such that a descent gradient of 250 to 350 feet per
nautical mile is expected of arrivals.
5. During the arrival, tune in the ATIS in advance and let the approach controller know you
have the latest information on the initial check-in with them.
6. To further reduce ATC communications during the arrival phase, the controller may issue
a “Descend Via” clearance when flying a STAR. This requires you to comply with the
published procedure’s lateral path, altitude and airspeed restrictions.
7. After accepting a "Descend Via" clearance, you are expected to initiate altitude and
airspeed changes on your own until reaching the lowest altitude published on the
procedure.
8. There are two approaches that are not procedural and are based on a deal between the
pilot and controller. They are the visual approach and contact approach.
9. You must have the airport, or an identified preceding aircraft to follow, in sight, before a
visual approach will be approved.
10. You must be clear of clouds and have a mile flight visibility and a mile visibility reported
at the airport for a contact approach. The airport must have an approved instrument
approach procedure. The pilot is responsible for obstruction clearance during a contact
approach.
11. If you are landing at a controlled airport, the tower will automatically cancel your IFR
flight plan.
12. At nontowered airports you can either cancel with ATC on the radio before landing or on
the ground after landing over a remote frequency or phone number.

35
IFR Planning Tips
Instrument Rating Chapter 2 – Video Segment 11

In this section we’ll take a look at tips to help with IFR route selection, including how to use your
favorite aviation app to choose the best route.

Review:

1. Green dashes around a busy terminal area indicate that an area chart is available.
Because of congestion, complete information is not shown in these areas on the en
route chart. The en route chart has the information essential to fly IFR through the area.
IFR departures and arrivals may need the area chart for more detailed information.
2. For departure you may need a standard instrument departure or SID chart. SIDs are
preplanned and coded departure routes.
3. SIDs make the clearance transaction easier. Instead of clearance delivery describing the
departure, the controller simply says the name of the SID.
4. Many aviation apps display ATC cleared routes commonly issued to other aircraft flying
between the same airports, to help you choose a route that ATC will likely assign to your
flight.
5. You should check the approach charts for the departure airport in case you should have
to return to land, and also to see if there are special departure procedures.
6. The reverse “T” in the remarks section of an approach chart indicates either non
standard take off minimums or special departure procedures. The reverse “A” deals with
using the airport as an alternate.
7. There are no takeoff minimums for aircraft not operated for hire, but this is a case where
legal isn't necessarily smart.
8. While only aircraft operated for hire are required to comply with takeoff minimums, all
aircraft must comply with the departure instructions.

You should check the approach charts for the departure airport in case you should have to
return to land, and also to see if there are special departure procedures.

36
ATC Expectations
Instrument Rating Chapter 2 – Video Segment 12

In this section, let’s take a look at what ATC expects a pilot to know.

Review:

1. ATC expects pilots to monitor ATIS prior to making initial contact and to repeat the code
word name of the ATIS monitored.
2. After giving an IFR clearance, ATC doesn't consider the clearance transaction complete
until the pilot has acknowledged receipt and understanding of the clearance.
3. Pilots are expected to request clarification or an amended clearance if the clearance is
not understood or is unacceptable.
4. Pilots are expected to comply with any instruction upon receipt. When expeditious
compliance is necessary ATC will include the word immediately to impress urgency.
5. Sometimes, the term at pilot’s discretion is included in altitude clearances. This means
the pilot has the option to start climb or descent whenever he or she wishes.
6. If a controller tells you to resume own navigation, that means that any radar vector that
you had been flying is complete, and it is your responsibility to navigate from here on.
7. When airborne, pilots should read back those parts of ATC clearances which contain
altitude assignments or vector headings.
8. Altitudes, altitude restrictions, and vector headings should be read back in the same
sequence as issued.
9. The pilot may cancel an IFR flight plan prior to landing if the airplane is in VFR conditions
and outside Class A airspace.
10. When landing at an airport with an operating control tower, the tower will automatically
close the flight plan. At airports without an operating control tower, the pilot must initiate
cancellation of the IFR flight plan.
11. If there is no FSS or surface communication with ATC, the pilot should cancel by radio
before landing if weather conditions permit.
12. If it's not possible to cancel by radio, call on the telephone as soon as possible.

37
Air Facts: Conquering Cockpit Clutter
Instrument Rating Chapter 2 – Video Segment 13

Staying organized in the cockpit isn’t just a matter of collecting gadgets. It’s an important way to
increase safety and convenience while you fly.

Review:

1. How you organize is strictly a matter of personal preference but there are some good
practices to follow. It all starts with your flight bag.
2. It’s important to get to the airplane with everything, and for that you need to know where
each item is located – including the headsets, backup radios, tablets, charging cables,
and flashlights.
3. iPads and other devices are increasingly common for an instrument pilot’s toolkit. Make
sure you have everything you need to support your electronic flight bag, including an
alternate data source and backup power. Good options are available for self-contained
battery packs and cigarette lighter plugs; having one of these on hand is cheap
insurance.
4. You’ll need a method to secure the iPad too. A loose one on lap inevitably becomes an
obstacle on the floor, under the seat, or between the seat and the door.
5. Most apps allow you to organize charts in virtual binders, and this is a great way to keep
all the essential information one or two taps away.
6. Don’t forget about supplemental data, like takeoff minimums and detailed airport
information. Finding this sometimes means going beyond the approach plates section,
perhaps to the airport or document pages.
7. Finally, the en route chart for the flight should be loaded with the planned route and
waypoints entered. Many avionics systems allow you to transfer flight plans from the
iPad right to the panel, eliminating the need to program the flight plan a second time into
the GPS navigator.
8. Make sure any portable receivers are secured and the information you’re receiving is
up-to-date. Regularly check the battery level on all your electronic devices to make sure
their endurance is enough for your flight. If anything needs to be plugged in, cruise is
generally a better time to do it rather than on final approach, when a spaghetti bowl of
wires could interfere with the controls.
9. For arrival, it helps to have the planned approach charts for the destination airport and
alternate in another virtual binder. This is also a good time to switch over to any traffic
displays you may have on board, so you can keep an eye on other aircraft as you get
close to your destination.

38
Chapter 3 – Instrument Approaches

Introduction to Instrument Approaches

Instrument Rating Chapter 3 – Video Segment 1

In this section we investigate some general aspects of the instrument approach.

Review:

1. An instrument approach is three dimensional. The TERPS prescribe altitudes and

required obstruction clearances in terms of the horizontal, vertical, and lateral
dimensions for standard approaches.
2. An instrument approach procedure is best described as a transition from the en route
system to a place and altitude where the airport or runway is in sight.
3. You are relatively fresh during the departure, but the opposite is true when you make the
approach after several hours en route with some possible weather complications.
4. Your basic instrument skills must overcome the fatigue and you must fully understand
what you are doing during each part of the approach.

39
Approach Chart Details
Instrument Rating Chapter 3 – Video Segment 2

In this section we investigate instrument approaches. They are divided into precision,
nonprecision, and approaches with vertical guidance.

Review:

1. A nonprecision approach is a clearance to descend, at a fix, to an MSL altitude called a

minimum descent altitude, or MDA, and fly in level flight until you see the airport or the
time runs out.
2. The missed approach for some nonprecision approaches starts on the basis of
groundspeed and time to fly from the final approach fix to the missed approach point.
Other approaches have a fix where the missed approach begins.
3. On precision approaches, the airplane intercepts and follows the glideslope to an MSL
altitude called the decision altitude or DA. If the runway environment is not in sight at the
DA, the missed approach comes next.
4. Like a precision approach, an approach with vertical guidance has both course and
glidepath information, but it is not as accurate as a precision approach.
5. Approach charts are a detailed blueprint for an instrument approach. There are specific
instructions for each part of the approach.
6. Approach categories, the heading of the minimums section, divide aircraft according to
speed.
7. The airport sketch depicts runway dimensions, airport obstructions, location of the airport
beacon, approach and runway lighting, and other airport topographic details.

40
ILS Approach Part 1 - Flying the Localizer
Instrument Rating Chapter 3 – Video Segment 3

In this section we investigate flying the localizer. It’s divided into three parts; guidance, range,
and visual information.

Review:

1. Guidance is provided by the localizer and glideslope. The localizer is for left/right and the
glideslope for up/down guidance. Range information really means distance information
which is provided by the outer and middle markers.
2. On some ILS approaches, DME or other fixes may be substitutes for markers. Approach
lights, touchdown zone lights, centerline lights, and runway lights provide the visual
information.
3. A localizer is an electronic extension of the centerline of the runway. A typical localizer
has a width of 5 degrees for a full scale right CDI deflection to a full scale deflection to
the left.
4. The localizer has two close relatives, the localizer directional aid, LDA; and the simplified
directional facility, SDF. Operationally, SDFs and LDAs are flown like localizers.
5. The CDI shows whether the airplane is on the centerline. The CDI cannot be centered by
turning the OBS.
6. Localizer signals are transmitted on the front and the backside of the antenna. These
signals are called the front course and the back course.
7. Without reverse sensing equipment on the back course, the indicator will point to the
opposite side. To find the centerline you must fly opposite the needle.
8. The most common error when tracking a localizer is making large heading corrections.
This results in making s-turns across the centerline.
9. Because the localizer gets narrower as you fly closer to the runway, heading corrections
should be proportionally smaller.

41
ILS Approach Part 2 - Flying the Glide Slope
Instrument Rating Chapter 3 – Video Segment 4

In this section we investigate flying the glideslope and the other components of the ILS.

Review:

1. Marker beacons provide distance information. Outer markers are located between 4 and
7 miles from the approach end of the runway. Interception of the glideslope usually
happens near the outer marker.
2. Some ILS approaches have a middle marker. Middle markers are situated about 3500
feet from the approach end of the runway.
3. ILSs are categorized according to decision height and flight visibility. Touchdown zone
lights are lights embedded in the first 3,000 feet of the runway, while centerline lights
illuminate the middle of the runway along its entire length.
4. Some runways have an inner marker located between the middle marker and the
runway.
5. Back course markers may be used for a final approach fix on a localizer back course
approach.
6. To enable aircraft to navigate to markers, nondirectional beacons have been situated at
many marker sites. These are called compass locators.
7. The glideslope provides vertical navigation for the approach. A glideslope is like a
localizer laid on its side, instead of left/right guidance, it provides up/down information.
8. The glideslope is even more precise than the localizer.
9. The part of the glideslope that intersects the localizer is called the glidepath.
10. The rate of descent to stay on the glidepath is a function of the groundspeed. For
example, at 90 knots groundspeed, the descent needed is 478 feet per minute for a 3
degree glideslope.
11. You should know the power setting for a 3 degree descent at groundspeeds appropriate
for your airplane in the approach configuration.
12. On the profile view of the approach chart the glideslope intercept altitude, which is also
the final approach fix, is shown by the lightning bolt.
13. Approaches with vertical guidance provide a glideslope that may not be as precise as an
ILS.
14. Some advanced GPS navigators can provide vertical guidance on procedures called
LNAV/VNAV or LPV.

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Air Facts: ILS Approach Tips
Instrument Rating Chapter 3 – Video Segment 5

A lot of the errors a pilot makes on the ILS approach are due to being uptight – it’s his state of
mind.

Review:

1. Chasing something on that instrument panel will result in flying from the left of the
localizer through the center and to the right, and possibly going from above the
glideslope, through it, and then below.
2. A good way to visualize how many corrections are honestly necessary on an average
I-L-S, is to fly visually inbound to the final approach fix. Then, from there, just fly the
heading that corresponds to the inbound bearing of the localizer with some estimated
drift correction.
3. Also fly the rate of descent that corresponds with the anticipated groundspeed. Fly this
down to the decision height unless it appears that it will take the aircraft too low, too far
out or that it will be far from the localizer.
4. A few small corrections on the way in, to fine tune the heading and the descent rate, will
usually make it perfect.
5. Often, if the approach is going poorly, the pilot will be fixating on the localizer and
glideslope needles, to the exclusion of the other instruments.

43
RNAV/GPS Approaches
Instrument Rating Chapter 3 – Video Segment 6

GPS approaches are available at nearly every airport in the US, and can provide both lateral
and vertical approach guidance comparable to the precision of an ILS approach.

