Unit - IV [Link] Dept. of EEE aUNIT- IV (i) Alternating Current Machines: + 3-¢ Induction Motor Types, Principle, Torque-Slip characteristics, * Working Principle of Alternator / Synchronous Generator / AC Generator * Stepper Motor - Applications. (ii) Electrical Installations: Switch Fuse Unit (SFU), MCB and MCCB- (Brief Explanation) Types of Wiring System Earthing (Definition, Plate Earthing) Types of Batteries,(primary and secondary batteries), Charging and discharging of Batteries, Electrical Characteristics of Batteries (Brief Explanation) Elementary calculations for energy consumption Electrical safety standards (Safety norms)25-03-2021, Answer ALL CTIl Exam 1.) Explain the principle of operation of Three Phase Induction motor, also Explain torque — slip characteristics of a 3 phase induction motor. A 4 pole, 3 phase induction motor is supplied from 50 Hz supply. Determine its synchronous speed. On full load, its speed is observed to be 1410 rpm. Calculate its full load slip. 2.) Explain the working principle of Synchronous Generator, Derive an expression for induced EMF of an Alternator 3.) What is Earthing? What is the necessary of earthing, Explain Plate Earthing 4.) Classify Batteries? Discuss the operation of Lead Acid Battery? 5.) Aconsumer uses a 10 KW geezer, a 6 KW electric furnace and five 100W bulbs for 15 hours. How many units (KWh) of electrical energy have been used? Also calculate cost of energy consumption if cost per unit is Rs. 2.5 /- ?1.) Define slip of an Induction Motor? 2.) Explain the principle of operation of three phase Induction motor, also Derive Torque equation for it. 3.) Explain torque — slip characteristics of a 3 phase induction motor. 4.) Explain the working principle of synchronous Generator,3- Induction Motor An electric motor is a device which converts an electrical energy into a mechanical energy. This mechanical energy then can be supplied to various types of loads. The motors can operate on DC as well as 1-) and 3- @ supply. The motors operating on DC supply are called DC motors, while motors operating on AC supply are called AC motors. The AC motors are classified as 1-s) and 3-c) Induction motors, Synchronous motors and some special purpose motors. Out of all these types, 3-d Induction motors are widely used for various industrial applications. The important Advantages of 3-t) Induction motors over other types are Self starting property, No need of starting device, High power factor, Good speed regulation and Robust construction. The working principle of 3- @ Induction motors is based on the production of Rotating Magnetic Field (RMF).Rotating Magnetic Field (RMF) The Rotating magnetic field can be defined as the field or flux having constant amplitude but whose axis is continuously rotating in a plane with a certain speed (Synchronous speed Ns) In 3- ¢ Induction motors, such a rotating magnetic field is produced by supplying currents to a set of stationary windings, with the help of 3- AC supply. The current carrying windings produce the magnetic field or flux. And due to interaction of three fluxes produced due to 3- q supply, resultant flux has a constant magnitude (1.5¢),,) and its axis rotating in space, without physically rotating three windings. This type of field is nothing but Rotating Magnetic Field (RMF). o% > a oe 8 ° ~ Onl Fluxes produced by line currentsSpeed of RMF There exists a fixed relation between frequency (f ) of AC supply to the windings, the number of poles P for which winding is wounded and speed N rpm of the rotating magnetic field. For a standard frequency whatever speed of RMF results Synchronous Speed, in case of induction motors, it is denoted a: is called For a 4 pole machine, 415V, 50Hz, what is my Ns? + Ns =(120f/P) = Speed of RMF = (120X50)/4= 1500 f- supply frequency P= number of poles for which stator winding is wounded This is the speed with which RMF rotates in space. + Applications of Induction Motors: Fan, Blowers, Machine tools Compressor, Crushers, Conveyors, Cranes, Compressors, Elevators, Hoist ete3- @ Induction Motor Construction Like any other type of electrical motor induction motor, a3 phase induction motor is constructed from two main parts, namely the rotor and stator 1 Stator: As its name indicates stator isa stationary part of induction motor. A stator ‘winding is placed in the stator of induction motor and the three phase supply is given to it 2. Rotor: The rotor is a rotating part of induction motor. The rotor is connected to the mechanical load through the shaft. Stator EEStator: * Stator of an IM consists of steel frame which contains hallow cylindrical hole made up of thin laminations of silicon steel to reduce hysteresis and eddy current losses. + The number of evenly spaced slots are provided on inner periphery of the laminations. * The insulated conductors are placed in the stator slots and are suitably connected to form a balanced 3- star or delta connections. Rotor: * Rotor is placed inside the stator. * Rotor is mounted on the shaft of a hallow laminated core having slots on its outer periphery, the windings are placed in these slots are called rotor windings and they may be of many types like: + Squirrel Cage Rotor Type IM + Slip Ring Rotor Type IM STATORTypes of 3- @ Induction Motor Squirrel Cage Rotor Slip Ring Rotor Rotor consists of bars which are shorted at the ends with the help of end rings Construction is very simple. As permanently shorted, external resistance cannot be added Very common and almost 95% induction motors use this type of rotor Rotor copper losses are less, hence have higher efficiency. Used for Lathes, drilling machines, Fans, Blowers, Water pumps, Grinders and Printing machines etc Rotor consists of a three phase winding similar to the stator winding Construction is complicated. Resistance can be added externally Only 5% of induction motors in industry use slip ring rotor Rotor copper losses are high , hence efficiency is less Used for Lifts, Hoists, Cranes, Elevators and Compressors eteTypes of 3- g Induction Motor Squirrel Cage Induction Motor Slip Ring Induction Motorav 3 ae AC S0le ‘Sip 3 Pha Ao Tato esPrinciple of Operation of 3- @ Induction Motor Induction motor works on the