C u rricu lu m D e velop m e n t

Curriculum

. Prepared by:
Dr. Ma. Corazon B. Sigua and Prof. Bert J. Tuga

Competencies:
1. Apply approaches to
curriculum development
2. Align curriculum
components to instruction
and assessment
3. Distinguish the roles of
stakeholders in the delivery
of the curriculum

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 P ro fessio n a l E d u cation

PART I - CONTENT UPDATE

C urriculum : C oncepts, Nature and Purposes

1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS IN CURRICULUM .

• Curriculum as a cumulative tradition of organized knowledge
■ Curriculum as an experience .'
• Curriculum as an instructional plan
• Curriculum as an instructional outcome

Levels of Curriculum
• societal level of curriculum - the farthest from the learners since this is
where the public stakeholders (politicians, special interest groups, admin­
istrators, professional specialists) participate in Identifying the goals, the
topics to be studied, time to be spent in teaching/learning, and materials
to aid instruction:
• institutional level of curriculum - refers to the curriculum derived from the
societal level, with modification by local educators or lay people; often or­
ganized according to subjects and includes topics ami themes to be stud­
ied; may also include standards, philosophies, lesson plans, and teaching
guides.
• instructional level of curriculum - refers to how teachers use the curriculum
developed in the societal level and modified in the institutional level, or what
authorities have determined; involves the teachers' Instructional strategies,
styles and materials used.
• experiential level of curriculum - the curriculum perceived and experiencari
byeachstudentandmay, therefore, vary among learners because of Indi­
vidual differences. * •
■ Includes both curriculum processes (procedures in creating, using and
evaluating the curricula) and curriculum product or projects, resulting from
curriculum development processes; includes curriculum guides, courses

Or. Ma. Corazon B. Sigua and Prof. Bert J. Tujft

 Pro fessio n al E d u ca tio n

of "Study; syllabi, resource uriits and other document that deal with content
' of schooling.

II. FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM

A. Psychological Foundation
Psychology is a unifying element of the learning process. It forms the basis for
the methods, materials and activities for learning and subsequently serves as
basis for many curriculum decisions.

1. Edward Thorndike 1. Jean Piaget 1. Abraham Maslow

2. Ivan Pavlov 2. John Dewey 2. Carl Rogers
3. Burrhus Frederic 3. Jerome Bruner 3. Louis Raths
Skinner

Behaviorism and Curriculum

• curriculum should be organized so students experience success in mastering
the subject matter
■ highly prescriptive and diagnostic in approach
• rely on step-by-step procedure, structured methods of learning
' • for students who have difficulty learning, curriculum and instruction can
be broken down into small units with appropriate sequencing of taste aid
reinforcement of desired behavior
Cognition and Curriculum
• the cognitive approach constitutes a logical method for organizing and in- •
terpreting learning '
• the approach is rooted in the’tradition of subject matter .
* • %
Dr. Ma. Corazon B . Sigua and Prof. Bert J. Tuga
 C u rricu lu m D evelop m e nt

. • educators have been trained in cognitive approaches aril they have better
• understanding of them
Phenomenology and Curriculum .
■ phenomenologists view the indMdual in relation to the field of which he or
sheoperates .
• different things to different people .
• phenomenologists attempt to rescue learning theory from the [Link]
rigid behaviorists and from overstress on cognitive processes
• the raw data of personal experiences are vital to understanding learning

B. Philosophical Foundation
Philosophy is an important foundations of curriculum because philosophy advo­
cated or reflected by a particular school and its officials influences its goals or
aims and content as well as the organization of its curricutum.