Review:

1. Since they do not rely on the limitations of ground-based radio navigation aids, most
GPS approaches are designed to be straight-in approaches to the runway they serve.
2. In order to fly a GPS approach using the GPS as your primary navigation source, the
database in the receiver must be current. The approach must also be defined in the
database and loaded from there.
3. LNAV is the most basic type of approach and provides left/right course guidance to the
runway, and relies on step-down fixes for descents down to the MDA.
4. The most accurate GPS approach is LPV, which stands for Localizer Performance with
Vertical Guidance and provides both lateral and vertical guidance down to the runway,
similar to an ILS. This type of approach requires a WAAS-capable GPS navigator.
5. Another significant difference between LNAV and LPV is that the LPV approach
terminates at a Decision Altitude, or DA, whereas the LNAV relies on a Minimum
Descent Altitude, or MDA.
6. A variation of the LPV approach is the LP approach. This requires a WAAS-capable
GPS and provides the same precise, angular final approach course as the LPV
approach. The difference is that it uses step-down fixes for the descent and terminates
at a Minimum Descent Altitude, like an LNAV approach.
7. When flying an LNAV or LP approach, a WAAS-capable GPS receiver can also provide
an advisory vertical guidance via an electronic glidepath.
8. When receiving advisory vertical guidance on the Garmin GTN650, it will display
LNAV+V or LP+V to indicate that an electronic glidepath is available.
9. Many procedures for "T" shaped GPS approaches use Terminal Arrival Area, or TAA,
quadrants to define minimum safe altitudes. When proceeding direct to one of the initial
approach fixes and cleared for the approach by ATC, you may descend at your
discretion to the altitude listed in the TAA quadrant.

44
Air Facts: GPS Approach Tips
Instrument Rating Chapter 3 – Video Segment 7

Most GPS approaches are pretty straightforward, but there are some important details to
consider before flying one of these procedures. This section takes an in-depth look at tips and
tricks to make sure you're flying them correctly in the real-world of IFR flying.

Review:

1. When loading a GPS approach into the navigator, start by always loading the full
approach, then activate vectors-to-final only when you know you’re actually being
vectored outside the final approach fix.
2. Make sure to monitor the status indicator on the GPS screen to see which type of
approach you’ll be flying. There are specific parameters that must be met in relation to
your position and angle approaching the final approach fix in order for the LPV or LP
approach to activate
3. It's important to understand how the final approach course is represented on the CDI.
For example the final approach course for an LNAV approach is a fixed width, whereas
an LPV is angular, meaning that sensitivity increases as you get closer to the runway.
4. Pay attention to the type of glidepath on each GPS approach. If it’s LNAV+V or LP+V,
you must adhere to any step-down fixes, because obstacle clearance is not assured on
an advisory glidepath. You can still fly a constant descent rate, but verify you’re at the
correct altitude as you cross each step-down fix.
5. When nearing the final approach fix, double check that the CDI source selector is set to
GPS, and not the Nav Radios.
6. On RNAV approaches, a gray shaded line from the MDA to the runway indicates that the
visual segment below the MDA is clear of obstructions on a 34 to 1 slope - roughly 200
feet at one mile.
7. You’ll occasionally see a note that says, “VGSI and R-NAV glidepath not coincident.”
That means you may break out of the clouds right on the GPS approach’s glideslope,
only to see the VASI lights indicating you’re too high.
8. When flying an ILS approach, it’s perfectly fine to use the GPS for the initial and missed
approach segments. You're only required to fly the final approach segment with the
localizer and glideslope, and the GPS overlay may provide better situational awareness
during the other segments.

45
Unusual Approaches
Instrument Rating Chapter 3 – Video Segment 8

Approach procedures are designed to standards defined in the terminal procedures manual.
The TERPS manual also describes conditions required to approve deviations from the
standards, which are only granted if they don't compromise safety.

Review:

1. This section looks at individual nonstandard approaches. They are unusual because
they feature significant variations from typical instrument approaches, in terms of
external cues needed, altitudes or other nonstandard procedures.
2. Approach procedures are designed to standards defined in the terminal procedures
manual. The TERPS manual also describes conditions required to approve deviations
from the standards, which are only granted if they don't compromise safety.
3. Boston’s Logan Airport also has a charted visual approach, the Light Visual to runway
33L, which requires pilots to fly a radial until spotting the Boston Lighthouse, then turn
left to intercept the final approach course. It’s mainly for noise abatement, and it’s only
used with VFR minimums.
4. Remember, the minimum information in parenthesis on FAA approach charts applies to
military pilots only, and you need not be concerned with it.
5. The VOR one three right and left approach at JFK International uses a lead in light
system to guide aircraft from the CANARSIE VOR/DME to the runways. The CANARSIE
approach, as it known among pilots, is used to expedite the flow of airplanes when the
ceiling and visibility are fairly high.
6. Lead in lights are clusters of bright lights which guide pilots along the arcs to runways
one three left and right.
7. The dagger symbol and asterisks indicate that ATC can amend these mandatory
altitudes.
8. This section looks at individual nonstandard approaches. They are unusual because
they feature significant variations from typical instrument approaches, in terms of
external cues needed, altitudes or other nonstandard procedures.
9. A side step maneuver is used where there is an approach which serves a parallel
runway that is not more than 1200 feet apart.
10. A clearance which states, "Cleared for the ILS runway one zero right approach, side step
to runway one zero left", means that you are expected to land on runway one zero left.
The side step to line up with the parallel runway should be made as soon as possible
after the runway or runway environment is in sight.
11. Landing minimums for the sidestep are higher than the minimums for the primary
runway, but are normally lower than for those for a circling approach.
12. The ILS runway one-one YANKEE approach at Missoula, Montana has a decision
altitude of 5,022 feet, which is 1,822 feet above the runway, and the required visibility is

46
 7 statute miles. The high requirements are due to obstructions in the missed approach
area.
13. Timed approaches from a holding fix are standard approaches which are entered from a
holding pattern. They date back to the dark ages of no radar.
14. Airplanes were stacked holding at a fix on the approach course. As the bottom airplane
was cleared for the approach, the next airplane was given a time check and an approach
clearance which specified the time to cross the final fix inbound.
15. If more than one missed approach procedure is available, none can involve flying back
on the approach course. If there is only one missed approach procedure, the system
safeguards against simultaneous missed approaches by requiring that ceiling and
visibility must at least equal the highest circling minimums.
16. The procedures we've looked at are representative of many approaches which have
something different from the usual approach.
17. Surprises are the bane of the instrument pilot. Among the worst surprises are those you
find while making an approach. Take a close look at the approach charts for your
destination and alternate. Finding those surprises while you are on the ground is much
better than finding them in the air.

47
Air Facts: Vectored Approaches
Instrument Rating Chapter 3 – Video Segment 9

In this section we will look at vectoring. The common procedure is to vector aircraft to the final
approach course, though vectoring is also used for sequencing traffic.

Review:

1. Generally, the controller will clear you for the approach just before or just after you
intercept the final approach course.
2. While vectors seem automatic, with the controller issuing headings and you flying those
headings, it’s good to maintain situational awareness while being vectored. It’s easy to
get turned around.
3. Most vectors will put you on the final approach course a few miles outside the final
approach fix.
4. Remember, that a GPS driven map will tell you where you are when viewed from above,
it will not tell you the correct altitude to fly.

48
Flying VOR Approaches with a Jepp Chart
Instrument Rating Chapter 3 – Video Segment 10

In this section we will look at flying some VOR instrument approaches using the Jeppesen
series charts rather than the FAA ones.

Review:

1. Both FAA and Jeppesen charts meet the FAA requirements for approach charts. The
same information is shown but with some differences in the presentation.
2. On some VOR approaches you may substitute a GPS for the VOR receiver. Having both
types of navigation is not required.
3. Note the memory device signified by the 5 Ts when passing over a VOR for an
approach. They are; time, turn, twist, throttle, and talk.
4. Time and turn are self-evident, twist is changing the OBS to the appropriate course,
throttle is making the power reduction to the setting for approach speed. Remember to
fly and navigate the airplane before talking.
5. Bracketing consists of splitting the difference between a heading that took you off course
and a heading that brings you back to a course.
6. Don't change the heading until you have at least a 1 dot deflection of the CDI. With at
least a one dot deviation, turn to make the needle move toward the center.
7. Close to the station, the heading change should not be more than 10 degrees. At
extreme distances from the station, the brackets may be as much as 30 degrees. The
new heading will do one of 3 things. It will bring the needle toward the center, stabilize
the needle at 1 dot, or let the deviation increase at a slower rate.
8. During your approach briefing, review the distance between the final approach fix and
missed approach point and plan a descent rate that will allow you to fly a stabilized
approach down to the MDA.
9. A descent rate of 800 feet per minute works for most general aviation airplanes, but you
may need to descend at an even higher rate when flying high-performance airplanes, or
if the approach requires a larger altitude drop over a shorter distance.
10. Don’t be reluctant about beginning the descent immediately after crossing the final
approach fix, since obstacle clearance at the minimum descent altitude is assured from
that point all the way to the airport.
11. You should have the initial part of the missed approach in mind. Don't try to memorize
the entire missed procedure but do know the initial move. Virtually all missed
approaches start with a climb so know whether to turn or go straight in the climb.

49
12. You can descend below the MDA if the runway is in sight, the airplane is in a position
from which a normal descent will bring it to the touchdown portion of the runway and you
have the minimum flight visibility required.

50
Closer Look: Procedure Turns
Instrument Rating Chapter 3 – Video Segment 11

In this section we will look at the procedure turn aspect of an instrument approach.

Review:

1. Procedure turns are used to reverse direction and establish the aircraft inbound on an
intermediate or final approach course.
2. The altitude shown on the chart for a procedure turn is a minimum and the maneuver
must be completed within the distance shown on the chart.
3. Both this distance and the side of the course on which the procedure turn are charted
are critical because only by following the procedure are you assured of terrain and
obstruction clearance.
4. A procedure turn is a required maneuver for a course reversal except when the symbol
NO PT is shown, when the aircraft is being radar vectored for the approach, when
conducting a timed approach, or when the procedure turn is not authorized.
5. The most common procedure turn is the 45 degree type. Fly outbound, do a 45, a 180
and then intercept.
6. Many of the procedure turns charted now appear as holding patterns at an intermediate
fix or the final approach fix. The holding pattern maneuver is considered complete when
the airplane is established inbound after the appropriate entry.

51
Holding
Instrument Rating Chapter 3 – Video Segment 12

In this section we take a look at holding. Realize that holding may be encountered on any phase
of an IFR flight.

Review:

1. Some departure procedures call for climbing in a holding pattern. En route, you must
hold if you’ve not been cleared to your destination and have reached your clearance
limit. On arrival, many approach procedures use a holding pattern for the course
reversal, and all missed approaches end up in a hold.
2. For a hold that is not charted, the controller will tell you what direction to hold, the
holding fix, the bearing or airway upon which to hold, leg length if necessary, the turning
direction if it is left, and the expect further clearance time.
3. The standard holding pattern uses right turns and a one minute inbound leg.
4. Start timing the outbound leg when either above or abeam the fix, whichever is later. If
you can’t determine when you’re abeam, start timing when the outbound turn is
completed. Turns should be standard rate, but not more than 30 degrees.
5. Except when turning, you should compensate for the wind. Outbound you should triple
the wind correction angle used to track the inbound course. This will distort the racetrack
shape, but keep you inside the holding pattern protected airspace.
6. For the instrument knowledge test you must know when to use the parallel, teardrop,
and direct entries. Review these turns in the Instrument Flying Handbook.
7. A nonstandard holding pattern uses left turns, and the entry procedure diagram has to
be flipped.
8. These diagrams can be difficult to visualize in the cockpit, so some instructors
recommend simply flying a teardrop anytime that you can’t use a direct entry.

52
Circling Approaches
Instrument Rating Chapter 3 – Video Segment 13

In this section we take a look at circling approaches. These are approaches which either do not
meet runway alignment criteria or approaches which provide for landing on a runway other than
the one aligned with the final approach course.

