Math Handbook

of Formulas, Processes and Tricks

([Link])

Algebra and PreCalculus

Prepared by: Earl L. Whitney, FSA, MAAA

Version 3.5

October 17, 2022

Copyright 2008‐22, Earl Whitney, Reno NV. All Rights Reserved

 Algebra Handbook
Table of Contents

Page escription

Chapter 1: asics
rder o perations E A , arentheti al evi e
0 raphing ith Coordinates Coordinates, lotting oints
inear atterns Re ognition, Converting to an E ation
2 denti ying N er atterns
Co pleting N er atterns
Real N er ets ets o N ers, Real N er et ree

Chapter 2: Operations
perating ith Real N ers A sol te Val e, Add, tra t, ltiply, ivide
roperties o Alge ra Addition ltipli ation, ero, E ality

Chapter 3: Sol ing E uations

8 olving lti‐ tep E ations
ips and ri s in olving lti‐ tep E ations

Chapter : Probability Statistics

20 ro a ility and dds
2 ro a ility ith i e
22 Co inations
2 tatisti al eas res

Chapter 5: Functions
2 ntrod tion to n tions e initions, ine ests
2 pe ial nteger n tions
2 perations ith n tions
2 Co position o n tions
28 nverses o n tions
2 rans or ation ranslation
0 rans or ation Verti al tret h and Co pression
rans or ation ori ontal tret h and Co pression
2 rans or ation Re le tion
rans or ation ary
ilding a raph ith rans or ations

Cover art y Re e a Willia s,

itter handle olteon itty

Version 3.5 Page 2 of 187 October 17, 2022

 Algebra Handbook
Table of Contents

Page escription

Chapter : Linear Functions

lope o a ine athe ati al e inition
lope o a ine Rise over R n
lopes o Vario s ines 8 Variations
8 Vario s or s o a ine tandard, lope‐ nter ept, oint‐ lope
lopes o arallel and erpendi lar ines
0 arallel, erpendi lar or Neither
arallel, Coin ident or nterse ting

Chapter 7: ne ualities
2 roperties o ne alities
raphs o ne alities in ne i ension
Co po nd ne alities in ne i ension
ne alities in o i ensions
raphs o ne alities in o i ensions
A sol te Val e n tions E ations
8 A sol te Val e n tions ne alities

Chapter : Systems of E uations

raphing a ol tion
0 stit tion ethod
Eli ination ethod
2 Classi i ation o yste s o E ations
inear ependen e
yste s o ne alities in o i ensions
ara etri E ations

Chapter : E ponents ( asic) and Scientific otation

E ponent or las
ienti i Notation or at, Conversion
8 Adding and tra ting ith ienti i Notation
ltiplying and ividing ith ienti i Notation

Version 3.5 Page 3 of 187 October 17, 2022

 Algebra Handbook
Table of Contents

Page escription

Chapter 10: Polynomials asic

0 ntrod tion to olyno ials
Adding and tra ting olyno ials
2 ltiplying ino ials , o , N eri al ethods
ltiplying olyno ials
ividing olyno ials
a toring olyno ials
pe ial or s o adrati n tions er e t ares
pe ial or s o adrati n tions i eren es o ares
8 a toring rino ials i ple Case ethod
a toring rino ials AC ethod
0 a toring rino ials r te or e ethod
a toring rino ials adrati or la ethod
2 olving E ations y a toring

Chapter 11: uadratic Functions

ntrod tion to adrati n tions
Co pleting the are
a le o o ers and Roots
he adrati or la
adrati ne alities in ne Varia le
itting a adrati thro gh hree oints

Chapter 12: Comple umbers

80 Co ple N ers ‐ ntrod tion
8 perations ith Co ple N ers
82 he are Root o i
8 Co ple N ers raphi al Representation
8 Co ple N er perations in olar Coordinates
8 Co ple ol tions to adrati E ations

Chapter 13: adicals

8 Radi al R les
8 i pli ying are Roots E tra ting ares, E tra ting ri es
88 olving Radi al E ations
8 olving Radi al E ations ositive Roots, he issing tep

Version 3.5 Page 4 of 187 October 17, 2022

 Algebra Handbook
Table of Contents

Page escription

Chapter 1 : Matrices
0 atri Addition and alar ltipli ation
atri ltipli ation
2 dentity atri es and nverse atri es
nverse o a 2 2 atri
eter inants he eneral Case
atri ivision and nverses
Cal lating nverses he eneral Case a ss‐ ordan Eli ination
Cal lating nverses sing Ad oint atri es
Cra er s R le 2 E ations
00 Cra er s R le E ations
0 A g ented atri es
02 2 2 A g ented atri E a ples
0 A g ented atri E a ple
0 Chara teristi E ation and Eigenval es
0 Eigenve tors
0 2 2 Eigenval es and Eigenve tors eneral Case
0 Cal lating nverses sing Chara teristi E ations

Chapter 15: E ponents and Logarithms

0 E ponent or las
0 ogarith or las
e
2 a le o E ponents and ogs
Converting et een E ponential and ogarith i or s
E panding ogarith i E pressions
Condensing ogarith i E pressions
Condensing ogarith i E pressions ore E a ples
raphing an E ponential n tion
8 o r E ponential n tion raphs
raphing a ogarith i n tion
22 o r ogarith i n tion raphs
2 raphs o Vario s n tions
2 Appli ations o E ponential n tions ro th, e ay, nterest
2 olving E ponential and ogarith i E ations

Version 3.5 Page 5 of 187 October 17, 2022

 Algebra Handbook
Table of Contents

Page escription

Chapter 1 : Polynomials ntermediate

2 olyno ial n tion raphs
2 inding E tre a ith erivatives
28 a toring igher egree olyno ials and i eren e o C es
2 a toring igher egree olyno ials Varia le stit tion
0 a toring igher egree olyno ials yntheti ivision
Co paring yntheti ivision and ong ivision
2 eros o olyno ials eveloping ossi le Roots
eros o olyno ials esting ossi le Roots
nterse tions o C rves eneral Case, o ines
nterse tions o C rves a ine and a ara ola
nterse tions o C rves a Cir le and an Ellipse

Chapter 17: ational Functions

o ains o Rational n tions
8 oles and Asy ptotes
raphing Rational n tions
i ple Rational n tions
0 i ple Rational n tions ‐ E a ple
eneral Rational n tions
eneral Rational n tions ‐ E a ple
perating ith Rational E pressions
olving Rational E ations
olving Rational ne alities

Chapter 1 : Conic Sections

8 ntrod tion to Coni e tions
ara ola ith Verte at the rigin tandard osition
0 ara ola ith Verte at oint (h, k)
ara ola in olar or
2 Cir les
Ellipse Centered on the rigin tandard osition
Ellipse Centered at oint (h, k)
Ellipse in olar or
yper ola Centered on the rigin tandard osition
yper ola Centered at oint (h, k)
8 yper ola in olar or
yper ola Constr tion ver the o ain 0 to 2
0 eneral Coni E ation ‐ Classi i ation
eneral Coni or la anip lation teps, E a ples
2 ara etri E ations o Coni e tions

Version 3.5 Page 6 of 187 October 17, 2022

 Algebra Handbook
Table of Contents

Page escription

Chapter 1 : Se uences and Series

ntrod tion to e en es and eries
i ona i e en e
ation Notation and roperties
o e nteresting ation or las
Arith eti e en es
8 Arith eti eries
ythagorean eans Arith eti , eo etri
0 ythagorean eans ar oni
eo etri e en es
2 eo etri eries
A e pe ial eries , e, es
as al s riangle
ino ial E pansion
a a n tion and n
raphing the a a n tion

8 nde

seful Websites
[Link] eveloped spe i i ally or ath st dents ro iddle hool to College, ased on the
a thor s e tensive e perien e in pro essional athe ati s in a siness setting and in ath
t toring. Contains ree do nloada le hand oo s, C Apps, sa ple tests, and ore.
http . athg y. s

Wolfram Math World erhaps the pre ier site or athe ati s on the We . his site ontains
de initions, e planations and e a ples or ele entary and advan ed ath topi s.
http ath orld. ol ra . o

Purple Math A great site or the Alge ra st dent, it ontains lessons, revie s and ho e or
g idelines. he site also has an analysis o yo r st dy ha its. a e the ath t dy ills el ‐
Eval ation to see here yo need to i prove.
http .p rple ath. o

[Link] as a lot o in or ation a o t Alge ra, in l ding a good sear h n tion.

http . ath. o ho e or help Alge [Link] l

Version 3.5 Page 7 of 187 October 17, 2022

 Algebra Handbook
Table of Contents

Schaum s Outlines
An i portant st dent reso r e or any high s hool ath st dent is a ha s tline. Ea h oo
in this series provides e planations o the vario s topi s in the o rse and a s stantial n er o
pro le s or the st dent to try. any o the pro le s are or ed o t in the oo , so the st dent
an see e a ples o ho they sho ld e solved.

ha s tlines are availa le at A a on. o , arnes No le, orders and other oo sellers.