principle of Electromagnetic induction. When a 3-c) supply is given to the 3- #) stator winding, a rotating magnetic field of constant magnitude is produced. The speed of this rotating magnetic field is synchronous speed, Ns = 120f/P rpm. This rotating field produces an effect of rotating poles around a rotor, Let direction of rotation of this rotating magnetic field is clockwise as shown below: Now at this instant rotor is stationary and stator flux RMF is rotating. So its obvious that there exists a relative motion between the RMF and rotor conductors. Now RMF gets cut by the rotor conductors as RMF sweeps over rotor conductors. Whenever conductor cuts the flux, EMF gets induced in it called Rotor Induced EMF (Faradays laws). As rotor forms closed circuit, induced emf circulates current through rotor called rotor current.Principle of Operation of 3- @ Induction Motor Let direction of this current is going into the paper denoted by (X). Any current carrying conductor produces its own flux, so rotor produces its flux called Rotor flux. For assumed direction of rotor current, the direction of rotor flux is clockwise. Now there exists two fluxes, one RMF and other is rotor flux. Both the fluxes interact with each as shown below: On left of rotor conductor, two fluxes are in same direction hence add up to get high flux area. On the right side, two fluxes cancel each other to produce low flux area. As flux lines act like a stretched rubber band, high flux density area exerts a push on rotor conductor towards low flux density area. So rotor conductors experiences a force from left to right. As all the rotor conductors experiences a force, the overall rotor experiences a torque and starts rotating, So interaction of the two fluxes is very essential for a motoring action. Hence Rotor starts rotating in the same direction as that of Rotating Magnetic Field.Slip of 3- @ Induction Motor * So N, = Speed of rotating magnetic field (RMF) in rpm : N = speed of rotor i.e motor in rpm (Ns-N) = Relative speed between the two speed is called Slip speed + In practical, rotor continues to rotate with a speed slightly less than the synchronous speed of the rotating magnetic field (N < Ns) . * Induction motor never rotates at synchronous speed. * S=(Ns-N)/Ns _—- + %S = (Ns-N)/(Ns)*100--. absolute slip percentage slip + Atstarting, actual speed N is zero , so S=1Numerical problems + A4 pole, 3 phase induction motor is supplied from 50 Hz supply. Determine its synchronous speed. On full load, its speed is observed to be 1410 rpm, Calculate its full load slip. P=4, f= 50 Hz, N=1410 rpm, S=? Ns = (120Xf)/P= 1500 rpm S=(Ns-N)INs = 0.06 %S = (0.06X100) = 6% + A 4 pole, 3 phase, 50 Hz, star connected induction motor has a full load slip of 4%. Calculate full load speed of the motor. + %S=4, P=4, £=50Hz, S= 0.04 + N=? + Ns=(120Xf/P= 1500 rpm + $= (Ns-N)INs (1500-N)/1500 440 rpmInduction Motor as a Transformer Both induction motor and transformer works under the principle of Electromagnetic induction. In transformer, primary winding and secondary winding are magnetically coupled. Whereas in induction motor, the stator and rotor. A transformer is said to be alternating flux transformer because alternating flux is used to induce the mutually induced emf in the secondary side. Whereas a induction motor is said to rotating flux transformer because rotating flux is used to induce the mutually induced emf in the rotor of the motor In a alternating flux transformer the frequency of induced emf and current in primary and secondary is always same. However in the induction motor frequency of emf and current on the stator side remains same but frequency of rotor emf and current depends on the slip, where slip depends on load on the motor, so we have a variable frequency on the rotor of the motor. During starting of induction motor, the slip (S = 1) which means the frequency of supply to the stator and of induced emf in the rotor are same at starting. In alternating flux transformer, the entire energy present in the secondary circuit is in the form as electrical form. Whereas, in rotating flux transformer, the entire energy present in the secondary circuit is in the form as Mechanical form are magnetically coupled 0 samaEffect of Slip on Rotor Parameters https:/[Link]/2015/03/[Link] In case of a transformer, frequency of the induced e.m. in the secondary is same as the voltage applied to primary. Now in case of induction motor at start N = 0 and slip s = 1. Under this condition as long as s = 1, the frequency of induced e.m-f. in rotor is same as the voltage applied to the stator. But as motor gathers speed, induction motor has some slip corresponding to speed N. In such case, the frequency of induced e.m.f. in rotor is no longer same as that of stator voltage. Slip affects the frequency of rotor induced e.m.f. Due to this some other rotor parameters also get affected. Let us study the effect of slip on the following rotor parameters. 1. Rotor frequency 2. Magnitude of rotor induced emf. [Link] reactance 4, Rotor power factor 5. Rotor current(i) Effect of Slip on Rotor Frequency In case of induction motor, the speed of rotating magnetic field is, 1) N,=(120F)/P Where f= Frequency of supply in Hz At start when N = 0, s = 1 and stationary rotor has maximum relative motion with respect to R.M.F. Hence maximum e.m4. gets induced in the rotor at start. The frequency of this induced e.m£. at start is same as that of supply frequency. ‘As motor actually rotates with speed N, the relative speed of rotor with respect RMF. decreases and becomes equal to slip speed of N, - N. The induced e.m£. in rotor depends on rate of cutting fluxi.e. relative speed Ns - N. Hence in running condition magnitude of induced e.m-f. decreases so as to its frequency. The rotor is wound for same number of poles as that of stator ie. [Link] the frequency of rotor induced [Link]. in running condition at slip speed Ns ~ N then there exists a fixed relation between (Ns - N), f, and P similar to equation (1). So we can write for rotor in running condition, (N,- N) = (120f,)/P , rotor poles = stator poles = P (2) Dividing (2) by (1) we get, (IN, -N)/N, = (120,/P)/(120f/P) but (N,~N)/Ns= slips