Review:

1. The approach chart designates a straight-in landing runway if there is one. Landing on
another runway requires circling and different minimums apply.
2. A "circling only" approach is either not aligned with a runway, or in the case of a few
procedures, one where a straight-in would require an excessive descent on the final
approach segment.
3. At an airport which has straight-in minimums, a circling approach might be preferred if
the straight-in runway is not usable because of wind or other reasons.
4. Some approaches are classed as circling because the angle between the final approach
course and the extended centerline of the runway exceeds 30 degrees.
5. One of the ground rules for a circling approach is that the pilot must maintain visual
contact with the airport during the circling maneuver.
6. On a circling approach, you are expected to maneuver by the shortest path to the base
or downwind leg. There is no restriction against flying over the airport or other runways.
7. If the ceiling permits, fly over the airport to observe the wind direction indicators and look
for other traffic.
8. If visual reference is lost while circling, the missed approach should start with a climbing
turn toward the landing runway. The turn should be continued until established on the
missed approach course.

53
Closer Look: Designing Approaches
Instrument Rating Chapter 3 – Video Segment 14

Pilots don't design approaches and should not attempt to create their own private approaches.
However, as users of approach procedures, we ought to know some of the standards to which
they are designed.

Review:

1. There are two acronyms that get mentioned a lot in approach design: OCS and ROC.
2. OCS, or obstacle clearance surface, is an imaginary line drawn at the highest obstacle
within a defined area. No obstacles can penetrate the OCS. ROC, or required obstacle
clearance, is the minimum vertical separation between the aircraft flying an approach
and the OCS.
3. The ROC for the initial segment of the approach is 1,000 feet in the entry area,
maneuvering zone and the primary area.
4. Obstacle clearance for the intermediate segment can be reduced to 500 feet in the
primary area and it tapers to zero at the extreme edge of the secondary area. The
primary area extends beyond the 10 mile procedure turn limit. A secondary area
encloses the entry area, maneuvering zone and the primary area. Obstruction clearance
in the secondary area starts at 500 feet and tapers to zero at the extreme edges.
5. For a straight-in approach, the minimum obstruction clearance in the final approach
primary area is typically 250 feet for a localizer, VOR, LNAV, or LP approach. For an ILS
or LPV approach, the minimum clearance is typically 200 feet, because there is a
glideslope.
6. Minimum obstruction clearances in the primary area vary from 720 feet, 5.5 miles from
the runway, to 135 feet at the DH.
7. The minimum obstacle clearance is 300 feet in the circling areas. The circling area can
eliminate sectors that have prominent obstacles by noting on the approach chart that
circling is prohibited in certain sectors.
8. The ROC has a major impact on approach design. If an obstacle penetrates the
standard OCS, the minimum descent altitude might have to be raised, the angle of the
glideslope might increase, or step-down fixes might be added to the final approach
segment.
9. Obstacles also might change the type of approach available at an airport. If you notice
an airport with only LNAV minimums, it’s possible that an obstacle along the final
approach course prevents the implementation of an LPV approach.
10. Finally, remember that obstacle protection is also a consideration for missed approaches
and climbs. The missed approach is predicated on the assumption that the missed
approach is initiated at the MDA or DH and at the missed approach point.
11. There is no consideration given for an abnormally early turn. Missed approach turns can
only be made at the missed approach point.

54
Visual Descent Points and DME
Instrument Rating Chapter 3 – Video Segment 15

In this section we take a look at visual descent points and DME.

Review:

1. Landing from a nonprecision approach at night takes a lot of care.

2. Visual descent points, VDPs, have been added to many nonprecision approaches. They
are a defined point on the final approach course from which, providing the runway is in
sight, a normal descent from the MDA to the touchdown portion of the runway would be
obstruction free.
3. VDPs are usually DME or GPS fixes, but could be any approved navigational fix.
Approach charts show the VDP as a V on the profile view.
4. No special technique, other than identifying the VDP, is required to use the visual
descent point.
5. The VDP is not a mandatory part of the procedure. If the aircraft is not equipped to
identify the VDP, fly the approach as though the VDP isn't there.
6. While the fixes used for VDPs are not mandatory, DME is often used on ILS, localizer,
and VOR approaches to define required fixes.
7. If you are using GPS, double check that the distance shown is from the correct waypoint.

55
Closer Look: Approach Lighting Systems
Instrument Rating Chapter 3 – Video Segment 16

You’ve probably seen runway approach lights at larger airports many times during your private
pilot training and when flying at night. These systems take on additional importance when flying
IFR since they provide the basic means to transition from instrument to visual flight for landing.

Review:

1. If an approach lighting system is available for a runway, the symbology will be displayed
in both the small airport diagram in line with the runway, and in the briefing strip towards
the top of the chart. You can then refer to the legend in the digital terminal procedures
supplement to determine the specifics of the lighting system.
2. Approach light systems are a configuration of signal lights starting at the landing
threshold and extending into the approach area, at a distance of 2,400 to 3,000 feet for
precision instrument runways, and 1,400 to 1,500 feet for non-precision instrument
runways.
3. Some systems include sequenced flashing lights which appear to the pilot as a ball of
light traveling towards the runway at high speed. Pilots have nicknamed this system the
rabbit.
4. Approach light systems deserve special attention twice during each flight. First is during
your preflight preparation, when you can determine which system you'll see for a
particular runway.
5. Approach lighting systems are critical during low ceiling and low visibility conditions
when you must decide whether to continue to land or execute a missed approach. If
when reaching the minimum descent altitude or decision altitude on the approach and
you have the approach lights in sight, you are permitted to descend to 100 feet above
the touchdown zone elevation published for the runway.
6. When reaching the 100 feet above the touchdown zone, you then must have the runway
environment in sight and verify the flight visibility is above the published minimums to
continue the descent to landing.
7. If a NOTAM indicates part of the lighting system is out of service, refer to the inoperative
components table to make adjustments to the landing minimums. Make it a point to
check your destination against the inoperative components table each time you fly IFR to
see if the airport has any lighting systems affected.

56
Going To An Alternate
Instrument Rating Chapter 3 – Video Segment 17

The FAA is very specific about the requirements for an alternate airport on an IFR flight. Not
only are you legally required to meet these obligations when selecting an alternate, you should
take it seriously. You should always have an alternate in case things don't go as planned.

Review:

1. In the rule about required fuel, it states that, considering weather reports and forecasts,
you must have enough fuel to fly to the first airport of intended landing, fly from that
airport to the alternate airport, and fly after that for 45 minutes at normal cruising speed.
2. The requirement for an alternate airport is waived for a destination ceiling of at least
2,000 feet and a visibility of at least three miles.
3. Anticipation of this condition is based on weather reports or forecasts or both, and must
exist for at least one hour before and one hour after the estimated time of arrival. The
airport must have an instrument approach procedure.
4. Airports that have published alternate minimums will display a black triangle symbol with
the letter A at the top left of the approach chart. This indicates that you need to go to the
terminal procedures supplement to review the IFR alternate airport weather minimums.
5. The rules require that, to be used as an alternate when filing an IFR flight plan, an airport
must have a forecast of conditions equal to or better than the alternate minimums listed
for the airport at your planned arrival time.
6. If no alternate minimums are specified, the basic requirement is for a ceiling of 600 feet
and a visibility of two statute miles if the airport has a precision approach, or an 800 foot
ceiling and two miles visibility if there is a non-precision approach.
7. If an airport has no instrument approach, it can be used as an alternate if conditions are
forecast to be such that the approach and landing can be made in basic VFR conditions
from the minimum en route altitude.
8. If there is no TAF published for the destination or alternate airport, refer to the Clouds
and Visibility forecast layers on the Graphical Forecast for Aviation utility.
9. The alternate rule has to be interpreted literally but logic has to also be allowed to play a
role. Where the alternate rule helps is enforcing fuel discipline.
10. It is not required by the regulations that you actually go to the filed alternate if you can't
land at the intended destination. However, if you do go to the alternate, the weather only
has to be good enough for the instrument approach used.

57
Air Facts: What Is The Alternative
Instrument Rating Chapter 3 – Video Segment 18

Where you actually go after the missed approach, may not be your designated alternate.

Review:

1. Alternate airports are good for two things. One, they make you carry extra fuel. Two, they
make you go to the trouble of finding out where the weather is pretty good.
2. If while en route you determine that the weather is not improving to match the forecast,
the best course of action may be to stop short of your destination at an airport along the
way with good weather and wait for conditions to improve at the destination.
3. Some pilots believe in “taking a look,” but this is usually a bad idea, so continuing toward
your destination if the weather is below minimums and likely to stay that way through
your ETA is risky.
4. The safest plan is to simply avoid the temptation of trying to force the approach to work.
Beyond safety, consider convenience: you don’t want to miss the approach, fly to the
alternate, get some holding, and be entertained by fuel gauges that are singing the old
thirty minutes to silence song.
5. A good way to pick real world alternates is by considering the last airport that you
overflew that had an approach and weather at or above minimums. If the destination is
below minimums, or you think it is below and there is no weather reporting, then land at
a suitable airport along the way and fill up with fuel and perhaps wait a while for
improvement.

58
Chapter 4 – Weather for IFR

Checking Weather for an IFR Flight

Instrument Rating Chapter 4 – Video Segment 1

Flying visually means that, as we fly along, we can see what is going on. Checking weather for
an IFR flight takes on another dimension. We might be flying in the clouds, so we have to learn
something about the nature of those clouds. Icing, turbulence, and thunderstorms take on new
meaning.

Review:

1. Visibility and ceiling are important especially at the destination and the alternate. We
can't ignore the visibility and ceiling en route, either, because it is always necessary to
know what the options are as we fly along, in case the best course of action becomes a
landing short of the destination.
2. The most basic necessity is a knowledge of the synopsis: where are the highs, the lows,
and the fronts?
3. When you move on to aviation-specific weather products, there are a few essential ones
to make sure you study: the terminal aerodrome and winds aloft forecasts, METARs,
PIREPs, radar, AIRMETs, SIGMETs, and especially convective SIGMETs on
thunderstorms.
4. Supplement your resources with other tools, including the Graphical Forecast for
Aviation, the Forecast Icing map, the forecast discussion, and the convective forecast.
All of these are valuable resources, but they only help if you use them in a deliberate
and systematic manner. Reading a METAR and checking the radar does not a weather
briefing make.
5. You may have heard some pilots grumble about forecasts. They’re too negative, or they
are seldom correct. Forecasts, though, are based largely on computer models of the
atmosphere and it is important that we know what is anticipated.
6. Start with that synopsis, which can be found in graphical form in most aviation apps.
You’ll typically see a surface analysis chart, showing the highs, lows, and fronts, then a
series of forecast charts showing how those weather systems will move over the next
few days.
7. Lows and fronts create most of the weather we’re worried about, so make note of those.
8. The Graphical Forecasts for Aviation (GFA) is a great way to get an overview of your
route, including a graphical depiction of marginal VFR and IFR conditions. The GFA is
also the only place to get cloud top forecasts, which is a critical piece of information for
finding a smooth and ice-free ride.
9. With the big picture in mind, the logical next step is to the aerodrome forecasts, the
TAFs. Get them for the departure, en route, destination, and alternate airports.