Note: This study guide was prepared to be a companion to most books on the subject of High
School Algebra. In particular, I used the following texts to determine which subjects to include
in this guide.
 Algebra 1 , by James Schultz, Paul Kennedy, Wade Ellis Jr, and Kathleen Hollowelly.
 Algebra 2 , by James Schultz, Wade Ellis Jr, Kathleen Hollowelly, and Paul Kennedy.
Although a significant effort was made to make the material in this study guide original, some
material from these texts was used in the preparation of the study guide.

Version 3.5 Page 8 of 187 October 17, 2022

Chapter 1 Basics

Algebra
Order of Operations

To the non‐mathematician, there may appear to be multiple ways to evaluate an algebraic

expression. For example, how would one evaluate the following?

You could work from left to right, or you could work from right to left, or you could do any
number of other things to evaluate this expression. As you might expect, mathematicians do
not like this ambiguity, so they developed a set of rules to make sure that any two people
evaluating an expression would get the same answer.

PEMDAS
In order to evaluate expressions like the one above, mathematicians have defined an order of
operations that must be followed to get the correct value for the expression. The acronym that
can be used to remember this order is PEMDAS. Alternatively, you could use the mnemonic
phrase “Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally” or make up your own way to memorize the order of
operations. The components of PEMDAS are:

 P Anything in Parentheses is evaluated first.

 E Items with Exponents are evaluated next. Note: When there are multiple
operations in the same category,
 M Multiplication and … for example, a division and two
D Division are performed next. multiplications, the operations
 A Addition and … are performed from left to right.
S Subtraction are performed last.

Parenthetical Device. A useful device is to use apply parentheses to help you remember
the order of operations when you evaluate an expression. Parentheses are placed around the
items highest in the order of operations; then solving the problem becomes more natural.
Using PEMDAS and this parenthetical device, we solve the expression above as follows:

Initial Expression: Note: Any expression which is

ambiguous, like the one above, is
Add parentheses/brackets: poorly written. Students should strive
Solve using PEMDAS: to ensure that any expressions they
write are easily understood by others
and by themselves. Use of parentheses
Final Answer and brackets is a good way to make
your work more understandable.

Version 3.5 Page 9 of 187 October 17, 2022

Chapter 1 Basics

Algebra
Graphing with Coordinates

Graphs in two dimensions are very common in algebra and are one of the most common
algebra applications in real life.
y

Coordinates
Quadrant 2 Quadrant 1
The plane of points that can be graphed in 2 dimensions is
called the Rectangular Coordinate Plane or the Cartesian x
Coordinate Plane (named after the French mathematician
and philosopher René Descartes). Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4

 Two axes are defined (usually called the x‐ and y‐axes).

 Each point on the plane has an x value and a y value, written as: (x‐value, y‐value)
 The point (0, 0) is called the origin, and is usually denoted with the letter “O”.
 The axes break the plane into 4 quadrants, as shown above. They begin with Quadrant 1
where x and y are both positive and increase numerically in a counter‐clockwise fashion.

Plotting Points on the Plane

When plotting points,
 the x‐value determines how far right (positive) or left (negative) of the origin the point is
plotted.
 The y‐value determines how far up (positive) or down (negative) from the origin the point is
plotted.

Examples:
The following points are plotted in the figure to
the right:
A = (2, 3) in Quadrant 1
B = (‐3, 2) in Quadrant 2
C = (‐2, ‐2) in Quadrant 3
D = (4, ‐1) in Quadrant 4
O = (0, 0) is not in any quadrant

Version 3.5 Page 10 of 187 October 17, 2022

Chapter 1 Basics

Algebra
Linear Patterns

Recognizing Linear Patterns

The first step to recognizing a pattern is to arrange a set of numbers in a table. The table can
be either horizontal or vertical. Here, we consider the pattern in a horizontal format. More
advanced analysis generally uses the vertical format.

Consider this pattern:

x‐value 0 1 2 3 4 5
y‐value 6 9 12 15 18 21

To analyze the pattern, we calculate differences of successive values in the table. These are
called first differences. If the first differences are constant, we can proceed to converting the
pattern into an equation. If not, we do not have a linear pattern. In this case, we may choose
to continue by calculating differences of the first differences, which are called second
differences, and so on until we get a pattern we can work with.

In the example above, we get a constant set of first differences, which tells us that the pattern
is indeed linear.
x‐value 0 1 2 3 4 5
y‐value 6 9 12 15 18 21

First Differences 3 3 3 3 3

Converting a Linear Pattern to an Equation

Note: If the table does not have a
Creating an equation from the pattern is easy if you have value for x=0, you can still obtain
constant differences and a y‐value for x = 0. In this case, the value of “b”. Simply extend the
 The equation takes the form , where table left or right until you have an
 “m” is the constant difference from the table, and x‐value of 0; then use the first
 “b” is the y‐value when x = 0. differences to calculate what the
corresponding y‐value would be.
In the example above, this gives us the equation: . This becomes your value of “b”.

Finally, it is a good idea to test your equation. For example, if , the above equation gives
, which is the value in the table. So we can be pretty sure our equation is
correct.

Version 3.5 Page 11 of 187 October 17, 2022

 Basics
Chapter 1 ADVANCED

Algebra
Identifying Number Patterns

When looking at patterns in numbers, is is often useful to take differences of the numbers you
are provided. If the first differences are not constant, take differences again.

n ∆
‐3
2
‐1 When first differences are constant, the pattern represents a
2
1 linear equation. In this case, the equation is: y = 2x ‐ 5 . The
2
3 constant difference is the coefficient of x in the equation.
2
5
2
7

n ∆ ∆2
2 When second differences are constant, the pattern represents a
3
5 2
5 quadratic equation. In this case, the equation is: y = x 2 + 1 . The
10 2
7 constant difference, divided by 2, gives the coefficient of x2 in the
17 2
9 equation.
26 2
11
37

When taking successive differences yields patterns that do not seem to level out, the pattern
may be either exponential or recursive.

n ∆ ∆2
5 In the pattern to the left, notice that the first and second
2
7 2 differences are the same. You might also notice that these
4
11 4 differences are successive powers of 2. This is typical for an
8
19 8
16 exponential pattern. In this case, the equation is: y = 2 x + 3 .
35 16
32
67

n ∆ ∆2 In the pattern to the left, notice that the first and second
2 differences appear to be repeating the original sequence. When
1
3 1 this happens, the sequence may be recursive. This means that
2
5 1 each new term is based on the terms before it. In this case, the
3
8 2 equation is: y n = y n‐1 + y n‐2 , meaning that to get each new term,
5
13 3
8 you add the two terms before it.
21

Version 3.5 Page 12 of 187 October 17, 2022

 Basics
Chapter 1 ADVANCED

Algebra
Completing Number Patterns

The first step in completing a number pattern is to identify it. Then, work from the right to the left, filling in
the highest order differences first and working backwards (left) to complete the table. Below are two
examples.