s=fit f=sf 7Example: A 4 pole, 3 phase, 50 Hz induction motor runs at a speed of 1470 r.p.m. speed. Find the frequency of the induced e.m,in the rotor under this condition. Solution : The given values are, P=4, f=50Hz, N=1470 rpm. N, =(120f)/P =(120x50)/4 = 1500 rpm. (Ns - N)/Ns = (1500-1470)/1500 = 0.02 f, =sf= 0.02x 50=1Hz Itcan be seen that in running condition, frequency of rotor induced e.m is very small.Effect of Slip on Rotor Induced EMF We have seen that when rotor is standstill, s = 1, relative speed is maximum and maximum e.m.f. gets induced in the rotor. Let this e.m.f. be, E) = Rotor induced e.m.f. per phase on standstill condition As rotor gains speed, the relative speed between rotor and rotating magnetic field decreases and hence induced e.m-f. in rotor also decreases as it is proportional to the relative speed Ns - N. Let this emf. be, E>, = Rotor induced e.m-f. per phase in running condition Now E) o& Ne while E27, & Ns - N Dividing the two proportionality equations, Ey,/E7=(Ng~N)/Ns but (N,- NY/N=slips En/Ep=s Eze =s Ep The magnitude of the induced e.m- in the rotor also reduces by slip times the magnitude of induced e.m-f. at standstill condition. es(iii)Effect of Slip on Rotor Resistance & Reactance The rotor winding has its own resistance and the inductance. In case of squirrel cage rotor, the rotor resistance is very very small and generally neglected but slip ring rotor has its own resistance which can be controlled by adding external resistance through slip rings. In general let, Rp = Rotor resistance per phase onstandstill X= Rotor reactance per phase on standstill Now at standstill, fr=f hence if Lz is the inductance of rotor per phase, X)=2mfr ly =2nf Ll) O/ph While Rp = Rotor resistance in Q/ph Now in running condition, f,=sf hence, Xr 2nf-Ly= 2s Ly =s (nf La) Xan 8X2 where Xo, = Rotor reactance in running condition Thus resistance as independent of frequency remains same at standstill and in run condition. While the rotor reactance decreases by slip times the rotor reactance at standstill. Hence we can write rotor impedance per phase as : 2) = Rotor impedance on standstill (N = 0) condition = R2 +] X2 Q/ph Zp = V( R24 X2)2) Q/ph . magnitude While Za, = Rotor impedance in running condition = Ro +j Xar= Ro *j (S X2) Q/ph Zar = V(R22+ (s X2)4)_ Q/ph magnitude es(iv) Effect of Slip on Rotor Power factor From rotor impedance, we can write the expression for the power factor of rotor at standstill and also in running condition. The impedance triangle on standstill condition is shown in the Fig1. From it we can write, cos ®» = Rotor power factor on standstill = Ro/Zp=Ro/V(Ro* Xo") The impedance in running condition becomes Z2, and the corresponding impedance triangle is shown in the Fig.2. From Fig. 2we can write, cos or = Rotor power factor in running condition = RolZay=RoN(R2+ (8X0)(v) Effect of Slip on Rotor Current Let |)= Rotor current per phase on standstill condition The magnitude of Ip depends on magnitude of Ey and impedance Z, per phase. |p = (Ep per phase)/(Zy per phase) A The value of slip depends on speed which inturn depends on load on motor hence Xo, is shown variable in the equivalent circuit. From the equivalent we can write, Uae Ege! Zoe (S EqV/V(Ro (s Xo)*) >, is the angle between Ey, and Ip, which decides p£.in running condition . Mi ‘< yt 0, — ° by All values are phaseRotor power 2 / Fa 2) V Rg? + Xa? (Con F2 = Ra /Z2 Rotor parameter | Starting condition Running condition Frequency of t Past rotor emf Ey Rotor resistance Ry R: Rotor react Xq=2afL NX’ =5Xp~ sf 2efL) Dy =VRy+ Ky? Rotor impedance Zq= VRP +X) =VRP+ (5X2) Ky = Ex" Tat= 4 Ea / Va? + (Xa 5% (Cow F2" = Ra /Zz° = R/V R3? + (0X2)? esNumerical Problems Example (1): A slip-ring induction motor runs at 290 rp.m. at full load, when connected to 50-Hz supply. Determine the number of poles and slip. Since N is 290 rpm; Ns has to be somewhere near it, Ns = 300 rpm. Therefore 300 = 60 x f\/P =60x50/P. Hence, P = 10 and total number of poles is 2P = 20. #45 = (300 — 290)/300 = 3.33% Example (2): The stator of a 3-@ induction motor has 3 slots per pole per phase. If supply frequency is 50 Hz, if the number of poles is double the coil groups; calculate: @ number of stator slots Gi) speed of the rotating stator flux (or magnetic field). 2P =20=23=6 poles Total No. of slots 3 slots/pole/phase x 6 poles x 3 phases = 54 (ii) Ns = 60 //P = 60 x 50/3 = 1000 r.p.m.Numerical Problems Example (3) A 4-pole, 3-phase induction motor operates from a supply whose frequency is 50 Hz. Calculate : (i) the speed at which the magnetic field of the stator is rotating. (ii) the speed of the rotor when the slip is 0.04. (iii) the frequency of the rotor currents when the s ip is 0.03. (iv) The frequency of the rotor currents at standstill. (@ Stator field revolves at synchronous speed, given by Ns = 60 fi/P = 60 x 50/2 = 1500 r.p.m. (ii) rotor (or motor) speed, N = Ns (1 — s) = 1500(1 — 0.04) (ii) frequency of rotor current, f= sf; = 0.03 x 50 = 1.5 cp. =1x/) =50Hz 1440 r.p.m. 1.5 Hz (@) Since at standstill, s = 1, f2 Example (4) A 3-@ induction motor is wound for 4 poles and is supplied from 50-Hz system. Calculate (i) the synchronous speed (ii) the rotor speed, when slip is 4% and (iti) rotor Srequency when rotor runs at 600 rpm. @ Ns = 60 f//P = 60 x 50/2 = 1500 rpm i) rotor speed, N = Ns (1 — s) = 1500 (1 — 0.04) = 1440 rpm = (Ns — N)INs = (1500 — 600)/1500 = 0.6 ify = 0.6 x 50 = 30 Hz (ii) when rotor speed is 600 rpm, slip is s rotor current frequency, 0 saneNumerical Problems ntps:wn.academiaedu932923 CHAPTER 4. CHAPTER 4. CHAPTER 4. CHAPTER 4 THREE, THREE_THREEPHASE_ INDUCTION, MACHINES. PH. [ASE_INDUCTION. MACHINES, PHASE INDUCTION MACHINES. PHASE INDUCTION. MACHINES, Example (5) A 12-pole, 3-phase alternator driven at a speed of 500 r.p.m. supplies power to an 8- pole, 3-phase induction motor. If the slip of the motor, at full-load is 3%, calculate the full-load speed of the motor. Let N = actual motor speed; Supply frequency, /; = 6 x 500/60 = 50 Hz. Synchronous speed Ns = 60 x 50/4 = 750 r.p.m. Slip s = 0.03 = (N, — N)/N, = (750 — N)/750 Rotor speed N = 750 - 0.03 x 750 = 727.5 r.p.m.Torque Equation of 3- @ Induction Motor * The torque