59
 Remember, a TAF addresses expected conditions only around the airport, so be careful
not to extrapolate to another airport dozens of miles away.
10. METAR are observations of current conditions, as compared to a forecast, which is an
educated guess. Some value is also found in comparing the report of actual conditions
with the forecast. The question to ask when doing this is whether the weather is worse
than forecast, as forecast, or better than forecast. A METAR that doesn’t match the TAF
should raise a red flag.
11. In dynamically changing weather conditions, such as with developing thunderstorms or a
fast moving front, a pilot report that is more than a few minutes old will not likely reflect
what flying conditions would be like now. The type of aircraft from which the report was
made counts for a lot, too. A report of severe turbulence means one thing from a Boeing
and something else from a 182.
12. Radar is useful in telling us where rain is falling and where thunderstorms are located.
Some weather services will show the echo tops, speed and direction of movement,
lightning activity, and even storm watch boxes.
13. Use all the tools, including the satellite image if available, to determine whether the cell
has vertical development. Remember, NEXRAD images are history, and conditions do
change.
14. SIGMETs, especially convective SIGMETs, are both statements telling of a significant
weather condition, and outlooks on how that condition is expected to develop. Never fly
away without checking for SIGMETs.
15. The winds aloft forecasts are useful for two things before takeoff. One is related to how
long it will take to get to the destination and to the alternate. Another use is to
contemplate the possibility of structural icing.
16. When using the Current Icing Product (CIP) and Forecast Icing Product (FIP), make sure
you note whether you’re looking at a map of probability - how likely it is that icing will
occur - or of severity - how heavy the potential icing would be. Both are helpful when
planning a flight, but the difference is important.
17. When it comes to thunderstorms, Convective SIGMETs are a great place to start. These
are valid for up to two hours, and show lines of thunderstorms and large areas of
thunderstorms. For a longer term forecast, consult the Convective Forecast maps. These
are available in short term varieties out to 8 hours and also long terms maps that extend
to 78 hours.
18. The graphical turbulence forecast makes it much easier to find a smooth ride. These
maps are similar to the forecast icing product, showing forecast turbulence at different
altitudes and times in the future. Comparing these images with the synopsis and winds
aloft forecast will typically explain why one area is particularly rough and one isn’t.
19. The whole purpose of checking weather is to ensure that, before takeoff, there is no
weather condition out there that we can't or don't want to deal with. By looking at the
synopsis and then looking at the actual and forecast conditions, we get a picture of what
is going on and what is expected to go on.
20. There are some things that wave red flags. They are a big moisture supply and unstable
air. This could lead to ice or the formation of thunderstorms.

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21. If the synopsis calls for the fronts to occlude, beware of that. Just before, during, and for
a while after an occlusion is one of the nastiest times to fly. The wind shear in those can
beat you up pretty thoroughly.
22. Do be aware of the forecast surface winds, too. The airplane does have to be landed at
the destination or an alternate, and the wind exceeds the limit of some airplanes on
more than one day in the wintertime.
23. If your IFR flight is to be over mountainous terrain, look at the forecast winds at the ridge
level. If the velocity is over 20 or 30 knots, you can bet on up and downdrafts, and
probably turbulence at lower levels downwind of the mountains.
24. Once airborne, the process of checking weather should continue in several ways. One is
by radio, such as SIGMET broadcasts on center frequencies, or ATIS broadcasts ahead
and to the sides. Datalink weather is an even better resource, and can bring METARs,
TAFs, and radar right to your cockpit. Just remember the images you see in flight are
delayed, so use them for strategic weather decisions, not close-in avoidance.
25. Finally, perhaps the most important way to keep up with the weather is through what you
see and feel. If actual conditions don't fit your predetermined idea of them, that better
pique your curiosity.
26. If the actual wind aloft is substantially different than the forecast, that means that the
computer model of the atmosphere is in error; all other forecasts are suspect.
27. All the weather information we get is useful and important, but the airplane itself is the
world's best weather sensor. It'll ferret out all the facts and experience the actual
conditions.

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Air Facts: Developing Your Self-Weather Briefing
Instrument Rating Chapter 4 – Video Segment 2

The days of walking into a Flight Service Station or calling for a phone briefing are pretty much
over for instrument pilots. That’s not necessarily bad, since today we have more information on
our phones and tablets than even the best briefer had 20 years ago. Whereas once we had to
sketch a mental image of a radar map based on a briefer’s rapid-fire description, now we can
see it in high definition.

Review:

1. Since weather briefings are now a solo event, it’s up to you as the pilot in command to
review all important weather information and make a safe decision. There’s nobody to
check your work, so take this responsibility seriously.
2. To guard against an incomplete briefing, you need to follow a step-by-step process. This
should be tailored to your experience level, your airplane, and your geographic area, so
spend some time early in your instrument flying career experimenting with different
approaches.
3. No matter what method you settle on, though, a complete briefing has two features: it
covers all the important information and it follows a logical order.
4. On the first point, there are some weather products that every pilot should review. No
matter what the flight, a look at the synopsis and SIGMETs is in order.
5. Beyond those basics, focus on what matters for your type of flying. For example, if you
live in the Great Lakes, you’ll want to get very good at evaluating icing forecasts and
PIREPs. If you live in Florida, thunderstorms are probably the most important threat.
Also consider any personal minimums you might have.
6. Be sure to plan for an alternate airport, even when one isn’t legally required. Equipment
can break and weather can change, so make sure you’ve at least considered a plan B.
And don’t forget to check those NOTAMs and TFRs—a good weather briefing that leads
to a closed runway isn’t worth much.
7. Some pilots like to start on a national scale, then work towards the local. A briefing like
this might start with the synopsis and prog charts, then move to the regional radar
images, then end with METARs and TAFs for specific airports.
8. Whichever approach you choose to do your weather briefing will work, but make sure
you stay disciplined and follow the same procedure every time you fly.
9. Make sure you know the original data source and the age of each weather product. A
forecast is only valuable if it’s from a reputable source and it’s current.
10. Electronic Flight Bag apps like ForeFlight and Garmin Pilot are a great place to start.
These all-in-one apps include flight planning and charts in addition to weather, so you
can get an excellent idea of how the weather will affect your specific route.

62
11. Not all weather products are available in aviation apps, so don’t forget about some great
online resources. [Link], as the name suggests, replicates the traditional
phone briefing online, moving from adverse conditions to synopsis to NOTAMs.
12. The National Weather Service also offers a valuable website at [Link]. This
is the place to find the Graphical Forecast for Aviation (GFA), an interactive AIRMET
map, and the most detailed icing forecasts. And here’s a tip: It’s also the place to find
new forecast tools before they ever make it into an app.

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Airframe Icing
Instrument Rating Chapter 4 – Video Segment 3

In this section we take a look at ice and some of the problems it creates for the instrument pilot.

Review:

1. Even with good deicing equipment, wise pilots put every effort into staying out of the ice,
or fleeing if ice is encountered. The technique is to take action at the first sign of ice.
2. Continuing into icing conditions, hoping for improvement, can definitely be hazardous to
your health.
3. Icing occurs when super cooled water droplets are splattered by the airplane. They then
freeze. A super cooled water droplet is one that has been lifted from an above freezing
temperature to a below freezing temperature. There it will remain liquid for a while, until
disturbed.
4. This tells you that the most severe icing will likely be encountered where there is
moisture and where there is lifting.
5. Because the severity of ice is directly related to instability or mechanical lifting, you can
draw one conclusion: If the air is turbulent and ice is encountered, there will likely be a
lot of ice.
6. Ice can also be present in smooth stratus clouds. Accumulations would be more gradual
here but could still be substantial and require immediate action.
7. Ice is classified as clear, rime, or mixed. Clear is more likely found in cumulus clouds,
very unstable air, or with strong mechanical lifting over mountains.
8. Rime ice is milky looking, and is created by much smaller super cooled water droplets as
might be found in stratus clouds.
9. Mixed is a combination of the two. Most ice looks at least a little mixed. The exception
might be what is classified as light rime that accumulates slowly in stratus clouds that are
five or ten degrees below freezing.
10. When you are flying in visible moisture and the temperature is low, be alert for the
formation of ice.
11. The one form of precipitation that does create airframe ice, and can coat an airplane
quickly, is freezing rain. This is an absolute hazard.

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Air Facts: Ice As A Practical Matter
Instrument Rating Chapter 4 – Video Segment 4

In this section we take a look at ice and a few ideas to help you deal with it.

Review:

1. Try as you might to stay out of ice, the day might come when some is accumulated. If
this happens, you need to have an understanding of what ice does to the airplane.
2. Ice changes the shape of the flying surfaces of the airplane, accumulating as it does
primarily at the leading edges. Ice adds to the weight of the airplane. Ice can also
change the shape of the propeller's airfoil.
3. If you have ice on your airplane make your approach at a higher than normal airspeed.
The weight of the ice and the disfiguration of the airfoil increase the stalling speed.
4. Either restrict flaps settings or use no flaps if there is a lot of ice on the airplane.
5. If the windshield is iced over and the surface temperature is below freezing, you will
have to land with little or no forward visibility. A landing with an iced windshield would
best be made on a runway with an ILS.
6. When the airplane starts shedding ice there can be some loud noises as the ice from the
wings bangs into the tail and as the ice from the nose hits the windshield.

65
Closer Look: Ice Protection Systems
Instrument Rating Chapter 4 – Video Segment 5

In this section we’ll take a look at deicing systems.

Review:

1. The common deicing tool is the boot system. Inflatable boots are affixed to the leading
edges of the wings and the tail. Using air pressure, the boots are inflated. This breaks off
any ice that might have accumulated.
2. Propellers are handled either with heating elements, or by slowly discharging fluid onto
the prop. This is actually an anti-ice system, to prevent formation. Windshields usually
have electrically heated segments though some systems use fluid.
3. Another form of deicing for the wings and tail uses fluid. Dubbed a weeping wing system,
it utilizes a porous leading edge through which fluid seeps.
4. If you are using the boot system, follow the recommendations of the manufacturer.
5. For an aircraft to be certified for flight in icing conditions, it must have a complete system
that has been tested in a prescribed variety of icing conditions.

66
Thunderstorms
Instrument Rating Chapter 6 – Video Segment 6

In this section we’ll take a look at thunderstorms and why you should avoid them.

Review:

1. A thunderstorm is simply something that can beat you up badly, regardless of the size
airplane you're flying. Given a strong enough storm, the airplane might not be
controllable or might not have the structural strength or performance to make it through
the storm.
2. The greatest turbulence is often found around the outside of a storm, where the inflow
into the storm is mixing it up with the outflow from the storm.
3. Usually, the greatest turbulence is found on the front side of the storm, the side on the
direction in which it is moving, as well as the side from which it is being fed moisture.
4. The gust front, where the surface wind freshens and shifts as the effect of the downdraft
from the storm arrives, can extend out as much as 15 or 20 miles in front of a strong
storm.
5. The best in-flight aid is the convective SIGMET. These define where thunderstorms are
located and cover tornadoes, lines of thunderstorms, embedded thunderstorms, and the
like.
6. If flying in instrument conditions, continuing into an area covered by a convective
SIGMET for embedded thunderstorms would certainly be putting yourself at risk.
7. Embedded thunderstorms are usually found in warm or stationary frontal zones. They
lack the clear definition of squall line or air mass storms.
8. Keeping up with the convective SIGMETs helps on avoidance. So does looking out the
window. Except where thunderstorms are embedded in other clouds, what you see
counts for a great deal.
9. The most common rule of thumb for storm avoidance is five miles except when severe
storms are forecast. Then 20 miles are recommended.

67
Convective Forecasts
Instrument Rating Chapter 4 – Video Segment 7

In this section we’ll investigate different weather forecast products that can help pilot's predicte
convective weather activity.

Review:

1. The Extended Convective Forecast Product (ECFP) Planning Tool is a graphical

computer projection of the likelihood of thunderstorms that runs four times each day.
2. Hashed areas represent a 40-59% probability of thunderstorms, solid lined areas
represent 60-79% probability of thunderstorms, and solid blue filled areas represent a
greater than 80% probability of thunderstorms.
3. The Traffic Flow Management (TFM) Convective Forecast product is created by a
meteorologist and is a high confidence forecast for convection meeting specific criteria.
4. The coverage and expected echo tops are specified in TCF forecast.
5. Review the NOAA Storm Prediction Center (SPC) forecasts for the next 3 days, you’ll
find the general thunderstorm probability and up to 5 categories of increasing convective
severity.
6. As warranted, SPC will issue a marginal, slight, enhance, moderate, and high risk for
severe thunderstorms.
7. The Day 1, 2, 3, and 4-8 day forecasts include a text discussion which provides insight
on thunderstorm coverage, intensity, and threats.
8. For the day 1 forecast, SPC produces a tornado, damaging straight-line wind, and
severe hail forecast.

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Wind Shear and Microbursts
Instrument Rating Chapter 4 – Video Segment 8

In this section we will discuss wind shear and microbursts.