Traditional Progressive
Focus 1 - Intellectual Development
- certain subjects train the mind
- liberal arts and science build intel­ development
lectual power - liberal arts, sciences and practical
- ready made experiences by written arts develop the whole individual
and spoken words - acting, acquiring meaning and
- education conceived as instruction problem-solving .
- education conceive as creative
self-learning

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Focus 2 - Functioning Citizen

- intellectual development makes for - development of godd morals and
good citizenship useful skills
- knowledge and discipline prepare . - direct experience in democratic living

Focus 3 - learners as Individuals In our society

- follow traditional modes of learning - develop own learning modes within
with prepared curriculum a flexible curriculum
- homogenous grouping and special - segregation of learner as undemo­
grouping cratic
- educated rigorously to accept roles - educated to non conformity, indi­
in society viduality, creativeness
Focus 4 - Learners as actual/potential workers
- vocational education follows liberal - vocational and liberal education
arts hand h hand
Focus 5 - Characteristics of curriculum
- fixed, absolute - relative
- subject matter as important and - subject as important for immediate
taught fa future use use

Philosophy Curriculum
• upholds goodness and (ruths
Idealism
• religious and values oriented
• concerned with world of ideas and things fixed within
established subject matter
Realism • theory and principles before application
• includes only the essential
■ emphasized reality of things

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 P ro fe ssio n a l E d u ca tio n

• emphasis on how to think rather than what to think

• emphasis on development of insights, understanding and
skills acquired in creative, reflective, critical thinking
Pragmatism • child-centered
• utilitarian, subject matter taught naturally
• subject matter for stimulating exploration and practical
action
• main concern is to free the child to do his own thing
• frees learners to choose what to learn and believe
Existentialism
• no course guides and content outlines
■ learners sets own identities and standards
• fixed, because the ‘ends' of education are absolute and
universal
• liberal arts and science drawn from human wisdom and
Perennialism classical sources
• taught subject in customary, separate form rather than
combined
• eliminate “extras" and "frills* (music)
■ essential skis (3Rs) (English, Science, History, Math &
Essentiallsm Foreign Language)
• educate the competent person
■ based on students Interest
Progressivism ■ involves the application of human problems & affairs
• Interdisciplinary subiect matter, activities and projects
* put curriculum as a means In remaking society and rebuild­
ing culture
Reconstructionism ■ curriculum should be a catalyst of change
• aims to lead pupils to rational discussions and contract
analysis of Issues .

Dr. Ma. Corazon B'. Sigua and Prof. Bert J. Tugi

 P ro fe s sio n a l E d u ca tio n

C. Socio-Cultural •
Curriculum discussion should consider the social setting especially the re­
lationship between the schools and society and its influence on curriculum
decisions. Social astuteness is essential for curriculum planners and de­
velopers today. Curriculum decision takes place in a complex social setting
through demands that are imposed by society and that filter down to schools

Influence of Society and Culture

a. inhibit change through traditions
b. rate and direction of change
c. correspond to societal changes
d. apply pressure through societal demands

Societal Changes
a. science and technology
b. Improved communication '
c. change family roles
d. population explosions
a social mobility
f. value crisis
g. subject matter related ta events
h. facilities/materials product of technology
j. active participation of stakeholders
j. accountability

D. Historical Foundations
The historical foundation of curriculum reflects the educational focus preva­
lent during a particular period or event in Philippine history. This focus could
be made basis or model for curriculum development of recent years

Dr. Ma. Corazon B. Sigua and Prof. Bert J. Tuga

 C u rricu lu m D evelop m e n t

Differences in Educationduring the Various Historical Eras

I Period Goal Focus Method Course o f General

Study Characteristics
Pre-His- Integration Customs Oral Immer­ None. Not formal; community-
panic of individuals and tradi­ sion based; noeducational
Era Mo the tribe tions svstem
Spanish Spread of Religion Catechetical Not Nograde level; church-
Era Christianity instruction; prescribed; based; no educational
use of flexible; not system
corporal centralized
punishment
rote memori­
zation
Ameri­ Spread of Academic Democratic; Prescribed; Formal; structured; exis­
can Era democracy English Englishas uniform; tence of aneducational
Language mediumof centralized system
and Litera­ Instruction
i ture
Japa­ Spread of the Principles Rote memo­ Preserved; Propaganda tool;
nese Era tew Asian of the New rization; use uniform; repressive!? anti-Ameri­
Ordeir Order of threat and centralized can and anti-British; mi-
punishment tary-backed existence of
an educational system

Adapted bom Curriculum Development. Philippine Setting, A. Bago 2001 p79

III. TYPES AND PATTERNS OF CURRICULUM

A. Sublect-Centered Curriculum
The subject centered curriculum designs are the most popular and widely
used curriculum designs. Knowledge and content are integral parts of the
curriculum. Teacher has full control of tfie curriculum.