produced in the induction motor depends on the following factor: The part of rotating magnetic field which reacts with rotor and is responsible to produce induced emf in the rotor () ‘The magnitude of rotor current in running condition (1,) The power factor of the rotor circuit in running condition (cos ¢;) Tag I,, cos o>, The flux produced by stator is proportional to stator voltage E, and rotor voltage too Ez ak, @MaE, utps/[Link]/PankajNakuntorque-equation-for-polyphase-induction-motorRotor current |, is defined as the ratio of rotor induced emf under running condition , sE, to total impedance, Z, of rotor side, Ep i= — A and total impedance Z, on rotor side is given by , %= Ht (sh? Putting this value in above equation we get, ‘8 h= a VEG + (8%)? = slip of Induction motor We know that power factor is defined as ratio of resistance to that of impedance. The power factor of the rotor circuit is oon A J+ (s%P Putting the value of flux 6, rotor current |,, power factor cos, in the equation of torque we get, Toh fa TR TAS* Removing proportionality constant we get, T = KsE} Ro VRR+ (Xa)? This comstant K = Qn, * Where, n, is synchronous speed in r. p. s, n, = N, / 60. So, finally the equation of torque becomes, esEquation for Starting Torque * Starting torque is the torque produced by induction motor when it starts. We know that at the start the rotor speed, N is zero. N-N So, slip s = becomes 1 * So, the equation of starting ‘torque is easily obtained by simply putting the value of s = 1 in the equation of torque of the three phase induction motor, T= x—N-m +x Onns * The starting torque is also known as standstill torque. esMaximum Torque Condition + In the equation of torque, Pa H+ (oxy * Ben, So, for torque to be maximum, ar az? T-K ar, SE} Ra) Swiss? x)-Wi +s? xD) & ksERRD as esx? ks E Ry [2s X3] ~ (R3 +s? X2) (kK EZ R,) = 0 28k x2 B2 Ry - RP kB} Ry~ks? X} E2 R= 0 ks? X} E} R)-R} KE} R = 0 sx} -R2 = 0 ‘Taking k E} R, common. R? 2 e223 % esMaximum Torque Condition So, when slip s = R; / X,, the torque will be maximum and this slip is called maximum slip Sm and it is defined as the ratio of rotor resistance to that of rotor reactance. The equation of torque is R ics sERRa - FR + (5X3) The torque will be maximum when slip s = R, / X, Sub: the value of this slip i value of torque as, uting above equation we get the maximum From the above equation it is concluded that The maximum torque is directly proportional to square of rotor induced emf at the standstill. The maximum torque is inversely proportional to rotor reactance. The maximum torque is independent of rotor resistance. The slip at which maximum torque occur depends upon rotor resistance, R,. So, by varying the rotor resistance, maximum torque can be obtained at any required slip. 0 sane+ Athree phase , 400V, 50 Hz, 4 pole IM has Star connected stator winding. The rotor resistance and reactance are 0.1 ohm, 1 ohm respectively. The full load speed is 1440 rpm. Calculate the torque developed on full load by the motor. (Assume stator to rotor ratio as 2:1) Sol: Ns = 1500rpm, ns = (1500/60) = 25 rps, Ry = 0.1, X, = lohm = (Ns-N)/Ns = 0.04 Exine= 13 Ein ca. = V3X E2p, Expn / Ep, =231 Expy = (230.94N(05) = 1547 V T =sEyx ma" T =87.81N.m+ A400V, 50 Hz, 4 pole 3 phase has Star connected IM has rotor resistance and reactance are 0.01 ‘ohm, 0.i ohm respectively. Determine Gi) Starting Torque Gi) Slip at which maximum torque will occur Gii) Speed which maximum torque will occur (iv) Maximum Torque (Assume stator to rotor turns ratio as 4) Sol: Ns = (120xf)/p = 1500rpm, ns = (1500/60) = 25 rps, R, = 0.01, X, = [Link] Extine= V3 Eiph Eyy= En /\3 ea. = V3X E2p, = 400/V3 = 230.94V Eypn /Expn = 421 Expy -(230.94)X(0.25) = 57.735 VRy 3 ev B+ (8X2? : mn, ' (i) Starting Torque : put $ = 1 in above equation Ty = 63.031 Nm ii) Slip at maximum torque: S,,= Ry/X)= 0.01/0.1 = 0.1 %S =10% (iii) Speed at which maximum torque occurs is N N=N(1-S,,) = 1500 (1- 0.1) = 1350 rpm (iv) Maximum Torque =Tyyyy = = 318.16 N.m TraxTorque Slip Characteristics of Three phase IM As the IM is loaded from No load to Full load, its speed decreases hence slip increases. The curve obtained by plotting torque against slip from s =1 (start) tos = 0 (at synchronous speed) is called Torque — Slip characteristics. At constant supply voltage, E, is also constant, so we write torque equation as T = s.R,/ [RP+(8X,P] Now to judge the nature of torque-slip characteristics, let us divide the slip range (s = 0 to s = 1) into two parts and analyze them independently. (i) Low Slip Region Gi) High Slip RegionTorque Slip Characteristics of Three phase IM (i) Low Slip Region : In low slip region, s is very very small. Due to this the term (sX. compared to/R,” , that it can be neglected so small as Ta s.R/R, as --- as R, is constant + Hence in low slip region torque is directly proportional to slip. So as load increases, speed decreases, increasing the slip. This increases the torque which satisfied the load demand. Hence the graph is straight line in nature + AtN=N,,s =0 hence T= 0. As no torque is generated at N=Ns, motor stops if it tries to achieve the synchronous speed. Torque increases linearly in this region, of low slip values. + So range s = 0 to s = §,, is called low slip region, known as Stable region of operation.Torque Slip Characteristics of Three Phase IM (ii) High Slip Region : In this region, slip is very high i.e slip value is approaching to 1. Here it can be assumed that the term R,? is very very small as compared to (SX)? Hence neglecting R,? from the denominator, we get Ta sR, (sX,)? al/s --- as X, & R, are constants So in high slip region torque is inversely proportional to the slip. Hence it is like rectangular hyperbola. Now when load increases, load demand increases but speed decreases. As speed decrease, Slip increases, In high slip region as T a I/ s , torque decreases as slip increases. But torque must increase to satisfy the load demand. Again torque decreases as T @ 1/ s hence same load acts as an extra load due to reduction in torque produced. Hence speed further drops. Eventually motor comes to standstill condition. The motor cannot continue to rotate at any point in this high slip region. Hence