Review:

1. Wind shear is defined as a change of wind speed or direction in a very short distance. It
can happen at almost any level anywhere in the atmosphere. The first in-cockpit sign of
a wind shear encounter is a sudden change in indicated airspeed.
2. Low-level wind shear happens in visual as well as instrument weather conditions.
3. As the airplane flies into the low-level wind shear, performance decreases, indicated
airspeed decreases, the airplane pitches nose down and the rate of descent increases.
4. If the pilot fails to add enough power to stabilize the airplane on the glideslope, the result
is going below the glideslope and landing slow, short, and hard.
5. When a tailwind shears to a calm or headwind there is an increase in performance.
Indicated airspeed and pitch increase and the rate of descent decreases.
6. Low-level wind shear can be found in and around thunderstorms, fronts, low-level
inversions, and mountain waves.
7. Low-level wind shear caused by microbursts can happen with any low or mid-level
convective clouds.
8. Microburst winds of 45 knots can produce as much as a 90 knot change, if you fly from a
45 knot headwind to a 45 knot tailwind.
9. At many of the larger airports sensors alert controllers of microbursts, gust fronts, and
wind shear, so that they can warn pilots.
10. The best remedy for low-level wind shear is avoidance.
11. For takeoff with the possibility of wind shear, use the longest suitable runway with
maximum rated power and consider using a higher airspeed for lift-off.
12. Landing precautions include stabilizing the approach as soon as possible, preferably
1,000 feet above the surface. Do not make large power reductions. It’s better to be high
and go-around for another try than to land short of the runway.

69
Flying with Datalink Weather
Instrument Rating Chapter 5 – Video Segment 9

Datalink weather has revolutionized how instrument pilots fly, delivering a wide variety of helpful
weather products to both panel-mount and portable avionics. In this section we’ll take a look at some
of the devices that present us with weather information in our cockpit.

Review:

1. While radar and text weather reports can help you make smarter in-flight decisions,
these systems do have limitations.
2. Most importantly, remember that datalink weather is simply a tool to help you make
better decisions. A tablet or a glass cockpit can present a huge amount of information,
but it does not offer a clear go/no-go answer.
3. There are two ways to get datalink weather these days: ADS-B or SiriusXM.
4. They both offer the same key feature, namely the ability to view NEXRAD radar,
METARs, TAFs, pilot reports, and temporary flight restrictions on your tablet,
panel-mount GPS, or glass cockpit.
5. ADS-B relies on a network of ground stations to transmit data up to airplanes. If you’re
within range of a ground station and you have an ADS-B receiver, you’ll get the weather.
That means that both altitude and terrain matter - you likely won’t get ADS-B weather on
the ground or at low altitude in the mountains.
6. The good news is that ADS-B weather does not require a subscription, in contrast to
SiriusXM Weather, which requires a monthly subscription.
7. One of the benefits you get with that subscription is nationwide coverage, even on the
ground. Because SiriusXM uses satellites to continuously broadcast weather data, there
are no limitations with terrain or altitude.
8. ADS-B relies on a network of ground stations to transmit data up to airplanes. If you’re
within range of a ground station and you have an ADS-B receiver, you’ll get the weather.
9. You might notice right away is that ADS-B uses two different radar resolutions, a medium
resolution regional radar within about 250 miles of your airplane and a lower resolution
national radar beyond that.
10. SiriusXM, on the other hand, uses a single resolution nationwide. The actual resolution
of that radar varies depending on what screen it’s displayed on, but in general it is
sharper than ADS-B. SiriusXM also offers a few additional weather products, like storm
cell tops, satellite imagery, and surface forecasts.
11. Whichever system you fly with, some basic rules apply. This isn’t a definitive guide to
weather flying, but the concepts should guide your decision-making process.
12. Before you look at a radar picture or read a METAR, make sure you understand where
the lows and fronts are, where the weather is moving, and what the upper air analysis

70
 looks like. Then you can fit the datalink weather reports into your mental map of the
atmosphere.
13. Next, remember that all datalink weather is delayed. A red cell that appears 30 miles
away on your screen may not actually be 30 miles away. Make it a habit to check the
time stamp on your tablet or panel-mount screen to ensure you’re receiving current data,
but remember that this almost certainly does not capture the entire delay.
14. Also consider the update rate for different weather products. For example, METARs are
typically transmitted every 5 minutes but the actual weather report is only updated every
hour.
15. All this talk about delays does not mean datalink weather is unreliable. You simply have
to use it as a strategic tool, not a tactical one. That is, make big picture deviations
dozens of miles out instead of picking through tightly packed storms.
16. The fourth rule is a reminder to go beyond just radar and METARs. While these popular
products provide a lot of valuable information, they do not paint a complete picture of the
weather.
17. Also review Pilot Reports, cloud tops imagery, lightning layers, and even turbulence
forecasts. By combining all of these products, you’ll have a much more complete
understanding of the weather you’re flying in, and you’ll avoid surprises.
18. Finally, some perspective. As good as datalink weather is, the best weather tool in the
cockpit is in the left seat - your eyes. No matter what the radar image says, if the view
out the front window looks bad, it probably is bad.
19. With those key rules in mind, let’s review a few tips for interpreting datalink weather. In
particular, it’s very helpful for avoiding thunderstorms and in-flight icing, two serious
threats for instrument pilots.
20. When looking at a radar image, always ask one key question: “is this weather
convective?” Yellow returns could mean nothing more than steady rain that’s perfectly
safe to fly through; or it could mean a building thunderstorm that should be avoided.
21. In particular, consider four elements to a radar image: the shape, intensity, gradient, and
height (or SIGH).
22. Shape means the overall outline of a cell and some should definitely be avoided,
including hooks, bows and other irregular shapes. Intensity means the color of the
return, with red and magenta almost always meaning heavy rain and turbulence.
23. Gradient goes beyond just the color to consider how quickly the colors go from green to
yellow to red; the steeper the gradient, the worse the weather. Finally, height considers
the vertical development of a storm; most cells with tops over 30,000 feet should be
avoided.
24. Once again, though, look at other products besides radar, including lightning, pilot
reports of turbulence, and cloud top graphics.
25. Each of these can offer additional insights to help determine whether a weather system
is convective or not. If an area of weather shows red on the radar, with a steep gradient,

71
 plenty of lightning and high tops, it’s almost certainly convective. If it’s mostly green, with
a shallow gradient and no lightning, it might be harmless rain.
26. When in doubt, stay visual as long as possible and give a wide berth to any clouds that
have serious vertical development. And if there are magenta radar returns, it’s best to
avoid the entire cell, not just the magenta part.
27. When it comes to icing, pilot reports are the most valuable tool, since they can offer real
time information about both cloud tops and in-flight icing.
28. However, remember that not all pilot reports are created equal: both the type of airplane
and the flight conditions matter. A Cessna 172 that reports moderate icing in a climb is
not the same as a Boeing 787 that reports moderate icing in a descent.
29. Another tool is the forecast icing product, available on both ADS-B and SiriusXM. As the
name suggests, this is not a real-time observation, so it’s best used to get a general idea
of icing severity.
30. It can be helpful for understanding potential icing conditions at different altitudes and
different times in the future. Most apps and avionics use slider bars or buttons to allow
you to move back and forth between different times and altitudes so you can compare
options.
31. Finally, cloud top imagery can help you identify areas where you may be able to get on
top of potential icing conditions. On SiriusXM, this is an observed product; on ADS-B it is
a forecast product.
32. With a little practice and some good habits, datalink weather really can make instrument
flying safer. Just remember that it’s only there to aid in decision-making - you are still the
pilot in command.

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Air Facts: Reading The Weather Signs

Instrument Rating Chapter 4 – Video Segment 10

In this section we’ll take a look at how to read weather signs.

Review:

1. For fog formation we know the temperature and dew point are important. So is what we
see. The development of fog is often heralded by halos around lights and initial
collections of fog in low-lying areas.
2. Wind is an excellent weather sign. Put your back to it in the northern hemisphere, point
left at low pressure.
3. Aloft, remember that if the wind is more southerly and stronger than forecast then the
low pressure system to the west is stronger than forecast.
4. Perhaps the other meaningful weather signs come when we consider what the weather
was forecast to do and what the weather is actually doing.
5. If you can't figure it out with new information gathered in flight, and you aren't quite sure
what is going on, perhaps it is best to go to the nearest suitable airport, land, and start a
new information-gathering campaign.
6. A time when reading the signs is most important is early in the day. The information you
get then is not as complete because a lot of stations don't report overnight, though
automated stations are available 24 hours a day.

73
Turbulence
Instrument Rating Chapter 4 – Video Segment 11

In this section we’ll take a look at turbulence and why you want to avoid it.

Review:

1. Light turbulence causes slight erratic changes in altitude or attitude. Occupants may feel
a slight strain against belts. Items that aren't secured might move about slightly.
2. In moderate turbulence, there are definite strains against belts and unsecured objects
are dislodged. Moderate chop is defined as rapid bumps or jolts without appreciable
altitude or attitude changes.
3. Severe turbulence causes large, abrupt changes in altitude and/or attitude. It usually
causes large airspeed variations and the aircraft may be out of control momentarily.
Occupants are forced violently against belts and unsecured objects move freely about
the cabin.
4. Extreme turbulence is where the aircraft is violently tossed about, is practically
impossible to control, and may be damaged structurally.
5. After thunderstorms, another turbulent place is downwind of mountain ranges when the
wind is strong and perpendicular to the range.
6. Convective turbulence is almost always there during warm days and is most active on
warm summer afternoons when winds are light.
7. The cumulus clouds that form in convective turbulence demand respect because they
are quite turbulent by the time their tops reach 10,000 feet.
8. Most IFR pilots try to avoid all fair weather cumulus, at least to the extent possible.
9. To really understand wind shear turbulence, a pilot has to at least partially immerse
himself in the basic study of weather.
10. Perhaps the occlusion, where a cold front overtakes a warm front because of a strong
circulation around a deepening and slow moving low, creates the greatest atmospheric
confusion and low-level wind shear, and thus the most turbulence.
11. When mechanical or convective turbulence is considered, the faster an airplane
encounters a vertical current, the greater the airplane's reaction to that current.
12. If you are flying at maneuvering speed and you encounter a strong vertical gust, the
airplane would theoretically stall and relieve the loads on the flying surfaces before it
would break.

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Middle Altitude Weather
Instrument Rating Chapter 4 – Video Segment 12

In this section we’ll take a look at the weather when flying in the middle altitudes.

Review:

1. Pilots flying in the middle altitudes spend about the same amount of time in clouds as
they did in their previous lower flying airplane.
2. Probably the best weather avoidance use of altitudes in the 15 to 20 thousand foot range
comes over the mountains of the eastern U.S., following the passage of a strong cold
front.
3. One of the big considerations of middle altitude flying is wind. In the wintertime, the jet
stream cores affect the winds where it’s possible to see velocities close to 100 knots.
4. Ice can be a big middle altitude problem, not so much in the wintertime as in warm fronts
in the other seasons. The freezing level in these fronts is often between 15 and 20
thousand feet and the moisture supply is good.
5. Another big consideration of flying high is that we can put a lot of weather between the
airplane and the ground.
6. In middle altitude flying, even with good surface weather, we can get the worst of a
trough aloft because the clouds that are associated with such a trough usually span this
altitude range.
7. Wind shear turbulence aloft is called clear air turbulence when it occurs with no clouds
around.
8. If you can't get a look at the 500 millibar chart, the winds aloft forecasts for the 18,000
foot level outline what the expected flow is up there and you can visualize what the
conditions are likely to be.
9. A closed low aloft is a complete counter-clockwise circulation in the atmosphere. They
are best seen on a 500 millibar chart.
10. Flying through a closed low aloft at flight level 190 will involve a lot of wind shear
turbulence as you fly from a north wind, into light wind and then into a south wind on the
other side.
11. It's difficult to forecast the formation or the dissipation of a closed low aloft. This in itself
makes it more difficult to forecast surface weather because of the unpredictable nature
of that upper level support.

75
Air Facts: Nighttime Weather
Instrument Rating Chapter 4 – Video Segment 13

In this section we’ll take a look at nighttime weather.

Review:

1. If the weather is bad in the early evening, it is likely to get worse before it gets better
unless some event, like a frontal passage, occurs.
2. You can’t always avoid individual storm cells just by avoiding flashes of lightning. To
attempt this is highly questionable.
3. Keep in mind that a proportionately higher number of IFR accidents occur at night,
usually on approach.
4. There is one place you do have to be careful about lights illuminating clouds. If you are
taking off at a major airport and there are a lot of lights around a mid-field terminal
building and not many lights on the other side of the airplane as you take off, only the
clouds on one side will be illuminated.
5. The visual illusion from the uneven lighting won't be one of wings-level when the wings
are actually level. The illusion can be that you are in a 90-degree bank.