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C u rric u lu m D e v e lo p m e n t

1. Separate Subject Design .

Strengths
- the oldest and best known curriculum design-
- based on the concept of knowledge
- is organized by tbe disciplines on scholarly fields of specialized Inquiry
- emphasis on verbal activity, the teacher having the active role
- easy to deliver because complementary materials are readily available
- corresponds to textbook treatment and how teachers are trained as sub­
ject specialists
Limitations
- Isolates and compartmentalizes knowledge
- overemphasis on subject matter resulted in a curriculum that is too tech­
nical and toe specialized
- Inappropriate for a large number of students
- stresses content and neglect students reeds, interests and experiences
- teachers tends to foster passivity for learning among the students
2. Correlated Design
Strengths
- an attempt to eliminate the isolation and compartmentalization of sub­
jects without radically overhauling the subject design curriculum
- disciplines linked while keeping identities of each
Limitations
- will require the teachers to plan their lessons cooperatively
- most class schedules do not allow sufficient block of time for students to
meaningfully study correlated subjects,
3. Broadfield Design /
Strengths t
• serves a response to society's demand for integration of knowledge a itf
more comprehensive models of knowledge
- dissolves the boundaries in ways that make the information meaningful
for the students
- knowledge will no longer be fragmented or linear but multidisciplinary
and multidimensional

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Limitations
- the issue of breadth versus depth
4. Process Design
Strengths
- the numerous curricula for teaching critical thinking exemplify this pro­
cedural design
- learning how to learn design

B. Learner-Centered Design
The students are the center or focus of the program. These designs are found
more frequently at the elementary school level where teachers tend to stress
. the development of the whole child.

1. Child-CenteredDesign
- students are actively involved in their environment
- ‘custom made’ on students lives, needs and interests
- children would attain self-realization through social participation
- emphasis on the child displaced the emphasis on subject-matter
2. Experienced-Centered Design
- curriculum cannot be pre-planned, that everything had to be done “on
the spot’
- heavy emphasis on learners interests and felt needs
- curriculum would be ever changing in addressing the needs of students

C. Problem-Centered Designs
Problem centered designs are organized to reinforce cultural traditions and also
address those community and societal needs that are cpentjy unmet The
major concern Is with genuine life problems, and the need to adjust or-cater to
the concerns and situation of learners

1. Life Situation Design .

Strengths • '
- focus on the^roblem solving procedures-for learning

Dr. M a. Corazon B . Sigua and Prof. B ert J . Tuga

 P ro fe ssio n a l E d u catio n

content is organized in ways to allow students to clearly view problem

areas
- utilizes past and current experiences of learners as a means of making
' them analyze the basic areas of living
- lining of subject matter to real situations increased the relevance of the
curriculum
Limitations
- ability to determine the scope and sequence of the essential areas of
living
- tends to indoctrinate youth into the existing condition
- many teachers are not comfortable with it because it departs from cur­
ricular tradition maintained by colleges and universities
2. Core Design
- sometimes called “social function"
- aims at creating a universal sense of inquiry, discuss and understanding
among learners of different background
- centers on general education and is based on problems arising out of
common human activities
- variations of core design
a) subject matter core would be classified as subject centered design
b) areas of living core rooted in the progressive education tradition
- it unifies content, present subject matter relevant to the learners and
encourages active processing of information

C urriculum Approaches

Several curriculum approaches reflect the developers’ view of reality, phi-

losdphy, history, psychology, social issues and the domain of knowledge among others. .
An approach expresses a viewpoint about the development and design of curriculums. .
It can be viewed from a technical and non technical or scientific and non-scientific per-
spective Pago, 2001). •

Dr. Ma. Corazun B. Sigua ind Prof. Bert J. Tuga

 C u rric u lu m D evelo pm en t

A. Technical-Scientific Approach
It reflects the traditional view on-education and formal methods of schooling.
The technical-scientific approach views curriculum development as something
similar to engineering and architecture which use [Link] empirical
methods in preparing blueprints.