this region is called Unstable region of operation. So range s = s,, to s = 1 is called High slip region, known as Unstable region of operation.A QS a OA = Stable region AB = Unstable region Point A = Maximum torque Point B = Starting torque Point C = Full load torquePower Flow Diagram of Three Phase IM Net electrical input Pin Stator = Input to rotor P, (Rotor iron Pe losses ore neglected) Gross mechanical power developed Useful power or P, Shaft power -Power Stages in 3- d Induction Motor Power Stages in an Induction Motor Mech. Power} R veloped tor wae | Sidr Rae in Rotor Windage Output Input in Cu & In a8 and y Sister ma DP a: »> ie D> logs > Fektion D> in 1 Tomes Torque ae iu * Different stages of power development in an induction motor * Stator iron loss (consisting of eddy and hysteresis losses) depends on the supply frequency and the flux density in the iron core. It is practically constant. + The iron loss of the rotor is, however, negligible because frequency of rotor currents under normal running conditions is always small. Total rotor Cu loss = 3 1,2R).Power Stages in an Induction Motor == 7... Motor Stator Windage Outpt oy, Mpatin on, ERE ha stator Koa Feiccion DP Pan = Poo Be + An induction motor develops gross torque Tg due to gross rotor ‘output Pm. + Its value can be expressed either in terms of rotor input P2 or rotor gross output P77 as given below. Windage & ‘Friction Loss be Gross Rotor tT Mechanical Pe Te intact roconat ‘The ditference between T, and equals the torque lost due to {fiction and windage loss in the motor Ty = Pal = PRN Tao atta Seas Neynchronous Generator (or) Alternator (or) AC Generator AC. system has a number of advantages over d.c. system. These days 3-phase ac. system is being exclusively used for generation, transmission and distribution of power. The machine which produces 3-phase power from mechanical power is called an alternator or synchronous generator. Alternators are the primary source of all the electrical energy we consume. These machines are the largest energy converters found in the world. They convert mechanical energy into a.c. energy.Difference between a Generator and an Alternator A Generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. It is of two types le AC and DC generators. DC generator converts the ME to unidirectional EE whereas the AC generator converts the ME to an alternating EE. An AC generator is classified as a synchronous generator and an Induction generator. © Itis also a type of generator that converts the input mechanical energy into an output alternating electrical energy. It rotates at the synchronous speed |,e N, = N, and constant frequency. Simply, it is an AC generator that is used commonly in automotive. It is also suitable for conventional energy power station |e thermal, nuclear, hydro and gas power stations. Uses of Alternator * Itis commonly used in automobiles. « Itis used in conventional energy power stations like thermal, nuclear, hydro and gas power stations. * Used in Diesel enginesap tl tl = [Link]Synchronous Generator (or) Alternator [Link] ?v=tiKH48EMgKE2 pole rotor Cad * Excitation ‘= Voltage Stator Winding Synchronous Generator Par ae No rere alarm a et cer ae cage Re etary URC Carta ket car a cer Cae eee cede ate Rue tere ee tel Rarit Revie gaan) Te SohaeCeS Gee Se ale esConstruction of Alternator An alternator has 3,-phase winding on the stator and a d.c. field winding on the rotor. 1. Stator It is the stationary part of the machine and is built up of sheet-steel laminations having slots on its inner periphery. A 3-phase winding is placed in these slots and serves as the armature winding of the alternator. The armature winding is always connected in star and the neutral is connected to ground. 2. Rotor The rotor carries a field winding which is supplied with direct current through two slip rings by a separate dic. source. This dic. source (called exciter) is generally a small d.c. shunt or compound generator mounted on the shaft of the alternator. Rotor construction is of two types. namely: (i) Salient (or projecting) pole type (ii) Non-salient (or cylindrical) pole typeteens orem + re Rectifier UnitALTERNATOR CONSTRUCTION 3 phase supply Be supply (ARMATURE) © ROTOR (FIELD SYSTEM) CONSTRUCTION STATIONARY FIELD AND ROTATINGIFIEED ND) ROTATING ARMATURE STATIONARY ARMATURE see Thaeat tn TYPE: Used in DC GENERATORS ALTERNATORS esDC GeneratorAlternator Operation The rotor winding is energized from the d.c. exciter and alternate N and S poles are developed on the rotor. When the rotor is rotated in anti-clockwise direction by a prime mover, the stator or armature conductors are cut by the magnetic flux of rotor poles. Consequently, [Link]. is induced in the armature conductors due to electromagnetic induction. The induced e.m.f. is alternating since N and S poles of rotor alternately pass the armature conductors. The direction of induced e.m.f, can be found by Fleming’s right hand rule and frequency is given by: NP 120 where N= speed of rotor in rpm. P = number of rotor poles The magnitude of the voltage induced in each phase depends upon the rotor flux. the number and position of the conductors in the phase and the speed of the rotor. Eco r . AT $n de g a - + TOO ROTOR wings won aw oO co) 0 sanea Rectifier UnitFrequency The fiequency of induced e.m4. in the armature conductors depends upon speed and the number of poles. Let N = rotor speed in r.p.m. P = number of rotor poles f= frequency of emf. in Hz Consider a stator conductor that is successively swept by the N and S poles of the rotor. If a positive voltage is induced when a N-pole sweeps across the conductor, a similar negative voltage is induced when a S-pole sweeps by. This means that one complete cycle of e.m.f. is generated in the conductor as a pair of poles passes it ie., one N-pole and the adjacent following S-pole. The same is true for every other armature conductor. No. of cycles/revolution = No. of pairs of poles = P/2 No. of revolutions/second = N/60 No. of cycles/second = (P/2)(N/60) = N P/120 But number of cycles of e.m.f. per second is its frequency. It may be noted that N is the synchronous speed and is generally represented by N,. For a given