76
Chapter 5 – Advanced IFR

Trainer To High Performance

Instrument Rating Chapter 5 – Video Segment 1

In this section we’ll take a look at why you should get comfortable in flying IFR in your trainer
before flying IFR in a more complex airplane.

Review:

1. In this chapter we'll look at many of the things that affect your flying as you move up in
the level of sophistication in single-engine airplanes.
2. It’s a good idea for new instrument pilots to get comfortable with IFR flying in a familiar
environment before going on to greater things. What this means is to stick with the
airplane you learned in until you get some IFR flying under your belt.
3. The increases in speed, workload, and systems management, mean the pilot must
constantly work to stay ahead of the airplane.

77
Flight Director and HSI
Instrument Rating Chapter 5 – Video Segment 2

In this section we’ll take a look at the flight director and HSI.

Review:

1. A flight director is a well named instrument. Basically it directs the pilot in the proper
movement of the controls, to fly a predetermined task.
2. The flight director will tell you what to do to maintain altitude, fly a heading, or to fly a
navigational problem including an ILS approach.
3. As long as it is done properly, the flight director is easy to follow. If you decide that you
want to do something other than what the flight director is commanding it is best to turn it
off.
4. There is no question that you can fly a much better ILS approach with a flight director
than with raw data. Because the flight director doesn't require the constant interpretation
that is needed to fly a good ILS without a flight director.
5. The HSI is a combination of a heading indicator, an Omni Bearing Selector, and a course
deviation indicator. It also includes a heading bug to use in selecting a heading to fly.
6. If, at the decision altitude, the requirements for a landing are not met, the disengage
button should be pressed and the go-around started manually. The flight director can
then be reprogrammed for the climb on the desired heading.
7. Some flight directors have a go-around mode. This may be activated by a button on the
throttle or power levers or on the lower part of instrument panel near the throttle.
8. Using an HSI on a localizer back course is easy. Instead of flying away from the course
deviation indicator needle, you simply set the tail of the OBS needle to the inbound
bearing of the back course and then fly toward the needle.
9. Many flight directors have a control wheel steering feature that can be used when
instituting climbs or descents.
10. While not a replacement for the flight director, some electronic systems may also allow
the display of the desired flight path using the highway in the sky concept.

78
IFR Use Of The Autopilot
Instrument Rating Chapter 5 – Video Segment 3

In this section, we'll take a look at the various functions of the Garmin GFC 500 autopilot and
how to use it when flying IFR.

Review:

1. You’ll be expected to demonstrate automation management skills during the flight portion
of the checkride, in part by using the autopilot.
2. Autopilots for light airplanes are typically classified as single-axis or dual-axis. A
single-axis system controls roll only, to fly a heading or GPS course. A dual-axis system
controls both roll and pitch, adding the ability to climb or descend and hold a specified
altitude.
3. The best place to start learning about an autopilot is in the Airplane Flight Manual
Supplement for the model, which may be in the POH or in a standalone document if the
autopilot was installed as a later upgrade.
4. The red autopilot disconnect button includes two functions: press it once to disconnect
the autopilot, or press and hold it to manually interrupt the electric pitch trim.
5. The Garmin GFC 500 requires a Garmin flight display, like the G5 flight instrument, to
function. This installation will include an autopilot controller with buttons and knobs, and
autopilot status is shown at the top of the G5 flight instrument.
6. Garmin uses green and white coloring for the various mode annunciations to show active
vs. armed status. The active lateral and vertical mode will always be shown in green in
the innermost position.
7. After pressing the AP button on the controller, the GFC 500 defaults to roll and pitch
modes.
8. The Vertical Speed mode, which is activated with the VS button, will hold the current
vertical speed when the mode is selected.
9. You can also have the autopilot pitch for a particular speed during the climb using the
airspeed hold function, labeled as I-A-S on the controller.
10. The autopilot will automatically level off at the selected altitude displayed above the
altimeter on the G5 when the white A-L-T-S annunciation is shown.
11. To use heading hold, first set the heading bug using either the knob on the G5 directional
instrument or the heading knob on the GFC-500 to the desired heading and press the
H-D-G button.
12. When flying en route, you’ll use the NAV mode on the autopilot to intercept and track the
current GPS course or VOR radial

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13. When flying an approach with vertical guidance, such as an ILS, LPV or LNAV+V, the
Approach mode will be used to track both the final approach course and glideslope down
to the runway.
14. The autopilot must be disconnected 200 feet AGL, as stated in the operating limitations.
This coincides with the lowest minimums for a Category 1 ILS approach.

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Air Facts: Night IFR
Instrument Rating Chapter 5 – Video Segment 4

In this section we’ll take a look at night IFR flying.

Review:

1. Night IFR is one of the most difficult things that we do with our airplanes. And this level
of difficulty leads to a dramatic increase in risk for most pilots.
2. Engine failure related accidents are a small part of the night IFR accident picture.
Systems failures, vacuum and electric, account for slightly more problems but when all
mechanical problems are considered, they are a factor in only about 10 percent of the
serious IFR accidents that occur at night.
3. Where you may be able to read charts easily in the daytime without glasses, the
numbers might appear fuzzy in the limited light available at night.
4. Never leave a published minimum altitude based on a sighting of anything other than
lights associated with the runway.

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Engine Instrumentation
Instrument Rating Chapter 5 – Video Segment 5

In this section we’ll take a look at engine instrumentation.

Review:

1. One measure of how hard an engine works is the relationship between how big it is and
how much horsepower it produces. A yardstick of an engine's size is the total volume
displaced by its pistons in one revolution of the crankshaft.
2. Better fuels and design improvements such as controllable pitch propellers, geared
engines, turbo charging, higher compression ratios, and direct fuel injection contributed
to increased power with a minimal increase in weight.
3. Manifold pressure gauges, fuel pressure and flow gauges, cylinder head temperature
gauges, exhaust gas temperature gauges, and turbine inlet temperature gauges, are
some of the instruments used to measure performance and condition.
4. Fixed pitch propellers are designed for best engine propeller combination efficiency at a
specific engine rotation and airplane forward speed. For fixed pitch propellers, the
tachometer gives an adequate indication of power used.
5. Attaching a constant speed propeller is like adding a transmission to the
engine-propeller system. Aircraft engines are rated at a specific RPM.
6. Preignition is premature ignition caused by hot spots in the combustion chamber.
Detonation occurs when high pressure and temperature cause the violent explosion of
the fuel air mixture ahead of the normal flame front. Engines are especially vulnerable to
detonation when power output is high and fuel air mixture is lean.
7. Along with a tachometer, the constant speed propeller-engine combinations must have a
manifold pressure gauge, which indirectly indicates the power output of the engine. The
manifold pressure gauge indicates the pressure of the fuel-air mixture immediately
before it enters the cylinder.
8. A mixture ratio of approximately 15 to 1 is considered to be chemically perfect in that all
of the fuel and oxygen are combined in the combustion process. This mixture also
creates the most heat.
9. Most general aviation airplanes have a fuel pressure gauge which can be calibrated in
pounds per hour, gallons per hour, or pounds per square inch.
10. While the oil temperature gauge will warn of high temperatures, a cylinder head
temperature gauge will give a much earlier warning of increasing temperatures.

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Air Facts: Keep It Running
Instrument Rating Chapter 5 – Video Segment 6

In this section we’ll take a look at some rental considerations regarding more complex airplane
engines.

Review:

1. A more complex engine, whether turbocharged or just with more horsepower, requires
more loving care and understanding than the four cylinder engines that power most of
the trainers.
2. Proper handling means especially leaning properly and being gentle on the throttle.
3. Temperature, especially cylinder head temperature, is the most important thing to
monitor on a big bore engine. While you should consult your pilot’s operating handbook
for specifics, a good rule of thumb is to keep CHTs under 400 degrees for best reliability.
4. Oil analysis is widely used and effective for catching potential problems. The trend
matters more than the specific values on the report, so if you own your airplane, get in
the habit of doing oil analysis at every oil change.
5. Modern technology makes it easy— engine monitors show temperatures for each
cylinder, and some can export trend monitoring data to spreadsheets or apps for detailed
analysis.
6. You can also tell a lot about a rental fleet by noting the number of discrepancies left
unattended on the airplanes.
7. How is the oil consumption? A wise man at one of the manufacturers once said that if
an engine uses more than a quart of oil every three hours, you’d better pay attention and
do something about it.

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Principles of Turbocharging
Instrument Rating Chapter 5 – Video Segment 7

In this section we’ll take a look at some considerations regarding turbocharged engines.

Review:

1. Turbo-superchargers, driven by engine exhaust, are the systems used in most all
contemporary airplanes with the name shortened to a more manageable turbocharger.
2. Non-turbocharged engines lose power with altitude. Even at peak efficiency, the normally
aspirated engine's manifold pressure cannot exceed atmospheric pressure.
3. In order to maintain power at higher altitudes, the mass of the fuel air mixture must be
increased, or at least maintained, by packing air into the induction system.
4. Turbocharging does that by compressing air and increasing the pressure and density of
the fuel air mixture.
5. Turbochargers utilize a turbine in the exhaust system. The turbine is driven by exhaust
gasses and in turn, it drives the compressor.
6. The compressor does just what its name says – it compresses air for use in the induction
system to maintain power and, in the case of a pressurized airplane, to pump up the
cabin.
7. Some supercharged or turbocharged engines are called altitude engines, and are
capable of producing rated takeoff power from sea level to an established higher altitude.
8. The higher operating temperatures of the turbocharged engine increase the risk of
preignition and detonation as well as adding to the general wear and tear on the engine.
9. Some systems use an intercooler to cool the compressed air as it enters the induction
system. Intercoolers are adaptable to all the various types of turbocharging systems.
10. Some turbocharged engines are said to be ground boosted. Ground boosting is when
turbocharging increases the manifold pressure above standard sea level pressure.
11. Ground boosting can increase the horsepower output at sea level as well as the altitude
capability of an engine without increasing the size of the engine itself.
12. Overboosting may damage and even destroy an engine. Almost all modern
factory-installed systems have an arrangement that is designed to prevent overboosting.

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Oxygen Use
Instrument Rating Chapter 5 – Video Segment 8

In this section we’ll take a look at the use of oxygen for the high flier.

Review:

1. Oxygen is extracted from the air by the lungs and is distributed through the body by the
circulation system. As blood circulates, it picks up oxygen from the lungs, transports the
oxygen to the tissues and carries carbon dioxide back to the lungs where it is exhaled.
2. When air is inhaled at high altitudes, there isn't enough oxygen pressure to force it
through the membranes of the lungs into the bloodstream. This condition, where the
body lacks sufficient oxygen, is called hypoxia.
3. At 10,000 feet, the blood can still pick up 90 percent of its capacity. At that altitude a
healthy person will become slightly impaired after some time and be less able to
concentrate.
4. At 14,000 feet, a healthy person may fly off course, forget to switch tanks or disregard
hazardous situations. Exposure to environmental air from 18,000 feet up will cause
collapse.
5. Hypoxia sneaks up in the person. Early symptoms resemble a pleasant, mild alcohol
intoxication, the mind doesn't function properly, and muscular coordination suffers.
There's a drowsy feeling, nonchalance, and a false sense of security. It gets only worse
from here.
6. Pilots who fly high need a pressurized cabin or supplemental oxygen. Part 91 requires
that supplemental oxygen be provided for all occupants all of the time above 15,000 feet
cabin pressure altitude.
7. The minimum flight crew must be provided and use supplemental oxygen for a flight of
more than 30 minutes above a cabin pressure altitude of 12,500 feet. Above 14,000 feet
cabin pressure altitude supplemental oxygen must be provided and used continuously
by the flight crew.
8. Night vision is affected by hypoxia at much lower altitudes. After several hours at 8,000
feet, instrument panel lights and lights on the surface begin to dull. For most people the
onset of hypoxia is pleasurable and overrides the instinct for survival.