1. Behavioral-Rational Approach
- oldest and still the most preferred aooroach
- it is a means -end approach which is logical and prescriptive

Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic Principles. This is also popularly known as Tyler's
Rationale.

Four Fundamental Principles

1. What educational purpose should the school seek to attain?

2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these .
purposes? •
3. How can these education experiences be effectively organized?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained or not?

Flowchart of Taba's (1962) Seven Stages

of Curriculum D evelopm ent

Organization
of content

Determination Organization A Selection

CURRICULUM 4 " of what and
how to evaluate
4 -
of learning
experiences
4r of'learning
experience*

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Curri'culuai D e v e lo p m e n t

2: Systems - Managerial Approach

- considers the interconnected elements of inputs/throughputs (process)
and output that comprise the educational system
- emphasizes th§ managerial/ leadership and supervisory aspects Of cur­
riculum especially in the implementation and organization process
- a cyclic process ;
3. Intellectual-Academic Approach
- emphasizes the importance of theories and principles in curriculum plan­
ning , - , *
- Because of the cognitive demands of the approach, it overwhelms many
beginning students who usually lack sufficient philosophical and theoret­
ical insights on the subject.

A. Mon- Technical/ Non - Scientific Approach

1. Humanistic -Aesthetic Approach ■

- promotes the liberation of learners from authoritarian teachers
- encourages group learning activities which promote cooperation rather
than Individual competition
- emphasis on how to team, not on what to learn
2. Reconceptuallst Approach
- reflects the existentialist orientation
- purpose of education Is to emancipate society from traditional, outmoded
orders through Individual free choice
- emphasize learning experiences that [Link] self-expression
.3. RepOnstructfonisnr .
- considers the school as an agent of change, an institution of social re­
form
- emphasizes cultural pluralism, internationalism and pluralism which are
beyond individual concerns, .
 P ro fessio n al Ed u catio n

IV. ROLE OF STAKEHOLDERS IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

• Include individuals or groups who directly or indirectly influence and make important
contributions to the curriculum
• May be categorized as communitv-frasfld twhose influence on the curriculum is at
societal or institutional Idvels) or school-based (whose contributions to the curricu­
lum are either oh ttie institutional level; Ihistnx^cmal level, or experiential level)

A School-based
> Learners
- the stakeholders of the curriculum, whose needs and abilities are the
basis of curriculum content solution and whose achievement level mea­
sures the effectiveness of the curriculum
> Teachers
- establish direction and Implementation of a particular program
- select content to be given emphasis
- assist/ contribute in the preparation of the scope and sequence of the
program
- attend to the pedagogical concerns such that they modify the curriculum
to suit the needs of the teamens help in evaluating the effectiveness of
the curriculum
> School administrators
- supervise curriculum implementations.
- select, recruit and hire qualified teachers
- admltstudents
- take charge jp the procurement of school equipment and instructional
materials needed for the effective delivery of instruction
a Communltv-based
> Parents
- support and participate in parent-school organizations where prjprities
for the cunicuiunf are set
> Publishers . ,
■ - 'provide/ develop instructional materials based on the prescribedcurriculum

Dr. M a. Corazo n B. Sigua and Prof. Bert J . Tuga

P ro fe ssio n a l E d u catio n

> Law makers/government officials

- authorize school budget ^ •
- enact legislation to effect curriculum change or improvement
- issue guidelines in designing and implementing curriculum
> Community-at-large
- often dictates the purpose, goals and content of school curricula
-.recommend directions and Ranges in the curriculum

V. CURRICULUM PROCESS

A. Planning
1. Determinants for Curriculum Planning
the consumer of education
ty to progress economically must progress

c) ^Krtov^edgij - set up an environment which will challenge all stu-

Bwts to master knowledge
2. Needs Assessment
m ib ^ s m ie n t Is completed to Identify the strengths and weaknessesof
tfid s tln g cunlculumsttuatlons and tcfcprovlde dfrections fortheirlrryrove-
^ l| ^ lt is a ^steniatic exploration of the way thfrigTarelind the way they