Example 1 Example 2

n Consider in the examples the sequences of six n

‐1 numbers which are provided to the student. You are 2
6 asked to find the ninth term of each sequence. 3
25 5
62 8
123 13
214 21

n ∆ ∆2 ∆
3
Step 1: Create a table of differences. Take successive n ∆ ∆2 ∆
3

‐1 differences until you get a column of constant 2

7 1
6 12 differences (Example 1) or a column that appears to 3 1
19 6 2 0
25 18 repeat a previous column of differences (Example 2). 5 1
37 6 3 1
62 24 8 2
61 6 5 1
123 30 13 3
91 8
214 21

n ∆ ∆2 ∆
3
Step 2: In the last column of differences you created, n ∆ ∆2 ∆
3

‐1 continue the constant differences (Example 1) or the 2

7 1
6 12 repeated differences (Example 2) down the table. 3 1
19 6 2 0
25 18 Create as many entries as you will need to solve the 5 1
37 6 3 1
62 24 problem. For example, if you are given 6 terms and 8 2
61 6 5 1
123 30 asked to find the 9th term, you will need 3 (= 9 ‐ 6) 13 3
91 6 8 2
214 additional entries in the last column. 21
6 3
6 5

n ∆ ∆2 ∆3 Step 3: Work backwards (from right to left), filling in n ∆ ∆2 ∆3

‐1 each column by adding the differences in the column 2
7 1
6 12 to the right. 3 1
19 6 2 0
25 18 5 1
37 6 In the example to the left, the calculations are 3 1
62 24 8 2
61 6 performed in the following order: 5 1
123 30 13 3
91 6 2
8 2
214 36 Column ∆ : 30 + 6 = 36; 36 + 6 = 42; 42 + 6 = 48 21 5
127 6 13 3
341 42 34 8
169 6 Column ∆: 91 + 36 = 127; 127 + 42 = 169; 169 + 48 = 217 21 5
510 48 55 13
217 34
727 Column n: 214 + 127 = 341; 341 + 169 = 510; 510 + 217 = 727 89

The final answers to the examples are the ninth items in each sequence, the items in bold red.

Version 3.5 Page 13 of 187 October 17, 2022

Chapter 1 Basics

Algebra
Real Number Sets

Number Set Symbol Definition Examples

Natural (or, N umbers that you would 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, …

Counting) Numbers Z+ normally count with.

Add the number zero to the

Whole Numbers W 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, …
set of atural umbers

ntegers Z Whole numbers plus the set … ‐3, ‐2, ‐1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …

of negative atural umbers

Any number that can be All integers, plus fractions and

Rational Numbers Q expressed in the form , mixed numbers, such as:
where a and b are integers , ,
and .

Any number that can be All rational numbers plus roots

Real Numbers R written in decimal form, and some others, such as:
even if that form is infinite. , , ,e

Real Number Set ree

Real Numbers

Rational rrational

ntegers ractions and

Mixed Numbers

Whole Negative
Numbers ntegers

Natural ero
Numbers

Version 3.5 Page 14 of 187 October 17, 2022

Chapter 2 Operations

Algebra
Operating with Real Numbers

Absolute alue

The absolute value of something is the distance it is from zero. The easiest way to get the
absolute value of a number is to eliminate its sign. Absolute values are always positive or 0.

Adding and Subtracting Real Numbers

Adding Numbers with the Same Sign: Adding Numbers with Different Signs:

 Add the numbers without regard  Ignore the signs and subtract the
to sign. smaller number from the larger one.
 Give the answer the same sign as  Give the answer the sign of the number
the original numbers. with the greater absolute value.
 Examples:  Examples:

Subtracting Numbers:
 Change the sign of the number or numbers being subtracted.
 Add the resulting numbers.
 Examples:

Multiplying and Dividing Real Numbers

Numbers with the Same Sign: Numbers with Different Signs:
 Multiply or divide the numbers  Multiply or divide the numbers without
without regard to sign. regard to sign.
 Give the answer a sign.  Give the answer a sign.
 Examples:  Examples:

Version 3.5 Page 15 of 187 October 17, 2022

Chapter 2 Operations

Algebra
Properties of Algebra

Properties of Addition and Multiplication. For any real numbers a, b, and c:

Property Definition for Addition Definition for Multiplication

Closure Property is a real number is a real number

dentity Property

nverse Property ,

Commutative Property

Associative Property

Distributive Property

Properties of ero. For any real number a:

Multiplication by

Divided by Something ,

Division by

Version 3.5 Page 16 of 187 October 17, 2022

Chapter 2 Operations

Algebra
Properties of Algebra

Operational Properties of Equality. For any real numbers a, b, and c:

Property Definition

Addition Property ,

Subtraction Property ,

Multiplication Property ,

Division Property ,

Other Properties of Equality. For any real numbers a, b, and c:

Property Definition

Reflexive Property

Symmetric Property ,

ransitive Property ,

Substitution Property , h h h
h ( )

Version 3.5 Page 17 of 187 October 17, 2022

Chapter 3 Solving Equations

Algebra
Solving Multi Step Equations

Reverse PEMDAS
One systematic way to approach multi‐step equations is Reverse PEMDAS. PEMDAS describes
the order of operations used to evaluate an expression. Solving an equation is the opposite of
evaluating it, so reversing the PEMDAS order of operations seems appropriate.

The guiding principles in the process are:

 Each step works toward isolating the variable for which you are trying to solve.
 Each step “un‐does” an operation in Reverse PEMDAS order:
Inverses
Subtraction Addition Note: ogarithms are the
Inverses inverse operator to exponents.
Division Multiplication This topic is typically covered in

Exponents Inverses ogarithms

the second year of Algebra.

Parentheses Inverses Remove Parentheses (and repeat process)

The list above shows inverse operation relationships. In order to undo an operation, you
perform its inverse operation. For example, to undo addition, you subtract; to undo division,
you multiply. Here are a couple of examples:

Example 1 Example 2
Solve: Solve:
Step 1: Add 4 Step 1: Add 3

Result: Result:
Step 2: Divide by 3 Step 2: Divide by 2

Result: Result:
Step 3: Remove parentheses
otice that we add and subtract before we
multiply and divide. Reverse PEMDAS. Result:
Step 4: Subtract 5
Result:
With this approach, you will be able to
Step 5: Divide by 2
solve almost any multi‐step equation. As
you get better at it, you will be able to use Result:
some shortcuts to solve the problem faster.
Since speed is important in mathematics, learning a few tips and tricks with regard to solving
equations is likely to be worth your time.

Version 3.5 Page 18 of 187 October 17, 2022

Chapter 3 Solving Equations

Algebra
ips and ric s in Solving Multi Step Equations

ractional Coefficients
Fractions present a stumbling block to many students in solving multi‐step equations. When
stumbling blocks occur, it is a good time to develop a trick to help with the process. The trick
shown below involves using the reciprocal of a fractional coefficient as a multiplier in the
solution process. (Remember that a coefficient is a number that is multiplied by a variable.)

Example 1

Solve: Explanation: Since is the reciprocal of ,

when we multiply them, we get 1, and
Multiply by : . Using this approach, we can avoid
dividing by a fraction, which is more difficult.
Result:

Example 2 Explanation: is the reciprocal of , so

Solve: when we multiply them, we get 1. otice
the use of parentheses around the negative
Multiply by : number to make it clear we are multiplying
Result: and not subtracting.

Another Approach to Parentheses

In the Reverse PEMDAS method, parentheses Example 3
are handled after all other operations. Solve:
Sometimes, it is easier to operate on the Step 1: Distribute the lead multiplier ( )
parentheses first. In this way, you may be able Result:
to re‐state the problem in an easier form before Step 2: Combine constants
solving it.
Result:
Example 3, at right, is another look at the Step 3: Subtract
problem in Example 2 on the previous page. Result:
Use whichever approach you find most to your Step 4: Divide by 4
liking. They are both correct. Result:

Version 3.5 Page 19 of 187 October 17, 2022

Chapter 4 Probability Statistics

Algebra
Probability and Odds

Probability

Probability is a measure of the likelihood that an event will occur. It depends on the number of
outcomes that represent the event and the total number of possible outcomes. In equation terms,

Example 1: The probability of a flipped coin landing as a head is 1/2. There are two equally likely events
when a coin is flipped it will show a head or it will show a tail. So, there is one chance out of two that
the coin will show a head when it lands.

Example 2: In a ar, there are 15 blue marbles, 10 red marbles and green marbles. What is the
probability of selecting a red marble from the ar? In this example, there are 32 total marbles, 10 of
which are red, so there is a 10/32 (or, when reduced, 5/16) probability of selecting a red marble.

Odds

Odds are similar to probability, except that we measure the number of chances that an event will occur
relative to the number of chances that the event will not occur.

In the above examples,

 ote that the numerator and the denominator in an odds calculation add to the total number of
possible outcomes in the denominator of the corresponding probability calculation.