85
Pressurization
Instrument Rating Chapter 5 – Video Segment 9

In this section we’ll take a look at airplane pressurization.

Review:

1. Pressurization is exactly what the name implies – the air pressure in the cabin is
maintained at an altitude lower than that at which the airplane is flying.
2. This is done simply by pumping more air into the cabin than is allowed to leave, thus
creating a pressure differential between inside and outside. This differential is measured
in pounds per square inch, PSI.
3. There are different kinds of controllers for pressurization systems. The simplest is set
manually. Check out your system thoroughly in your owner’s manual.
4. In a more sophisticated pressurization system you'll find a cabin rate control added. This
allows the cabin to climb smoothly to the cabin altitude appropriate to the cruising
altitude.
5. When the airplane reaches this altitude, the valve that controls the outflow of air from the
cabin begins to let less air out than is coming in.
6. The bleed air from the turbocharger that is introduced into the cabin continues and as
the airplane climbs the cabin remains at the selected altitude until the maximum
differential is reached.
7. For safety, there are two outflow valves. The primary is set at the maximum differential.
The second is set slightly above the maximum differential and acts as a relief valve
should the first one fail.
8. Most all cabins leak some air. The older they get, the more they leak. A pressurized
airplane has to have a stronger structure and thicker windows to withstand the pressure
differential.

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Closer Look: Flight Level Regulations
Instrument Rating Chapter 5 – Video Segment 10

In this section we’ll take a look at some of the rules and regulations pertaining to high flying.

Review:

1. In Class A airspace, which starts at 18,000 feet MSL and extends up to and includes
flight level 600, all aircraft must fly under instrument flight rules. Class A is presently the
only operational airspace that requires all aircraft to be on an IFR flight plan regardless
of the weather conditions.
2. VFR on top is not allowed in Class A. However, see and avoid is the rule anytime you're
operating in visual meteorological conditions, including when in Class A airspace.
3. All aircraft must be at an assigned flight level. Appropriate radio and transponder are
required.
4. Checklists usually call for setting the altimeter to 29.92 inches of mercury, climbing
through 17,500 feet. ATC requires the controller to furnish the current altimeter setting
when clearing an aircraft to descend below flight level 180.
5. High altitude en route charts show single direction preferred routes with an arrowhead.
6. Not specifically a part of Class A rules is the requirement for DME at and above 24,000
feet MSL if you are navigating by VOR or VOR based area navigation equipment.

87
Air Facts: All-Weather Airplane?
Instrument Rating Chapter 5 – Video Segment 11

Is there such a thing as an all-weather airplane? The answer is a resounding NO.

Review:

1. Success in IFR weather flying has more to do with the pilot than it has to do with the
airplane or the equipment in the airplane.
2. The real measure of excellence on the part of a pilot is to be able to take no for an
answer. Whether it’s storms, ice, or conditions below minimums for landing, there are
times when you can't make it work.
3. The pilot's job is one of flying the airplane well when conditions are acceptable, and not
flying in conditions that are unacceptable.
4. Your airplane might have better equipment and more performance but the outcome is
strictly rooted in your ability.

88
Chapter 6 – IFR Flying Techniques

Federal Aviation Regulations

Instrument Rating Chapter 6 – Video Segment 1

In this section, let’s take a closer look at more of the federal regulations. In order to operate
under instrument flight rules there are regulations which cover the airplane and you.

Review:

1. You are required to have two-way communication and navigation suitable for your flight.
2. When operating IFR in Class B airspace, you must have a working VOR or TACAN, or
an operable and suitable area navigation system, such as an IFR-approved GPS.
3. A gyroscopic rate of turn indicator is required except for some aircraft and helicopters
which have a third attitude instrument system.
4. The airplane will need a sensitive altimeter, and a clock which displays hours, minutes,
and seconds with a sweep second pointer or digital display.
5. You need a generator or alternator of adequate capacity and attitude and heading
indicators.
6. A VOR receiver used under IFR must have been operationally checked and found to be
within limits within the preceding 30 days.
7. The pilot in command is responsible to determine that the aircraft is airworthy. An aircraft
may not be airworthy if the required checks and inspections have not been completed.
8. Approach-approved GPS units must have a current database to be legal for approaches.
9. In order to be pilot in command under IFR or in weather conditions less than the
minimums for VFR, the pilot must hold an instrument rating and have the required recent
experience.
10. To be considered current to fly IFR as pilot in command, the pilot must have, within the
preceding six calendar months, and in actual or simulated instrument conditions, flown
and logged at least: six instrument approaches, holding procedures, and intercepted and
tracked courses through the use of navigation systems.
11. The requirements for an instrument proficiency check are found in the instrument rating
Airman Certification Standards (ACS) publication.
12. Successful completion of the proficiency check makes you current for 6 calendar
months.

89
Air Facts: Check It Out
Instrument Rating Chapter 6 – Video Segment 2

Checklists are important in all flying, but especially in IFR flying.

Review:

1. Using a checklist can't be a mindless exercise. It has to be a methodical way of

preparing the aircraft for what comes next and making sure that everything is set
properly.
2. You might want to enhance the checklist that is provided for your airplane. If you prepare
your own, be sure you include every item that is on the manufacturer’s list.
3. Where you can often improve on a checklist is the organization – some lists jump about
the cockpit instead of following a smooth right to left progression, for example.
4. Pilots who fly the same airplane all the time often have the checklist memorized. That’s
okay, as long as it is complete and the pilot uses the checklist to review that all the items
were completed using the memorized flow.
5. In addition to the routine manufacturer’s checklists, one that many professional pilots
like, and use on every flight, is what is called an in-range checklist. You can use any
distance you want as long as you allow enough time and stick to it. It’s at this in-range
point that you should make the final fuel tank selection for landing, make sure the
airplane is lit up well, tune in the ATIS and set up the final avionics configuration for the
approach.
6. If the weather at the destination is close enough to minimums that the approach might
be missed, it’s at this time that you should make the final selection of an alternate.
7. Most of us use the old GUMPS as a last minute reminder that the gas needs to be on the
best tank, the undercarriage should certainly be down for landing, the mixture should be
as desired, and likewise for the prop, seat belts and switches.

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IFR Communications and ATC Reports
Instrument Rating Chapter 6 – Video Segment 3

In this section we’ll investigate the communication process in IFR flying. The measure of
success here is found in understanding, on both sides of the conversation.

Review:

1. You must know exactly what the controller wants you to do. Make sure there is
understanding before a subject is dismissed as completed.
2. Good phraseology is mostly logical. Use whatever words are needed to get the message
across but avoid jargon or CB talk.
3. Try to use words from the Pilot/Controller Glossary. You can find it online and it’s often
included with the AIM, when printed. This glossary is also used by the controllers.
4. Some basic communications techniques: Listen for a moment before you transmit, know
what to say before you key the mike, if you call and nobody answers, wait a few
moments before calling again, and always use your call sign.
5. The basic format for a radio call is to identify the facility you are calling, identify yourself,
and state your message.
6. An IFR clearance should be written down, in rote fashion, to be understood later. Next,
read it back to make sure you got it right. Then, try to understand the clearance.
7. Here are a few of the mandatory reporting situations: We must report to ATC when:
Encountering hazardous weather and any unforecast weather conditions, with any
information relating to the safety of the flight, if any avionics malfunction, if you deviate
from your clearance, and when vacating an altitude for a newly assigned altitude. You
will want to check out the others as well.
8. When you are out of radar coverage, pilots of IFR flights are expected to make position
reports.
9. Both the Jeppesen and FAA charts show compulsory reporting points as solid triangles.
10. If you are not flying on an airway, the fixes used to define the route become compulsory
reporting points.
11. The format of a position report is: Who you are, name of the point, time over the point,
altitude, and estimated time over the next compulsory reporting point.

91
Air Facts: Radio Pro
Instrument Rating Chapter 6 – Video Segment 4

Talking on the radio is an important part of flying IFR, and in this section we'll review seven bad
communication habits that can make you sound less professional and potentially lead to safety
issues.

Review:

1. Avoid the phrase "with you" when first checking on with a new controller.
2. When ATC clears you for something, they usually expect a readback of that clearance,
just to make sure both sides understand what’s about to happen. Simply stating "Roger"
is not acceptable.
3. Avoid starting every transmission with "Ah" or "And" when talking to ATC.
4. Avoid giving too much information to ATC when you have a request, since they may not
be ready to process it all right away when the frequency is busy.
5. Use the guard frequency, 121.5 MHz, for official business only.
6. Refrain from giving position reports in reference to IFR fixes at nontowered airports –
distance and direction will be much useful for non-IFR pilots in the pattern.
7. Do not use the phrase "Any traffic in the area please advise" when first switching over to
a nontowered airport CTAF frequency.

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Lost Communications Procedures
Instrument Rating Chapter 6 – Video Segment 5

In this section, let’s take a closer look at what we should do if we lose communication capability.

Review:

1. FAR 91.185 and the AIM spell out the actions to take in the event of a two-way radio
failure.
2. Pilots should not be reluctant to exercise the emergency authority that allows the pilot to
deviate from the rules to the extent necessary to cope with the emergency.
3. If the failure occurs in VFR conditions or if VFR is encountered, the pilot should continue
under VFR, land as soon as practicable, and call ATC on the phone.
4. When confronted with the situation, it's best to consider each of the dimensions of
control, route, altitude, and time, separately.
5. For route, follow the last clearance. If the last clearance is short of the destination, follow
the route that ATC has advised may be expected. Otherwise, follow the route on the
flight plan.
6. While route has a definite order of priority, altitude is based on flying each airway
segment at the highest of three possible altitudes.
7. During the cruise portion of the flight, fly at the highest of the following altitudes or flight
levels – the last clearance, the minimum altitude or flight level for IFR, or the altitude or
flight level specified in an “expect further clearance.”
8. Descent for the approach can start at the initial approach fix, or the fix from which the
approach begins, and as close as possible to the estimated time of arrival.
9. If the pilot has acknowledged receipt of the information about the approach and initial
approach fix to use, the pilot must use that approach and initial approach fix.
10. If a communications failure happens while in a holding pattern, leave the holding fix at
“the expect further clearance” time. This is true whether holding en route or for an
approach.
11. The transponder code for a two-way communications failure is 7600.
12. Generator or alternator failure will eventually cause failure of all electrical systems. This
means loss of all NAV/COM radios.
13. With a total NAV/COM failure the best possible solution is to fly to VFR conditions.

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The Pilot’s Role In The System
Instrument Rating Chapter 6 – Video Segment 6

In this section we’ll investigate the pilot’s role in the ATC system.

Review:

1. The responsibilities of pilots and air traffic controllers are clear. The pilot is directly
responsible for, and is the final authority as to, the safe operation of the aircraft.
2. The pilot is authorized, in an emergency requiring immediate action, to deviate from a
clearance or from regulations.
3. The controller is responsible to give first priority to the separation of aircraft and the
issuance of radar safety alerts which include terrain, obstruction, and aircraft conflict
alerts.
4. The pilot should normally always comply with the controller’s command. Sometimes it
may be necessary to deviate from the command and declare an emergency. In this
situation the controller will do whatever it takes to help resolve the emergency.
5. A controller can declare an emergency for a pilot if the controller feels the situation is
getting out of hand and the pilot is not acting appropriately.

94
Building Margins
Instrument Rating Chapter 6 – Video Segment 7

When flying somewhere IFR, it's easy to get the feeling that there is not a lot to do. This is
especially true if the airplane is clear of clouds. Fly, navigate, communicate, switch tanks, and
monitor the proceedings. That about covers the necessities. It is in the slack time, though, that
we can do a lot more, a lot that is valuable and can make easier any change in plans.