alternator, the number of rotor poles is fixed and, therefore, the altermator must be run at synchronous speed to give an output of desired frequency. For this reason, an alternator is sometimes called synchronous generator. esPrinciple of Operation of Alternator The working principle of alternator is very simple. It is just like basic principle of DC Generator. It also depends upon Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction which says the current is induced in the conductor inside a magnetic field when there is a relative motion between that conductor and the magnetic field. As armature is connected to commutator in a d.c generator, armature must be rotating member while field as a stationary. But in case of Alternators it is possible to have Rotating field & Stationary armature The generation level of AC voltage may be higher as 11 kV to 33 kV. This gets induced in the armature. For stationary armature large space can be provided to accommodate large number of conductors and the insulation. It is easier to collect large currents at very high voltages from a stationary member than from slip ring and brush assembly. Due to low voltage level of the field side, the insulation required is less and hence field system has very low inertia. If field is rotating, to excite it by an external DC supply two s enough. One each for positive and negative terminals. p rings areWith the very basic principle of an Alternator, let us now have an insight into its Basic Operational Principle of a Practical Alternator. During the discussion of the basic working principle of an Alternator, we have considered that the magnetic field is stationary and conductors (armature) is rotating. But generally in practical construction of Alternator : Armature conductors are stationary and Field magnets rotate between them. The Rotor of an Alternator or a Synchronous generator is mechanically coupled to the shaft or the turbine blades, which is made to rotate at Synchronous speed N, under some mechanical force results in magnetic flux cutting of the stationary armature conductors housed on the stator. As a direct consequence of this flux cutting, an induced emf and current starts to flow through the armature conductors which first flow in one direction for the first half cycle and then in the other direction for the second half cycle for each winding with a definite time lag of 120° due to the space displaced arrangement of 120° between them as shown in the figure below. This particular phenomenon results in three-phase power flow out of the alternator which is then transmitted to the distribution stations for domestic and industrial uses.TYPES OF ALTERNATOR Peer et According to their design er EEreukomar aes1)SALIENT POLE TYPE ROTOR ‘© SALIENTPOLEOR ~"PROBECTED POLE (© Magnet Pol Projected ou of Reo Sarace (© Slow speed machines ven by yea turbines, me he same Hyko Generators «© Non-Unifo Aap Comrise mcr CYLINDRICAL ROTOR TYPE © Noo-Proeting surface type ‘© Scull diameter and Large Axial length Used fr tigh Speed Aplatons Ufa Aiap dards igh sped ater ep en by Stam Turbines and hence the ‘name Turbo altenatonsCOMPARISON SALIENT POLE TYPE Large diameter and Small axial length Non-Uniform Airgap Vertically Axis Type Suitable for Low Speed Hydro Generator Needs Damper Winding Windage Loss is Higher CYLINDRICAL ROTOR TYPE Small diameter and Large axial length Uniform Airgap Horizontal Axis Type Suitable for High Speed Turbo Alternator No need of Damper Winding Windage Loss is LowerE.M.F. Equation of an Alternator Let Z=No. of conductors or coil sides in series per phase = Flux per pole in webers P = Number of rotor poles N = Rotor speed in r-p.m. In one revolution (i.e., 60/N second), each stator conductor is cut by Ph webers ie., db=Po: dt=60/N Average e.m.f. induced in one stator conductor -4o__P> _ PON ah OIN7 OO volts Since there are Z conductors in series per phase, Average [Link] phase = PON xZ _PbZ_ 120 _ . = “60 “P - E,ms,/Phase =2.22f)Z volts @Tis the number of turns connected in series per phase @ = uf, pd [Kapere the[pitch factor] and listribution factor]of the armature winding, then, Eyms,/Phase=2.22K,K, f>Z volts (ii) Sometimes the turns per phase rather than conductors per phase are specified, in that case, eq. (1i) becomes: rms, /Phase 444K Ka fT volts (iii) The line voltage will depend upon whether the winding is star or delta connected.Numerical problem + A3~phase , 16 pole alternator has a star connected winding with 144 slots and 10 conductors per slot. The flux per pole is 0.03 Wb, sinusoidally distributed factor of 0.96 and the speed is 375 rpm. Find the frequency and the phase and line EMF , Assume full pitched coil. Sol. f= (PN)/120 = 50 Hz Since K, is not given, can be taken as unity K, = 0.96 Z = (144X10)/3 = 480 T =Z/2 = (480)/2 = 240 E,, = 1534 V EL = VB Em E, = 2657VStepper Motor [Link] [Link] ?v=JS1DCQi7SXw A stepper motor is an incremental motor machine (i.e the motor which turns in discrete moments called the steps). It will not rotate continuously as a conventional motor does. A stepper motor is a type of synchronous motor which is designed to rotate through a specific number of degrees for electrical pulse received by its control . The unique feature of a stepper motor is that the rotor is made up of soft iron without windings. These features makes the motor robust . Applications: Computer printers Recorded heads Used in wrist watches in 3mm diameter also employed to perform such as , metering, mixing, cutting , several commercial military applications. The power output ranges from 1 W to 1500 W.Stepper Motor [Link] v= As shown in systematic diagram of 12 stepper motor the rotor has a silent soft iron poles at a pole pitch of 90°. The stator has 3 coils which are displaced at a phase difference of 120°. The step angle is 30° , when a coil is energised the pole one will be attracted by coil A. The pole axis coincides the coil axis. When a coil A is demagnetized and B is magnetized, the pole 2 which is nearer to coil B will be attracted by coil B. Then the rotor turns to an angle of 30° as shown in figure B. When a coil B is demagnetized & C is magnetized. The rotor turns another 30° in the same direction. Thus