 To the beginning student, the concept of odds is not as intuitive as the concept of probabilities;
however, they are used extensively in some environments.

Version 3.5 Page 20 of 187 October 17, 2022

Chapter 4 Probability Statistics

Algebra
Probability with Dice

Single Die
Probability with a single die is based on the number of chances of an event out of 6 possible
outcomes on the die. For example:

wo Dice
Probability with two dice is based on the number of chances of an event out of 36 possible
outcomes on the dice. The following table of results when rolling 2 dice is helpful in this regard:

1st Die
2nd Die 1 2 3 4 5 6
1
2
3
4
5
6

The probability of rolling a number with two dice is the number of times that number occurs in
the table, divided by 36. Here are the probabilities for all numbers 2 to 12.

Version 3.5 Page 21 of 187 October 17, 2022

Chapter 4 Probability Statistics

Algebra
Combinations

Single Category Combinations

The number of combinations of items selected from a set, several at a time, can be calculated
relatively easily using the following technique:

Technique: Create a ratio of two products. In the numerator, start with the number of
total items in the set, and count down so the total number of items being multiplied is
equal to the number of items being selected. In the denominator, start with the
number of items being selected and count down to 1.

Example: How many Example: How many Example: How many

combinations of 3 items can combinations of 4 items can combinations of 2 items can
be selected from a set of 8 be selected from a set of 13 be selected from a set of 30
items? Answer: items? Answer: items? Answer:

Multiple Category Combinations

When calculating the number of combinations that can be created by selecting items from
several categories, the technique is simpler:

Technique: Multiply the numbers of items in each category to get the total number of
possible combinations.

Example: How many different Example: How many different Example: How many designs
pizzas could be created if you outfits can be created if you for a car can be created if you
have 3 kinds of dough, 4 kinds have 5 pairs of pants, 8 shirts can choose from 12 exterior
of cheese and 8 kinds of and 4 ackets? colors, 3 interior colors, 2
toppings? interior fabrics and 5 types of
Answer: Answer: wheels? Answer:

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Chapter 4 Probability Statistics

Algebra
Statistical Measures

Statistical measures help describe a set of data. A definition of a number of these is provided in the table below:

Concept Description Calculation Example 1 Example 2

Data Set umbers 35, 35, 3 , 38, 45 15, 20, 20, 22, 25, 54

Add the values and

Mean Average divide the total by the
number of values
Arrange the values from
Median(1) Middle low to high and take the 3 21(1)
middle value(1)
The value that appears
Mode Most most often in the data 35 20
set
The difference between
Range Size the highest and lowest 45 35 = 10 54 15 = 39
values in the data set
alues that look very
Outliers(2) Oddballs different from the other none 54
values in the data set

otes:
(1) If there are an even number of values, the median is the average of the two middle values. In Example 2, the median is 21,
which is the average of 20 and 22.
(2) The question of what constitutes an outlier is not always clear. Although statisticians seek to minimize sub ectivity in the
definition of outliers, different analysts may choose different criteria for the same data set.

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Chapter 5 Functions

Algebra
ntroduction to unctions

Definitions
 A Relation is a relationship between variables, usually expressed as an equation.
 In a typical x‐y equation, the Domain of a relation is the set of x‐values for which y‐
values can be calculated. For example, in the relation the domain is
because these are the values of x for which a square root can be taken.
 In a typical x‐y equation, the Range of a relation is the set of y‐values that result for all
values of the domain. For example, in the relation the range is because
these are the values of y that result from all the values of x.
 A unction is a relation in which each element in the domain has only one
corresponding element in the range.
 A One to One unction is a function in which each element in the range is produced by
only one element in the domain.

unction ests in 2 Dimensions

ertical Line est If a vertical line passes through the graph of a relation in any two locations,
it is not a function. If it is not possible to construct a vertical line that passes through the graph
of a relation in two locations, it is a function.
orizontal Line est If a horizontal line passes through the graph of a function in any two
locations, it is not a one‐to‐one function. If it is not possible to construct a horizontal line that
passes through the graph of a function in two locations, it is a one‐to‐one function.

Examples:

igure 1: igure 2: igure 3:

ot a function. Is a function, but not a one‐ Is a one‐to‐one function.
Fails vertical line test. to‐one function. Passes vertical line test.
Passes vertical line test. Passes horizontal line test.
Fails horizontal line test.

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Chapter 5 Functions

Algebra
Special nteger unctions

Greatest nteger unction

Also called the Floor Function, this function gives the
greatest integer less than or equal to a number. There
are two common notations for this, as shown in the
examples below.

Notation and examples:

In the graph to the right, notice the solid dots on the left of the segments (indicating the points are
included) and the open lines on the right of the segments (indicating the points are not included).

Least nteger unction

Also called the Ceiling Function, this function gives the
least integer greater than or equal to a number. The
common notation for this is shown in the examples
below.

Notation and examples:

In the graph to the right, notice the open dots on the

left of the segments (indicating the points are not included) and the closed dots on the right of the
segments (indicating the points are included).

Nearest nteger unction

Also called the Rounding Function, this function gives
the nearest integer to a number (rounding to the even
number when a value ends in .5). There is no clean
notation for this, as shown in the examples below.

Notation and examples:

In the graph to the right, notice the open dots on the

left of the segments (indicating the points are not
included) and the closed dots on the right of the segments (indicating the points are included).

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Chapter 5 Functions

Algebra
Operations with unctions

unction Notation

Function notation replaces the variable y with a function name. The x in parentheses indicates
that x is the domain variable of the function. By convention, functions tend to use the letters ,
, and h as names of the function.

Operations with unctions

Adding unctions The domain of the combination

of functions is the intersection
Subtracting unctions of the domains of the two
individual functions. That is,
Multiplying unctions the combined function has a
value in its domain if and only if
the value is in the domain of
Dividing unctions ,
each individual function.

Examples:
et: Then:

ote that in there is the requirement . This is because in the

denominator would require dividing by , producing an undefined result.

Other Operations
Other operations of equality also hold for functions, for example:

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Chapter 5 Functions

Algebra
Composition of unctions

In a Composition of unctions, first one function is performed, and then the other. The
notation for composition is, for example: . In both of these notations,
the function g is performed first, and then the function f is performed on the result of g.
Always perform the function closest to the variable first.

Double Mapping
A composition can be thought of as a double mapping. First g maps from its domain to its
range. Then, f maps from the range of g to the range of f:

Range of g
Domain of g Range of f
Domain of f
g f

he Words Method
In the example,
Example: et  The function says re e r e .
and  The function says o e r e .
Sometimes it is easier to thin of the functions in
Then:
words rather than in terms of an argument like x.
And:
says “add 1 first, then square the result.”
says “square first, then add 1 to the result.”

Using the words method,

Calculate: Calculate:
g: add 1 to it f: square it
f: square it g: add 1 to it

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Chapter 5 Functions

Algebra
nverses of unctions

In order for a function to have an inverse, it must be a one‐to‐one function. The requirement
for a function to be an inverse is:

The notation is used for the nverse unction of .

Another way of saying this is that if , then for all in the domain of .

Deriving an nverse unction

The following steps can be used to derive an inverse function. This process assumes that the
original function is expressed in terms of .
 Make sure the function is one‐to‐one. Otherwise it has no inverse. You can accomplish
this by graphing the function and applying the vertical and horizontal line tests.
 Substitute the variable y for .
 Exchange variables. That is, change all the x s to y s and all the y s to x s.
 Solve for the new y in terms of the new x.
 (Optional) Switch the expressions on each side of the equation if you like.
 Replace the variable y h h .
 Check your work.
Examples:

Derive the inverse of: Derive the inverse of:

Substitute for :
Substitute for :
Exchange variables:
Exchange variables:
Add 1:
Subtract 2:
Divide by 2:
Multiply by 3:
Switch sides:
Switch sides:
Change otation:
Change otation:
To check the result, note that:
To check the result, note that:

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Chapter 5 Functions

Algebra
ransformation ranslation

A ranslation is a movement of the graph of a relation to a different location in the plane. It

preserves the shape and orientation of the graph on the page. Alternatively, a translation can
be thought of as leaving the graph where it is and moving the axes around on the plane.
e r e r o o r r ere re e er or zo r o o
r

ertical ranslation
Starting form:
ertical Translation:

At each point, the graph of the translation is units higher or

lower depending on whether is positive or negative. The
letter is used as a convention when moving up or down. In
algebra, usually represents a y‐value of some importance.
Note:
 A positive shifts the graph up.
 A negative shifts the graph down.

orizontal ranslation
Starting form:
Horizontal Translation:

At each point, the graph of the translation is units to

the left or right depending on whether is positive or
negative. The letter is used as a convention when
moving left or right. In algebra, usually represents an
x‐value of some importance.
Note:
 A positive shifts the graph to the left.
 A negative shifts the graph to the right.
or horizontal translation, the direction of movement of the graph is counter intuitive be
careful with these.