3. Jprmutertlnfl Sods
Go^s are Statement^ of endpoints or outcomes of educatfon - statement of
purposes. By analyzing school goals, we can determine the scopeoffts entire

defined as desirable by a given •

shape tbe goals of educatfon in that society

Dr. Ma. Corazon B . Sigua anil Prof. Bert J. Tuga

 C u rric u lu m D evelo p m ent

e) fend of Knowledge - huingn knowledge that has been jfcrafnul#

6 J d and organfced tor universal useand should be taken Into aefcouot
in shaping the goals.
Levels of Goals
a) Institutional Goals
b) School Level or Department Goals
c) Program or Curricular Goals
d) Classroom or Institutional Level

B. CurrtcuiumOeslgnlng (Curriculum Organization)

C^rffeuliiw desfgn is concerned with the nature and arrangement of the %
b^fcBm ciilar parts. (Also called components or elements).

The Components of Design

Adapted from Exploring the Curriculum

H.H. Wes 1942p2

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C u rricu lu m D evelo pm ent

1. Sources of Design '•

a) Science - The scientific method provides meaninglor the curricu-
lum design.
b) Society-School should draw its ideas for the curriculum from the
analysiyof the social situation.
c) Eternal and Divine Sources - Designers should simply draw on the
pad for guidance as to what Is appropriate content
d) Knowledge-’What knowledge Is of most worth?"
ej Learner - Curriculum should be derived from what we know about
the learners, how he a she teams, forms attitudes, generates inter-
ests and develops values
2. Dimensions of Curriculum Designs (BASICS)
Basics - equitable distribution of content, time, experiences and
other elements of design
Articulation - interrelatedness of various aspects of the curriculum
(vertical and horizontal)
Scope - the breaths and depths of the curriculum
Integrations - refers to the linking of all types of knowledge and
experiences contained within the curriculum plan
Continuity - vertical repetition and recurring of the content
Sequence- provide continuous and cumulative teaming
Principles for Sequence
a) simple to complex
b) prerequisite learning '
cj whole to part •
d) chronological
3. Selection of the Curricular Elements .
1) Selection of Objectives
- should describe behavior
- stated analytically and specifically

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- developmental rather than terminal •

- SMART
- considers the 3 objective domains
2) Selection of Content
- -criteria for selecting content^
a ). V alidity-if It is authentic
b) Significance/ relevance - consistent with social realities,

e) Balance of breadths and depths - coverage

d) Leamability - adjustable to learner's a S ility 'T v ^ T
e) Appropriateness-parallel with ieamer needs and interest
f) Utility-useful on the performance of life activities
3) Selection of Learning Experiences
- criteria for selecting experiences
a) Appropriateness - should be appropriate and suitable
to the content, activities and level of development of the
learners
b) Variety - should include minds on, hands on, and authentic
learning experiences
c) Optimal value- should encourage the learners to continue
teaming on their own
d) Feasibility- in terms of human, physical and financial
resources
4. Grade Placement
- Involves allocation of content to definite grade capable of learning
- Considers such factors as: child's ability, difficulty of item, Importance of
content, maturation, mental age, experiential background
5. Time Allotment •
- Refets to specification of definitetime for subject/course; amount of time
given to a subject
- Considers such factors as: importance of subject; child’s ability; grade
level average number of days/hours

Dr. M a. Corazcm B. Sigua and Prof. B ert J . Tuga

P r o fe s sio n a l E d u catio n

C. Curriculum Implementation '

Implementation is an interaction between those who have created the pro;
gramme and those who are charged to deliver it. According to Ornstein and
Hunkins (1998), implementation:
■ requires educators to shift from the current programme which they are
familiar with to the new or modified programme.
• Involves changes in the knowledge, actions and attitudes of people
• can be seen as a process of professional development and growth involv­
ing ongoing Interactions, feedback and assistance.
• is a process of clarification whereby Individuals and groups come to un­
derstand and practice a change in attitudes and behaviors; often involving
using new resources.
• involves change which requires effortand will produce a certain amount of
anxiety m i to minimize these, it is useful to organize implementation into
manageable events [Link] set achievable goals.
• requires a supportive atmosphere in which there is trust and open commu­
nication between administrators, teachers educators, and where risk-taking
Is encouraged.