for every pulse the rotor moves 30° to make 1 revolution 12 steps are required. The step angle can be reduced by increasing number of poles on the rotor and coils on the stator. Advantages: Comparability of digital system. The angular displacement can be precisely controlled without an feed back arrangement. It can be readily interfaced with micro processor.Stepper Motor / Electro magnetRotor Stator Outside CasingCross Section of a Stepper Motor Stators RotorFull Step Operation Four Steps per revolution i.e. 90°. steps.Half Step Operation Eight steps per. revolution i.e. 45° steps.Six pole rotor, two electro magnets. How many steps are required for one complete revolution?Practical Stepper motor operation 1 The top electromagnet (1) is turned on, attracting the nearest teeth of a gear-shaped iron rotor. With the teeth aligned to electromagnet 1, they will be slightly offset from electromagnet 2 ‘The top electromagnet (1) is turned off, and the right electromagnet (2) is energized, pulling the nearest teeth slightly to th right. This results in a rotation of 3.6° in this example.The bottom electromagnet (3) is energized; another 3.6” rotation occurs. ‘The left electromagnet (4) is enabled, rotating again by 3.6". When the top electromagnet (1) is again enabled, the teeth in the sprocket will have rotated by one tooth position; since there are 25 teeth, it will take 100 steps to make a full rotation in this example.Stepper motor applications Paper feeder on printers CNC lathesRYE aren OoAdvantages / Disadvantages Advantages: @Low cost for control achieved ORuggedness Simplicity of construction Can operate in an open loop control system Low maintenance Less likely to stall or slip Will work in any environment Disadvantags Require a dedicated control circuit Use more current than D.C. motors ‘High torque output achieved at low speedsUNIT - IV (ii) Electrical Installations: Basic layout of wiring in domestic installations, Types of wiring systems Switch Fuse Unit (SFU), MCB and MCCB Need and types of Earthing Classification of Batteries, working and Electrical Characteristics of Lead Acid battery Elementary calculations of energy consumption, electrical safety precautions.Electrical Installations and Batteries Basic layout of wiring in domestic installations, Types of wiring systems Switch Fuse Unit (SFU), MCB and MCCB Need and types of Earthing Classification of Batteries, working and Electrical Characteristics of Lead Acid battery Elementary calculations of energy consumption, electrical safety precautions.Low Voltage Switchgear or LV Switchgear The apparatus used for switching, controlling and protecting the electrical circuits and equipments is known as SWITCHGEAR. Generally electrical switchgear rated upto IkV is termed as low voltage switchgear. LV Switchgear includes low voltage Circuit Breakers (CB), switches, off load electrical_isolators, HRC_fuses, earth leakage circuit breaker, miniature circuit_breakers (MCB) and molded case circuit breakers (MCCB) etc i.e. all the accessories required to protect the LV system. The most common use of LV switchgear is in LV distribution board. This system has the following parts esIn LV switchgear system, electrical appliances are protected against short circuit and over load conditions by Electrical Fuses or Electrical Circuit Breaker. However, the human operator is not adequately protected against the faults occurs inside the appliances. The problem can be overcome by using earth leakage circuit breaker. This ELCB (earth leakage circuit breakers) operates on low leakage current. The earth leakage circuit breaker can detect leakage current as low as 100 mA and is capable of disconnecting the appliance in Jess than 100 msec.Components of LT Switchgear Name of the element ‘Symbols ‘Bus bar Single break Isolating switch On toad Isolating switch Double break isolating ewitch Iaolating switch with earth blade (Current transtormer Potential transtormer (Ot cireuit breaker ra | ‘Air circuit breaker with over ‘current tripping device. (Cunacitive voltage transformer a aeLV Switchgear Main Incomer from Transformer dud Incomer Bus Interlock $2131 ~—T Sub-Incomer-1 gub-inoomert FI Feeder Bus-1 tcIsl tt Co Ul) ar pr lighting "AC Feeder Bus-2 a clei as ISICGENERAL LAYOUT OF POWER SYSTEM: @ COMMERCIAL & INDUSTRIAL BUSINESS CONSUMERS @vIsTRIBUTION AUTOMATION DEVICES @ resiwentiac ConsumersFuse Fuse is a short piece of metal, inserted in the circuit with low melting point. When high current flows through the circuit due to overloading or short circuit, the wires gets heated and melts, thus the circuit breaks and current stops flowing. ‘Types of Fuses: Rewirable fuse HRC (High Rupturing Capacity) Rewirable fuse Rewirable fuses are used for low value current i.e upto 200A, it requires considerable time to replace HRC Fuse It consists of certain fuse resistance ceramic body having metal end cap to which current carrying element in welded the space within the body surrounding element completely filled with filling powderDesirable Characteristics of Fuse element The material used for fuse wire must have the following characteristics Low melting point, ex: lead, tin High conductivity , ex: Silver, copper Free from deterioration due to oxidation e.g. silver. Low cost, ex: Lead, tin, copper esCircuit Breaker (CB) CB is a switching device which can be operated manually and automatically for the controlling and protection of electrical power systems respectively. During short circuit fault or any other type of electrical fault, these equipments as well as the power network suffers from high stress of fault current, which in turn damages the equipment and networks permanently. For saving these equipment and the power networks, the fault current should be cleared form the system as quickly as possible. Again after the fault is cleared, the system must come to its normal working condition as soon as possible for supplying reliable quality power to the receiving ends. A CB essentially consists of fixed and moving contacts, called fixed and moving electrodes. Under normal operating conditions, these contacts remains closed, until and unless the system becomes faulty. The contacts can be opened manually or