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Chapter 5 Functions

Algebra
ransformation ertical Stretch and Compression

A ertical Stretch or Compression is a stretch or compression in the vertical direction, relative

to the x‐axis. It does not slide the graph around on the plane like a translation. An alternative
view of a vertical stretch or compression would be a change in the scale of the y‐axis.

ertical Stretch
Starting form:
ertical Stretch: ,

At each point, the graph is stretched vertically by a factor of

. The result is an elongated curve, one that exaggerates all
of the features of the original.

ertical Compression
Starting form:
ertical Compression: ,

At each point, the graph is compressed vertically by a

factor of . The result is a flattened‐out curve, one that Note: he forms of the equations
mutes all of the features of the original. for vertical stretch and vertical
compression are the same. he
only difference is the value of .

alue of in
Resulting Curve

reflection
x‐axis
compression
original curve
stretch

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Chapter 5 Functions

Algebra
ransformation orizontal Stretch and Compression

A orizontal Stretch or Compression is a stretch or compression in the horizontal direction,

relative to the y‐axis. It does not slide the graph around on the plane like a translation. An
alternative view of a horizontal stretch or compression would be a change in the scale of the x‐
axis.

orizontal Stretch
Starting form:
Horizontal Stretch: ,

At each point, the graph is stretched horizontally

by a factor of . The result is a widened curve, one
that exaggerates all of the features of the original.

orizontal Compression
Starting form: Note: he forms of the equations
Horizontal Compression: , for the horizontal stretch and the
horizontal compression are the
At each point, the graph is compressed horizontally by a same. he only difference is the
factor of . The result is a skinnier curve, one that mutes value of .
all of the features of the original.
alue of in
Resulting Curve

reflection
h
stretch
original curve
compression

Note: or horizontal stretch and compression, the change in the graph caused by the value
of “b” is counter intuitive be careful with these.

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Chapter 5 Functions

Algebra
ransformation Reflection

A Reflection is a “flip” of the graph across a mirror in the plane. It preserves the shape the
graph but can make it look “backwards.”
e r e re e o o r r ere re e re e o ro e e

Axis Reflection Axis Reflection

Starting form: Starting form:
x‐axis Reflection: y‐axis Reflection:

ote the following: ote the following:

 At each point, the graph is  At each point, the graph is
reflected across the x‐axis. reflected across the y‐axis.
 The form of the transformation is  The form of the transformation is
the same as a vertical stretch or the same as a horizontal stretch
compression with . or compression with .
 The flip of the graph over the x‐  The flip of the graph over the y‐
axis is, in effect, a vertical axis is, in effect, a horizontal
transformation. transformation.

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Chapter 5 Functions

Algebra
ransformations Summary

Starting form:
For purposes of the following table, the variables h and k are positive to make the forms more
like what the student will encounter when solving problems involving transformations.

ransformation Summary
orm of ransformation Result of ransformation

ertical translation up k units.

ertical translation down k units.

Horizontal translation left h units.

Horizontal translation right h units.

, ertical stretch by a factor of .

, ertical compression by a factor of .

, Horizontal compression by a factor of .

, Horizontal stretch by a factor of .

Reflection across the x‐axis (vertical).

Reflection across the y‐axis (horizontal).

Transformations based on the values

of “a” and “b” (stretches,
compressions, reflections) can be
represented by these graphics.

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Chapter 5 Functions

Algebra
uilding a Graph with ransformations

The graph of an equation can be built with blocks made up of transformations. As an example,
we will build the graph of .

Step 1: Start with the basic Step 2: Translate 3 units to Step 3: Stretch vertically by
quadratic equation: the right to get equation: a factor of 2 to get equation:

Step 4: Reflect over the Step : Translate up 4 inal Result: Show the graph
x to get equation: units to get equation: of the final equation:

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Chapter 6 inear Functions

Algebra
Slope of a Line

The slope of a line tells how fast it rises or falls as it moves from left to right. If the slope is
rising, the slope is positive; if it is falling, the slope is negative. The letter “m” is often used as
the symbol for slope.

The two most useful ways to calculate the slope of a line are discussed below.

Mathematical Definition of Slope

The definition is based on two points with
coordinates , and , . The definition,
then, is:

Comments:
 You can select any 2 points on the line.
 A table such as the one at right can be helpful for doing
your calculations. x value y value
Point 2
 ote that implies that .
Point 1
So, it does not matter which point you assign as Point 1
and which you assign as Point 2. Therefore, neither does Difference
it matter which point is first in the table.
 It is important that once you assign a point as Point 1 and another as Point 2, that you use
their coordinates in the proper places in the formula.

Examples:
For the two lines in the figure above, we get the following:

Green Line x value y value Red Line x value y value

Point A 1 4 Point D 4 ‐2

Point C ‐3 ‐4 Point ‐4 2

Difference 4 8 Difference 8 ‐4

Green ine: Red ine:

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Chapter 6 inear Functions

Algebra
Slope of a Line cont d

Rise over Run

An equivalent method of calculating slope that is more
visual is the “Rise over Run” method. Under this
method, it helps to draw vertical and horizontal lines
that indicate the horizontal and vertical distances
between points on the line.

The slope can then be calculated as follows:

The rise of a line is how much it increases positive or decreases negative between two
points. The run is how far the line moves to the right positive or the left negative between
the same two points.

Comments:
 You can select any 2 points on the line.
 It is important to start at the same point in measuring both the rise and the run.
 A good convention is to always start with the point on the left and work your way to the
right; that way, the run (i.e., the denominator in the formula) is always positive. The only
exception to this is when the run is zero, in which case the slope is undefined.
 If the two points are clearly marked as integers on a graph, the rise and run may actually be
counted on the graph. This makes the process much simpler than using the formula for the
definition of slope. However, when counting, make sure you get the right sign for the slope
of the line, e.g., moving down as the line moves to the right is a negative slope.

Examples:

For the two lines in the figure above, we get the following:

Green ine: Notice how similar the

calculations in the examples
are under the two methods
Red ine: of calculating slopes.

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Chapter 6 inear Functions

Algebra
Slopes of arious Lines

line is vertical

When you loo at a line, you

should notice the following
about its slope:
line is steep and going down  e er o e
line is steep and going up
e e or e e
 o e or e e
e er e
o or re er

The purpose of the graphs on

this page is to help you get a feel
for these things.

This can help you check:

 Given a slope, whether you line goes up at a 45 angle
line goes down at a 45 angle
drew the line correctly, or
 Given a line, whether you
calculated the slope
correctly.

line is shallow and going down line is shallow and going up

line is horizontal

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Chapter 6 inear Functions

Algebra
arious orms of a Line

There are three forms of a linear equation which are most useful to the Algebra student, each
of which can be converted into the other two through algebraic manipulation. The ability to
move between forms is a very useful skill in Algebra, and should be practiced by the student.

Standard orm
The Standard Form of a linear equation is: Standard orm Examples

where A, B, and C are real numbers and A and B are not both zero.
Usually in this form, the convention is for A to be positive.

Why, you might ask, is this “Standard Form?” One reason is that this form is easily extended to
additional variables, whereas other forms are not. For example, in four variables, the Standard
Form would be: . Another reason is that this form easily lends itself
to analysis with matrices, which can be very useful in solving systems of equations.

Slope ntercept orm

Slope ntercept Examples
The Slope‐Intercept Form of a linear equation is the one most
familiar to many students. It is:

where m is the slope and b is the y‐intercept of the line (i.e., the
value at which the line crosses the y‐axis in a graph). m and b must also be real numbers.