Review:

1. The main reason that we would change plans would be weather. A second reason might
be suspicion of the mechanical condition of the airplane. A third reason might be a
passenger with a compelling reason to be on the ground instead of in flight.
2. A pilot who had a plan formulated in advance and who had good knowledge of the
weather all over the area would be simply flying with better margins.
3. Night is a time when we need greater margins. This is especially true for those who don't
fly a lot of night IFR. Night is a time of increased risk, not so much from an engine failure
and subsequent forced landing in the dark, but from our inability to see during routine
operations.
4. Not only is it a good idea to build margins with facilities like instrument landing systems
or VASIs, it’s a good idea to back the good intentions up with extra fuel.
5. There are things you can carry in the airplane to increase safety margins. At night,
flashlights are a necessary backup.
6. Day or night, a battery operated handheld transceiver gives you that extra margin in
case of radio or electrical problems. The same goes for a portable GPS.
7. We also need to build margins for ourselves. A pilot who is sub-par is in bad enough
shape when VFR. Punching around inside the clouds when you aren't in good form is
uncomfortable as well as being downright dangerous. If a pilot goes instrument flying
when he doesn't feel well, there is little mental and physical margin.
8. A system of checks and double checks can help catch any mistakes as soon as they are
made and before they affect flight operations.
9. Day or night, build some margin by studying standard terminal arrival route and
approach charts in advance.
10. Building a safety margin in proficiency and ability is something that is done on every
flight by striving for perfection, as well as in a program of recurrent training.
11. When you complete a difficult approach, or squeak through a difficult situation with the
old, I just barely managed that, feeling, that is not good, and a clear sign there were no
margins. Build some.
12. Finally, the biggest margin of all can be built by managing the thought processes. Flying
single pilot IFR can be a lonely business, but only if you let it be a lonely business. A
pilot who develops the ability to challenge himself on a continuous basis can conduct a

95
 flight operation that has almost as many backups as when there are two pilots in the
aircraft.
13. Using an autopilot en route and on the approach can build margins too, allowing the
human pilot to backup and monitor the mechanical pilot.
14. A place where a two-crew airplane has the biggest advantage over a single-pilot
operation is in approach to minimums. The single pilot on such an approach not only
lacks the backup of another mind and another pair of eyes, he doesn't have another pilot
there to be a conscience if he attempts to go below minimums to try to complete a
mission impossible.
15. Building margins is one of the more enjoyable challenges of instrument flying. By putting
the effort into this you can fly with the feeling that you’ve built in good, healthy margins.

96
Air Facts: Flight Plans, Fact & Fiction
Instrument Rating Chapter 6 – Video Segment 8

A lot of the information on an IFR flight plan is for purposes other than air traffic control, and in
this section will explain the purposes of each.

Review:

1. The ICAO flight plan form that has become the standard way to file a flight plan - it asks
for detailed avionics specifications, survival equipment and much more, but the controller
doesn't really need to know the color of your airplane or how many life rafts you have.
2. ATC is mainly concerned with the proposed route, altitude, and speed. The other items
on your flight plan are for search and rescue purposes, should you fail to arrive.
3. The factual parts of the flight plan include the airplane number, type, speed, departure
point, fuel on board, our name and address, the number of people on board, and the
color of the airplane.
4. Some of the changeable items might include, the requested cruising altitude, route of
flight, the time of departure, the destination, the time en route, and the alternate airport.
5. The clearance is kept on file for two hours after your proposed time off.
6. Your ultimate alternate should be based on a continuous check of weather while en
route.
7. Our flight plan is an outline of what we propose. Items can change.

97
Below Minimum Weather
Instrument Rating Chapter 6 – Video Segment 9

In this section we’ll take a look at how to think about weather that is below minimums. The first
thing you have to know is what the minimums are for the approach to be flown.

Review:

1. For an ILS approach, you normally need a half mile visibility. At some airports your
minimum is a runway visual range of 1800 feet, about three eighths of a mile. The
decision height is usually 200 feet.
2. Some nonprecision approaches, mainly localizers or straight-in VOR approaches, have a
half mile visibility minimum with MDAs in the 400 to 600 foot range. The lowest possible
MDA for a VOR approach is 250 feet.
3. Most below minimum conditions are caused by fog. Most often fog develops in the
morning but it is entirely possible to have fog that lasts all day long.
4. Cold or snow-covered ground with a low and strong temperature inversion can cause
this as warm moist air flows over the cold surface. This is called advection fog.
5. Ground fog, or radiation fog, usually forms on clear nights with light or no wind and a
small temperature-dew point spread. This fog usually forms at night or near daybreak.
Often it forms, or thickens significantly, right after sunrise.
6. It's difficult to make an accurate determination of when fog will lift. Radiation fog is
probably the easiest to forecast, advection fog the most difficult.
7. Takeoff minimums do not apply to Part 91, not for hire, flight operations. There are no
below-minimum conditions here. It's perfectly legal to take off in zero-zero conditions.
But it’s not necessarily safe or a good idea.
8. While the visibility minimum is the only true minimum, the decision height on an ILS is
also a minimum in the sense that if you can't see the runway or the lights to make a
normal landing from there, the approach becomes a missed approach.

98
Air Facts: Talking to Controllers
Instrument Rating Chapter 6 – Video Segment 10

One of the things that you can do to better understand Air Traffic Control is visit an ATC facility
and talk with some of the controllers that work there.

Review:

1. It's ok to file direct routing on your IFR flight plan, but you may get assigned a preferred
departure route when leaving from congested airspace.
2. Controllers will often allow you to go direct to your destination while en route, but a
different controlling facility further down your route may need to issue you a route
change to keep you clear of special use airspace or put you on an arrival procedure.
3. ATC always saves the first IFR altitude for departures and arrivals in terminal airspace.
4. It's ok to ask for an altitude that's wrong for the direction of flight if needed for weather –
the controller can coordinate to make that happen.
5. Pilots need to be forthcoming on the radio when something isn't right, whether it be
in-climate weather, or the failure of a piece of equipment on the airplane.

99
Planning For The Approach
Instrument Rating Chapter 6 – Video Segment 11

The instrument approach and landing is the part of the flight that requires the most attention to
detail and the most precise flying. Unfortunately, it’s the last part of the IFR flight when you are
most likely to be tired and anxious to get on the ground.

Review:

1. Planning for the approach starts on the ground as part of preflight planning.
2. If you are flying into a terminal area you might be issued a STAR, as part of the transition
from the en route system to the approach itself.
3. When briefing STARs, make sure to review any notes related to that particular
procedure. While many of the restrictions will only be applicable to faster jets and
turboprops, there may be some important instructions that apply to all aircraft types. Also
review the entire procedure in advance to see if there are any required crossing altitudes
or speed restrictions.
4. Check if your destination airport includes a Digital ATIS transcript along with the airport
weather. This will provide guidance on what approach to expect, barring a major wind
shift before you get there. If a digital ATIS transcript isn’t available for the destination, the
current and forecast winds will also give a clue as to which runway to expect.
5. Ask yourself about the approach. Are there any limitations or differences in the remarks
section? Consider many elements of the approach including: DA/MDA penalties due to
altimeter settings, approach lighting systems, wind, frequencies, radar coverage,
procedure turns, etc.
6. You can use an approved GPS to substitute for DME if the fix names are in the GPS
database.
7. The inoperative components or visual aids table in the TPP has to be checked to find out
if the inoperative component affects the minimums for the approach.
8. Organize the charts. If you’re flying with a tablet, use the Plates or Binder function to
group all the required charts for the trip, including airport diagrams, SIDs, STARs and
approach charts. Don’t forget to add the approaches for the departure airport too in case
you unexpectedly need to return.

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Closer Look: FAA vs. Jeppesen
Instrument Rating Chapter 6 – Video Segment 12

In this section we take a look at FAA and Jeppesen charts. They both meet the standards of the
terminal procedures manual and other FAA requirements, so the differences between FAA and
Jeppesen charts are those of style rather than substance. In this section we take a look at flight
planning and charts.

Review:

1. When flying with FAA charts, you’ll find supplemental information like non-standard
alternate minimums, inoperative components tables and nonstandard takeoff minimums
in the Terminal Procedures Supplement.
2. Jeppesen simplifies things a bit by including the inoperate component penalties right in
the minimums section of the chart. The minimums are displayed in both RVR and statute
miles, eliminating the need to reference a conversion chart when RVR isn’t reported.
3. When flying a procedure that relies on a glideslope or glide path, like an ILS or LPV
approach, Jeppesen includes a rate of descent table to help you determine the descent
rate required in feet per minute to fly the approach at various groundspeeds.
4. With Jeppesen charts, takeoff minimums and obstacle departure procedures are
presented on their own page for each airport.
5. Certain Jeppesen departure and arrival procedure charts are drawn to scale, displaying
a more accurate spatial representation of the waypoints and segments of the procedure.
6. Unlike the static FAA en route charts, Jeppesen’s IFR en route charts are data driven
and increase in detail as you zoom in.
7. For complete flight planning, FAA chart users may have to refer to Airport/Facility
Directories, area charts, low altitude en route charts, and the terminal procedures
publications, TPP.
8. Jeppesen shows airports with instrument approaches using blue colors and capital
letters for the city name. Jeppesen shows airports without instrument approaches using
green colors. FAA charts use blue or green colors for airports with an approach, and
brown colors for airports without an instrument approach.
9. Jeppesen shows only the airport name, city, identifier and elevation, whereas FAA also
includes the length of the longest runway, and the AWOS or ATIS frequency. They also
show the airport identifier, if it’s in Class C or D airspace, if airport lighting is available,
and if it has pilot controlled lighting.
10. In addition to the terminal procedures and en route charts, Jeppesen also produces a
comprehensive aviation directory called the Airway Manual for each continent. It includes
international flight procedures, comprehensive airport directory, charting change notices
and much more.

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Instrument Flight Test
Instrument Rating Chapter 6 – Video Segment 13

In this section we will take a look at the practical test - the last step on the way to the instrument
rating. It may be given by an FAA inspector or a designated examiner.

Review:

1. You will need to bring a number of items to your appointment. Your pilot and medical
certificates, your logbook endorsed by your instructor, your written test report, photo I-D,
and a completed application for an airman certificate or rating.
2. Some examiners are using IACRA instead of the paper 8710. IACRA stands for
integrated airman certification and/or rating application, and it is an electronic,
web-based system that replaces the 8710, helps reduce errors, and streamlines FAA
paperwork.
3. You will also need to bring the equipment you normally use to help you plan a flight, such
as current charts, a computer and plotter, flight plan forms, and flight logs. A current AIM
and a hood or other view-limiting device will also be needed.
4. The airplane must have all of the required instruments and equipment.
5. In addition to the required documents for the airplane, you must present the
maintenance records. All the required maintenance inspections and equipment checks
must be current.
6. The practical test involves all the aspects of an IFR flight. There is a ground phase,
which is really an oral examination, followed by the flight phase.
7. You will be asked about all phases of IFR flying; the airplane’s performance,
cross-country preparation, obtaining weather information, and the like.
8. During the flight phase you are expected to demonstrate that you understand and can
comply with ATC clearances for departure, en route, holding, and arrival procedures.
9. There will be two nonprecision approaches and one precision approach on the test. One
of the nonprecision approaches must be performed without the use of the primary flight
instruments.
10. If there is an autopilot installed, you will be expected to use it on one of the nonprecision
approaches, and at other times to assist in the management of the aircraft.
11. Basic instrument maneuvers and recoveries from unusual attitudes will also be on the
test.

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Glass Checkride
Instrument Rating Chapter 6 – Video Segment 14

In this section, let’s take a look at glass cockpit equipped airplanes – they are unique.

Review:

1. Some of the glass cockpit airplanes don’t have a vacuum system. They are all-electric.
The FARs require that an aircraft have adequate electrical storage capacity, as in a
battery, to operate essential equipment for 30 minutes after a charging system failure.
2. The practical test standards, PTS, call for the applicant to fly a nonprecision approach
using the standby instrumentation in a glass cockpit airplane.
3. It would be a good idea to go over what will be expected of you in advance, regarding
the loss of electrical power. It’s something to discuss during the oral exam before the
flight test.
4. The autopilot is an integral part of glass cockpit airplanes and the FAA requires, on the
flight test, that an autopilot, if installed, be used to assist in the management of the
airplane on a nonprecision approach.
5. GPS approach proficiency must be demonstrated as well on the flight test, and its
database has to be current.
6. Realize that the Garmin G1000 in Cessnas and the Avidyne in Cirrus and Piper
airplanes are different in some ways. These differences could affect your checkride.
7. Regardless of the system, you will want to turn off any unnecessary electrical devices
after a complete or partial electrical failure.

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