by remote control whenever desired. When a fault occurs in any part of the system, the trip coils of the breaker gets energised and the moving contacts are pulled apart by some mechanism, thus opening the circuit.Types of CB’s Miniature circuit breaker (MCB) Earth leakage CB (ELCB) or Residual current CB (RCCB) Molded Case Circuit Breaker (MCCB) Air Blast CB (ABCB) Vaccum CB (VCB) SF, CBMiniature Circuit Breaker (MCB) MCB?’s are electromechanical devices which protect an electrical circuit from over currents. Over currents in an electrical circuit may results from short circuit, overload or faulty design. MCB is a better alternative than fuse, since it does not require replacement once an overload is detected. MCB functions by interrupting the continuity of electrical flow through the circuit once a fault is detected. Generally MCB’s are designed to protect against over current and over temperature faults (over heating)Working principle There are two contacts- one is fixed and the other is moveable. When current exceeds the predefined limit, a solenoid forces the moveable contact to open (i.e to disconnect from the fixed contact) and the MCB turns off, thereby stopping the current from flowing in the circuit. When overload conditions exits, the temperature of bimetallic strip increases as excess current flows through it. Hence due to heat generated in metallic strip the thermal expansion of metal occurs which just creates deflection using deflection of bimetallic strip the latch get removed which makes contacts separate there by protect the circuit. Normal operation is shown as followsNormal Conditions Magnetic element Closed Load Bimetal Latch element a Over Load Condition (b) Open =Application of MCB Home electrical panels used to prevent from overload or short circuit condition Lighting system Small scale applications Geysers, heaters, AC eteMolded Case Circuit Breaker (MCCB) MCCB’s are electromechnical devices which protect circuit from over load, short circuit conditions. The current ranges from 63A to 200A. These are an alternative to a fuse, since it does not require replacement once an overload is detected. Unlike fuse, an MCCB can be easily reset after a fault and offers improved operational safety and convenience without incurring operating cost. MCCB are comprised with five major components such as Molded case (frame), operating mechanism, arc extinguishers, contacts and trip components The connection of MCCB for particular application based on specification. MCCB are classified bases on operating mechanisms type of release. Thermal magnetic release Electronic release Microprocessor releaseThermal magnetic release: This type uses bimetallic strip to protect devices. These MCCB will have time current characteristics. Tripping characteristics depending upon strip amp temperature. It is not frequently used in electrical installations. Electronic release: In this case a circuit is placed on power device and used to protect devices from over current situation. Since operating characteristics does not depends upon temperature. Microprocessor release: In this case, microprocessor is used to monitor over current in circuit if current exceeds it determining value, The circuit breaker isolates circuit from faulty conditions. This type is used and has several advantages like accuracy reliability when compared with other MCCB.Applications: MCCB’s can have very high current ratings, which allows them to be used in heavy duty applications such as main Electric Feeder Protection, Capacitor Bank _ protection, Generator Protection, Welding applications, low current applications — that requires adjustable trip settings and motor protections.ACO MCCB Helps in protecting the circuit from Helps in protecting the equipment overload conditions from over current and short circuit conditions Possess a fixed tripping circuit Possess a moveable tripping circuit One of three pole configuration is One of four pole configuration is possible possible The current which can be interrupted The current which can be interrupted is 1800A is 10 KA—200 KA Remote operation is not possible Remote operation is possible The rated current of the device is The rated current is 10A to 200A 100A Cane be installed for light loads Can be installed for heavy loads.Factors affecting the choice of Wiring 1. Durability: Types of wiring selected should conform to standard specifications, so that it is durable i.e. without being affected by weather conditions, fumes ete. 2. Safety: The wiring must provide safety against leakage, shock and fire hazards for the operating personnel. 3. Appearance: Electrical wiring should give an aesthetic appeal to the interiors. 4, Cost: It should not be prohibitively expensive. 5. Accessibility: The switches and plug points provided should be easily accessible. There must be provision for further extension of the wiring system, if necessary. Maintenance Cost: The maintenance cost should be a minimum, ical safety: The wiring must be protected against any mechanical illDifference between Wire and Cable According to Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) , wire and cable can be defined as follows: Wire: If a bare conductor is provided with insulation, then it is known as a wire. The insulation separates the conductor electrically from other conductor. Cable: It consists of two or more conductors covered with suitable insulation and surrounded by a_ protecting cover. The necessary requirements of a cable are that it should conduct electricity efficiently, cheaply and safely. Its insulation should be such that it prevents leakage of current in unwanted direction to minimize risk of fire and shock. The cable essentially consists of three parts: Conductor or core - the metal wire, or strand of wires, carrying the current Insulation or dielectric - a covering of insulating material to avoid leakage of currents from the conductor and Protective covering for protection of insulation from mechanical damageTypes of Electrical Wiring [Link] Electrical wiring system can be classified into the following five categories: Cleat wiring Casing and Capping wiring Batten wiring (CTS or TRS) . Lead Sheathed Wiring Conduit wiring a