D. Curriculum Evaluation
• The process of delineating, obtaining and providing useful Information for
judging decision alternatives
• involves value judgment about the curriculum
• 'Did we do what we wanted to do?'
Types of Evaluation
1. According to approach .
Humanistic vs Scientific
2.* According to scope
Evaluation of-Learning vs Program Evaluation
3. According to tWng •
Formattve vs Summative

Or. M a. Coraxon B . Sigut ind Prof. Bert J . Tuga

 C u rric u lu m D e v elo p m e n t

Why Evaluate •
1) Meet demands that current educational reforms have made
2) Provide directions, security, and feedbacks to all concerned
3) Determine appropriate and available resources, activities, content,
method or whether curriculum has coherence, balance, articula­
tion, scope, integration, continuity and sequence in order to meet
curriculum goals/ objectives
What areas in curriculum are qualified for evaluation?
1} mission statement (philosophy)
2) sequence (order)
3) continuity (without disruptions)
4) scope (depth/ variety of content)
5) articulation (how parts fit)
6) balance (quantitative and qualitative aspects of content)
7) coherence (relationships among different components)

E. Curriculum Improvement
- Enriching, modifying certain aspects without changing fundamental con­
ceptions/elements/ structure
Levels of Operations for Improvement
1) Substitution - substituting a new book for the current series
2) Alternation - adding to instructional time
3) Variations-transferring a successful program
4) Restructuring-organizing teams for teacher and specialists
5) Value orientation change - shifting from routine instruction to com­
puter assisted instruction
Actions that Facilitate Curriculum Improvement
1) ‘ Change climate and woridng condition to encourage improvement
2) Maintain appropriate tempo - '
3) Arrange for variety of activities *
4) Bulk! evaluation procedure

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F. Curriculum Change-
- Refers to the basic alteration in the structure and design of learning ex­
periences based on conceptions which may be at the school, district or
national le\fei
- To make different by shifting to new goals and means
Principles that Guide Change Process
1) People improve when they detect the desire of the stimulator to im­
prove himself.
2) Direction of improvement should be determined cooperatively.
3) People must identify and examine each others centrally held values.
4) People Improve through experience.
5) Divide time between contact individual and with group.
6) People's resistance to efforts of others constitutes major individual
differences.
7) Create a dimats of freedom.
8) Keep channels of communication open.
9) Use power with great care.
10) Operate on a limited number of fronts at a given time.

VII. CURRICULUM ALIGNMENT

Curriculum Alignment - alignment between curriculum and one or more of

the following elements, state standards, standardized test/state test, curriculum
embedded tests, student's assignments, lesson plans, textbooks and instruction
• Vertical Alignment - planning curriculum across the grade levels from
kindergarten through high school, building upon insbuction based upon
standards
• Horizontal Alignment - alignment of the curriculum being taught by
teachers in common grade level
Written Curriculum - specifies what Is to be taught ?nd is produced by the
state, the school system, the school and the classroom teacher
Taught Curriculum - what the teacher actually teach in tffe classroom .

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ALIGNM ENT T RIA N G LE

Curricuhimlilangle
Tasted Curriculum - provides valuable feedback about each student’s under-

Benefits of Curriculum Alignment

1) Improves students test scores by making sure the Information a
teacher teaches in her classroom lines up with the Information cov­
ered on standardized test
2) Teachers can coflaborate together more effectively of they all have the '
same basic goal for their classrooms.
3) Helps a school or Individual teacher prove the students are learning
material that lines up with state standards.
4) Students can travel from school to school and still have the same
basic instruction. •
5) Ensures an increased In the students academic performance.

Or. Ma. Corazon B . Sigua and Prof. B ert J . Tuga.