Point Slope orm

The Point‐Slope Form of a linear equation is the one used least by
the student, but it can be very useful in certain circumstances. In Point Slope Examples
particular, as you might expect, it is useful if the student is asked for
the equation of a line and is given the line s slope and the
coordinates of a point on the line. The form of the equation is:

where m is the slope and , is any point on the line. One strength of this form is that
equations formed using different points on the same line will be equivalent.

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Chapter 6 inear Functions

Algebra
Slopes of Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

Parallel Lines
wo lines are parallel if their slopes are equal.
 In form, if the values of are
the same.
Example:

 In Standard Form, if the coefficients of and

are proportional between the equations.
Example:

 Also, if the lines are both vertical (i.e., their

slopes are undefined).
Example:

Perpendicular Lines
wo lines are perpendicular if the product of their
slopes is . That is, if the slopes have different
signs and are multiplicative inverses.
 In form, the values of
multiply to get ..
Example:

 In Standard Form, if you add the product of

the x‐coefficients to the product of the y‐
coefficients and get zero.
Example:
because

 Also, if one line is vertical (i.e., is undefined) and one line is horizontal (i.e., ).
Example:

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Chapter 6 inear Functions

Algebra
Parallel, Perpendicular or Neither

The following flow chart can be used to determine whether a pair of lines are parallel,
perpendicular, or neither.

irst, put both lines in:

form.

Are the
yes Result: The
slopes of the
lines are
two lines the
parallel.
same

no

s the Result: The lines

yes
product of are
the two perpendicular.
slopes 1

no

Result: The
lines are
neither.

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Chapter 6 inear Functions

Algebra
Parallel, Coincident or ntersecting

The following flow chart can be used to determine whether a pair of lines are parallel,
coincident, or intersecting. Coincident lines are lines that are the same, even though they may
be expressed differently. Technically, coincident lines are not parallel because parallel lines
never intersect and coincident lines intersect at all points on the line.

irst, put both lines in:

form.

Are the Are the y Result: The

yes yes
slopes of the intercepts of lines are
two lines the the two lines coincident.
same the same

no no

Result: The Result: The

lines are lines are
intersecting. parallel.

he intersection of the two lines is:

 For intersecting lines, the point of intersection.
 For parallel lines, the empty set, .
 For coincident lines, all points on the line.

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Chapter Inequalities

Algebra
Properties of nequalities

For any real numbers a, b, and c:

Property Definition

Addition ,
Property
,

Subtraction ,
Property
,

Multiplication or , or ,
Property
, ,

, ,

Division or , or ,
Property
, ,

, ,

Note: all properties which hold for “ ” also hold for “ ”, and all properties which hold for “ ”
also hold for “ ”.

There is nothing too surprising in these properties. The most important thing to be obtained
from them can be described as follows: When you multiply or divide an inequality by a
negative number, you must “flip” the sign. That is, becomes , becomes , etc.

In addition, it is useful to note that you can flip around an entire inequality as long as you keep
the “pointy” part of the sign directed at the same item. Examples:
One way to remember this
is the same as
is that when you flip around
an inequality, you must also
is the same as
flip around the sign.

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Chapter Inequalities

Algebra
Graphs of nequalities in One Dimension

Inequalities in one dimension are generally graphed on the number line. Alternatively, if it is
clear that the graph is one‐dimensional, the graphs can be shown in relation to a number line
but not specifically on it (examples of this are on the next page).

One Dimensional Graph Components

 he endpoint s The endpoints for the ray or segment in the graph are shown as either
open or closed circles.
o If the point is included in the solution to the inequality (i.e., if the sign is or ), the
circle is closed.
o If the point is not included in the solution to the inequality (i.e., if the sign is or ),
the circle is open.
 he arrow If all numbers in one direction of the number line are solutions to the
inequality, an arrow points in that direction.
o For or signs, the arrow points to the left ( ).
o For or signs, the arrow points to the right ( ).
 he line in a simple inequality, a line is drawn from the endpoint to the arrow. If there are
two endpoints, a line is drawn from one to the other.

Examples:

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Chapter Inequalities

Algebra
Compound nequalities in One Dimension

Compound inequalities are a set of inequalities that must all be true at the same time. Usually,
there are two inequalities, but more than two can also form a compound set. The principles
described below easily extend to cases where there are more than two inequalities.

Compound nequalities with the Word “AND”

An example of compound inequalities with the word “A D” would be:
or These are the same conditions,
Simple orm Compound orm expressed in two different forms.

Graphically, “A D” inequalities exist at points where the graphs of the individual inequalities
overlap. This is the “intersection” of the graphs of the individual inequalities. Below are two
examples of graphs of compound inequalities using the word “A D.”

A typical “A D” example: The result is a “A D” compound inequalities sometimes result

segment that contains the points that overlap in the empty set. This happens when no
the graphs of the individual inequalities. numbers meet both conditions at the same time.

Compound nequalities with the Word “OR”

Graphically, “OR” inequalities exist at points where any of the original graphs have points. This
is the “union” of the graphs of the individual inequalities. Below are two examples of graphs of
compound inequalities using the word “OR.”

A typical “OR” example: The result is a pair of “OR” compound inequalities sometimes result in
rays extending in opposite directions, with a the set of all numbers. This happens when every
gap in between. number meets at least one of the conditions.

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Chapter Inequalities

Algebra
nequalities in wo Dimensions

Graphing an inequality in two dimensions involves the following steps:

 Graph the underlying equation.
 Make the line solid or dotted based on whether the inequality contains an “=” sign.
o For inequalities with “<” or “>” the line is dotted.
o For inequalities with “ ” or “ ” the line is solid.
 Determine whether the region containing the solution set is above the line or below the
line.
o For inequalities with “>” or “ ” the shaded region is above the line.
o For inequalities with “<” or “ ” the shaded region is below the line.
 Shade in the appropriate region.

Example:
Graph the solution set of the following system of inequality:

Step 1: Graph the underlying

equation.

Step 2: Determine whether the line

should be solid or dotted:
the sign does not
contain “=”, so the line is dotted

Step 3: Determine the region to be

shaded based on the sign in the
equation:
the sign indicates
shading above the line

The solution set is the shaded area.

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Chapter Inequalities

Algebra
Graphs of nequalities in wo Dimensions

Dashed Line Dashed Line

elow the Line Above the Line

Solid Line Solid Line

elow the Line Above the Line

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Chapter Inequalities

Algebra
Absolute alue unctions

Equations
Graphs of equations involving absolute values generally have a “ ” pattern. Whenever you see
a “ ” in a graph, think “absolute value.” A general equation for an absolute value function is of
the form:

where,
 h h h h h ( ) ( )
 is the absolute value of the slopes of the lines in the graph.
 (h, k) is the location of the vertex (i.e., the sharp point) in the graph.

Examples:

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 Chapter Inequalities

Algebra
Absolute alue unctions cont d

nequalities
Since a positive number and a negative number can have the same absolute value, inequalities
involving absolute values must be broken into two separate equations. For example:

The first new equation is simply the original

equation without the absolute value sign.

In the second new equation, two things

Sign that determines change: (1) the sign flips, and (2) the value on
use of “AND” or “OR” the right side of the inequality changes its sign.

At this point the absolute value problem has converted into a pair of compound inequalities.

Equation 1 Equation 2
Solve: Solve:
Step 1: Add 3 Step 1: Add 3
Result: Result:

ext, we need to know whether to use “A D” or “OR” with the results. To decide which word
to use, look at the sign in the inequality; then …
ote: the English is poor, but the math
 Use the word “AND” with “less thand” signs.
is easier to remember with this trick
 Use the word “OR” with “greator” signs.

The solution to the above absolute value problem, then, is the same as the solution to the
following set of compound inequalities:
The solution set is all x in the range (‐1, )

ote: the solution set to this example is given in “range” notation. When using this notation,
 use parentheses ( ) whenever an endpoint is not included in the solution set, and
 use square brackets whenever an endpoint is included in the solution set.
 Always use parentheses ( ) with infinity signs ( ).

Examples:
The range: The range:
otation: , otation: ,

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Chapter 8 Systems of Equations

Algebra
Systems of Equations

A system of equations is a set of 2 or more equations for which we wish to determine all
solutions which satisfy each equation. Generally, there will be the same number of equations
as variables and a single solution to each variable will be sought. However, sometimes there is
either no solution or there is an infinite number of solutions.

There are many methods available to solve a system of equations. We will show three of them
below.

Graphing a Solution

In the simplest cases, a set of 2 equations in 2 unknowns can be solved using a graph. A single
equation in two unknowns is a line, so two equations give us 2 lines. The following situations
are possible with 2 lines:

 hey will intersect. In this case, the point of intersection is the only solution.
 hey will be the same line. In this case, all points on the line are solutions (note: this is
an infinite set).
 hey will be parallel but not the same line. In this case, there are no solutions.

Examples

Solution Set: Solution Set: Solution Set:

The point of intersection The empty set; All points on the line.
can be read off the graph; these parallel lines Although the equations look
the point (2,0). will never cross. different, they actually
describe the same line.

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Chapter 8 Systems of Equations

Algebra
Systems of Equations cont d

Substitution Method
In the Substitution Method, we eliminate one of the variables by substituting into one of the
equations its equivalent in terms of the other variable. Then we solve for each variable in turn
and check the result. The steps in this process are illustrated in the example below.

Example: Solve for x and y if:

and: .

Step 1: Review the two equations. ook for a variable that can be substituted from one
equation into the other. In this example, we see a single “y” in the first equation; this is a prime
candidate for substitution.
We will substitute from the first equation for in the second equation.

Step 2: Perform the substitution.

becomes:

Step 3: Solve the resulting equation for the single variable that is left.

Step 4: Substitute the known variable into one of the original equations to solve for the
remaining variable.

After this step, the solution is tentatively identified as:

, , meaning the point (3, 1).

Step : Check the result by substituting the solution into the equation not used in Step 4. If the
solution is correct, the result should be a true statement. If it is not, you have made a mistake
and should check your work carefully.

Since this is a true mathematical

statement, the solution (3, 1)
can be accepted as correct.

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Chapter 8 Systems of Equations

Algebra
Systems of Equations cont d

Elimination Method
In the Substitution Method, we manipulate one or both of the equations so that we can add
them and eliminate one of the variables. Then we solve for each variable in turn and check the
result. This is an outstanding method for systems of equations with “ugly” coefficients. The
steps in this process are illustrated in the example below. ote the flow of the solution on the
page.

Example: Solve for x and y if:

and: .

Step 1: Re‐write the equations in Step 2: Multiply each equation by a value

standard form. selected so that, when the equations are added,
a variable will be eliminated.
Multiply by 2)
(Multiply by ‐1)

Step 3: Add the resulting equations.

Step : Substitute the result into

one of the original equations and
solve for the other variable.

Step 4: Solve for the variable.

Step : Check the result by substituting

the solution into the equation not used in
Step 5. If the solution is correct, the
result should be a true statement. If it is
not, you have made a mistake and should Since this is a true mathematical statement, the
check your work. solution (3, 1) can be accepted as correct.

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Chapter 8 Systems of Equations

Algebra
Systems of Equations cont d

Classification of Systems
There are two main classifications of systems of equations: Consistent vs. Inconsistent, and
Dependent vs. Independent.

Consistent vs. nconsistent

 Consistent Systems have one or more solutions.
 nconsistent Systems have no solutions. When you try to solve an inconsistent set of
equations, you often get to a point where you have an impossible statement, such as
“ .” This indicates that there is no solution to the system.

Dependent vs. ndependent

 Linearly Dependent Systems have an infinite number of solutions. In Linear Algebra, a
system is linearly dependent if there is a set of real numbers (not all zero) that, when
they are multiplied by the equations in the system and the results are added, the final
result is zero.
 Linearly ndependent Systems have at most one solution. In Linear Algebra, a system is
linearly independent if it is not linearly dependent. Note: some textbooks indicate that
an independent system must have a solution. This is not correct; they can have no
solutions (see the middle example below). or ore o ee e e e

Examples

One Solution No Solution nfinite Solutions

Consistent nconsistent Consistent
ndependent ndependent Dependent

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Chapter 8 Systems of Equations

AD ANCED
Algebra
Linear Dependence

Linear dependence is a concept from Linear Algebra, and is very useful in determining if
solutions to complex systems of equations exist. Essentially, a system of functions is defined
to be linearly dependent if there is a set of real numbers (not all zero), such that:

or, in summation notation,

If there is no set of real numbers , such that the above equations are true, the system is said
to be linearly independent.

The expression is called a linear combination of the functions . The

importance of the concept of linear dependence lies in the recognition that a dependent
system is redundant, i.e., the system can be defined with fewer equations. It is useful to note
that a linearly dependent system of equations has a determinant of coefficients equal to 0.

Example:
Consider the following system of equations:

otice that: .
Therefore, the system is linearly
dependent.

Checking the determinant of the coefficient matrix:

It should be noted that the fact that is sufficient to prove linear dependence only if there
are no constant terms in the functions (e.g., if the problem involves vectors). If there are
constant terms, it is also necessary that these terms combine “properly.” There are additional
techniques to test this, such as the use of augmented matrices and Gauss‐ ordan Elimination.

Much of inear Algebra concerns itself with sets of equations that are linearly independent. If
the determinant of the coefficient matrix is non‐zero, then the set of equations is linearly
independent.

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Chapter 8 Systems of Equations

Algebra
Systems of nequalities in wo Dimensions

Systems of inequalities are sets of more than one inequality. To graph a system of inequalities,
graph each inequality separately (including shading in the appropriate region). The solution set,
then, is either the overlap of the regions of the separate inequalities (“A D” Systems) or the
union of the regions of the separate inequalities (“OR” Systems).

Examples:
Graph the solution set of the following system of inequalities:
(a) A D (b) OR

Step 1: Graph the underlying equations.

Step 2: Determine whether each line should be

solid or dotted:
the sign contains “=”, so the
line is solid
the sign does not contain “=”,
so the line is dotted

Step 3: Determine the regions to be shaded based on the signs in the equations:
 the sign indicates shading below the line
 the sign indicates shading above the line

Step 4: Determine the final solution set.

(a) If the problem has an “A D” between (b) If the problem has an “OR” between
the inequalities, the solution set is the the inequalities, the solution set is the
overlap of the shaded areas (i.e., the union of all of the shaded areas (i.e.,
green part in the graph below). the blue part in the graph below).

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Chapter 8 Systems of Equations

Algebra
Parametric Equations

Parametric Equations in 2 dimensions are functions that express each of the two key variables
in terms of a one or more others. For example,

Parametric equations are sometimes the most useful way to solve a problem.

Pythagorean riples
As an example, the following parametric equations can be used to find Pythagorean Triples:
et , be relatively prime integers and let . Then, the following equations produce a set
of integer values that satisfy the Pythagorean Theorem:

Examples:

s t a b c Pythagorean Relationship
3 2 5 12 13
4 3 24 25
5 2 21 20 29
5 3 16 30 34

Creating a Standard Equation from Parametric Equations

To create a standard equation from a set of
parametric equations in two dimensions, Example: Create a standard equation for the
parametric equations:
 Solve one parametric equation for t.
 Substitute this value of t into the other
Solving for t in the first equation, we get:
equation.
 Clean up the remaining expression as
necessary. Substituting into the second equation gives:
Note: any other method of solving
simultaneous equations can also be used for Cleaning this up, we get the solution we seek:
this purpose.

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Chapter 9 Exponents

Algebra
Exponent ormulas

Word Description Math Description Limitations

Examples
of Property of Property on variables

Product of Powers

Quotient of Powers

Power of a Power

Anything to the zero power is 1

, if , ,

Negative powers generate the

reciprocal of what a positive
power generates

Power of a product

Power of a quotient

Converting a root to a power

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Chapter 9 Exponents

Algebra
Scientific Notation

ormat
A number in scientific notation has two parts:
 A number which is at least 1 and is less than 10 (i.e., it must have only one digit before
the decimal point). This number is called the coefficient.
 A power of 10 which is multiplied by the first number.
Here are a few examples of regular numbers expressed in scientific notation.

, ,

ow many digits ow many zeros

There are a couple of simple rules for converting from scientific notation to a regular number or
for converting from a regular number to scientific notation:
 If a regular number is less than 1, the exponent of 10 in scientific notation is negative.
The number of leading zeros in the regular number is equal to the absolute value of this
exponent. In applying this rule, you must count the zero before the decimal point in the
regular number. Examples:

Original Number Action Conversion

0.00034 Count 4 zeros 3.4 x 10‐4
6.234 x 10‐8 Add 8 zeros before the digits 0.000 000 062 34

 If the number is greater than 1, the number of digits after the first one in the regular
number is equal to the exponent of 10 in the scientific notation.

Original Number Action Conversion

4,800,000 Count 6 digits after the “4” 4.8 x 106
9.6 x 103 Add 3 digits after the “9” 9,600

 As a general rule, multiplying by powers of 10 moves the decimal point one place for
each power of 10.
o Multiplying by positive powers of 10 moves the decimal to the right.
o Multiplying by negative powers of 10 moves the decimal to the left.

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Chapter 9 Exponents

Algebra
Adding and Subtracting with Scientific Notation

When adding or subtracting numbers in scientific notation:

 Ad ust the numbers so they have the same power of 10. This works best if you ad ust
the representation of the smaller number so that it has the same power of 10 as the
larger number. To do this:
o Call the difference between the exponents of 10 in the two numbers “n”.
o Raise the power of 10 of the smaller number by “n”, and
o Move the decimal point of the coefficient of the smaller number “n” places to
the left.
 Add the coefficients, keeping the power of 10 unchanged.
 If the result is not in scientific notation, ad ust it so that it is.
o If the coefficient is at least 1 and less than 10, the answer is in the correct form.
o If the coefficient is 10 or greater, increase the exponent of 10 by 1 and move the
decimal point of the coefficient one space to the left.
o If the coefficient is less than 1, decrease the exponent of 10 by 1 and move the
decimal point of the coefficient one space to the right.

Examples:
Explanation: A conversion of the smaller
number is required prior to adding because the
exponents of the two numbers are different.
10 After adding, the result is no longer in scientific
notation, so an extra step is needed to convert it
into the appropriate format.

Explanation: o conversion is necessary

because the exponents of the two numbers are
the same. After adding, the result is in scientific
8 notation, so no additional steps are required.

Explanation: A conversion of the smaller

number is required prior to subtracting because
the exponents of the two numbers are different.
After subtracting, the result is no longer in
scientific notation, so an extra step is needed to
convert it into the appropriate format.

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Chapter 9 Exponents

Algebra
Multiplying and Dividing with Scientific Notation

When multiplying or dividing numbers in scientific notation:

 Multiply or divide the coefficients.
 Multiply or divide the powers of 10. Remember that this means adding or subtracting
the exponents while keeping the base of 10 unchanged.
o If you are multiplying, add the exponents of 10.
o If you are dividing, subtract the exponents of 10.
 If the result is not in scientific notation, ad ust it so that it is.
o If the coefficient is at least 1 and less than 10, the answer is in the correct form.
o If the coefficient is 10 or greater, increase the exponent of 10 by 1 and move the
decimal point of the coefficient one space to the left.
o If the coefficient is less than 1, decrease the exponent of 10 by 1 and move the
decimal point of the coefficient one space to the right.

Examples:

Explanation: The coefficients are multiplied and

the exponents are added. After multiplying, the
result is no longer in scientific notation, so an
extra step is needed to convert it into the
appropriate format.

Explanation: The coefficients are multiplied and

the exponents are added. After multiplying, the
result is in scientific notation, so no additional
2 steps are required.

Explanation: The coefficients are divided and

the exponents are subtracted. After dividing,
the result is no longer in scientific notation, so
an extra step is needed to convert it into the
appropriate format.

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Chapter 10 Polynomials Basic

Algebra
ntroduction to Polynomials

What is a Polynomial
A polynomial is an expression that can be written as a term or a sum of terms, each of which is
the product of a scalar (the coefficient) and a series of variables. Each of the terms is also called
a monomial.

Examples (all of these are polynomials):

Monomial

Binomial

Trinomial

Other

Definitions:
Scalar: A real number.
Monomial: Polynomial with one term.
Binomial: Polynomial with two terms.
Trinomial: Polynomial with three terms.

Degree of a Polynomial
The degree of a monomial is the sum of the exponents on its variables.
The degree of a polynomial is the highest degree of any of its monomial terms.

Examples:

Polynomial Degree Polynomial Degree

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Chapter 10 Polynomials Basic

Algebra
Adding and Subtracting Polynomials

Problems asking the student to add or subtract polynomials are often written in linear form:

The problem is much more easily solved if the problem is written in column form, with each
polynomial written in standard form.

Definitions
Standard Form: A polynomial in standard form has its terms written from highest degree to
lowest degree from left to right.
Example: The standard form of is
ike Terms: Terms with the same variables raised to the same powers. Only the numerical
coefficients are different.
Example: , , and are like terms.

Addition and Subtraction Steps

Step 1: Write each polynomial in standard form. eave blank spaces for missing terms. For
example, if adding , leave space for the missing ‐term.

Step 2: If you are subtracting, change the sign of each term of the polynomial to be subtracted
and add instead. Adding is much easier than subtracting.
Step 3: Place the polynomials in column form, being careful to line up like terms.
Step 4: Add the polynomials.

Examples:

Solution: Solution:

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Chapter 10 Polynomials Basic

Algebra
Multiplying inomials

he three methods shown below are equivalent. se whichever one you li e best.

O L Method
FOI stands for First, Outside, Inside, ast. To multiply using the FOI method, you make four
separate multiplications and add the results.

Example: Multiply The result is obtained by adding the results of

First: the 4 separate multiplications.

Outside: F O I L
Inside:
Last:

ox Method
The Box Method is pretty much the same as the FOI method, except for the presentation. In
the box method, a 2x2 array of multiplications is created, the 4 multiplications are performed,
and the results are added.
Example: Multiply
The result is obtained by adding the results of
Multiply 3x the 4 separate multiplications.

2x

+3

Stac ed Polynomial Method

A third method is to multiply the binomials
like you would multiply 2‐digit numbers.
The name comes from how the two
polynomials are placed in a “stack” in
preparation for multiplication.
Example: Multiply

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Chapter 10 Polynomials Basic

Algebra
Multiplying Polynomials

If the polynomials to be multiplied contain more than two terms (i.e., they are larger than
binomials), the FOI Method will not work. Instead, either the Box Method or the Stacked
Polynomial Method should be used. otice that each of these methods is essentially a way to
apply the distributive property of multiplication over addition.

he methods shown below are equivalent. se whichever one you li e best.

ox Method
The Box Method is the same for larger polynomials as it is for binomials, except the box is
bigger. An array of multiplications is created; the multiplications are performed; and like terms
are added.
Example: Multiply

Multiply Results:

Stac ed Polynomial Method

Results:
In the Stacked Polynomial Method, the
polynomials are multiplied using the same
technique to multiply multi‐digit numbers
One helpful tip is to place the smaller
polynomial below the larger one in the
stack.

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Chapter 10 Polynomials Basic

Algebra
Dividing Polynomials

Dividing polynomials is performed much like dividing large numbers long‐hand.

Long Division Method

This process is best described by example:
Example:
Step 1: Set up the division like a typical long hand
division problem.

Step 2: Divide the leading term of the dividend by

the leading term of the divisor. Place the result
above the term of like degree of the dividend.

Step 3: Multiply the new term on top by the divisor

and subtract from the dividend.

Step 4: Repeat steps 2 and 3 on the remainder of

the division until the problem is completed.

This process results in the final answer appearing

above the dividend, so that:

Remainders
If there were a remainder, it would be appended to
the result of the problem in the form of a fraction, ust like when dividing integers. For
example, in the problem above, if the remainder were 3, the fraction would be added to
the result of the division.

Alternatives
This process can be tedious. Fortunately, there are better methods for dividing polynomials
than long division. These include actoring, which is discussed next and elsewhere in this
Guide, and Synthetic Division, which is discussed in the chapter on Polynomials Intermediate.

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Chapter 10 Polynomials Basic

Algebra
actoring Polynomials

Polynomials cannot be divided in the same way numbers can. In order to divide polynomials, it
is often useful to factor them first. Factoring involves extracting simpler terms from the more
complex polynomial.

Greatest Common actor

The Greatest Common Factor of the terms of a polynomial is determined as follows:
Step 1: Find the Greatest Common Factor of the coefficients.
Step 2: Find the Greatest Common Factor for each variable. This is simply each variable taken
to the lowest power that exists for that variable in any of the terms.
Step 3: Multiply the GCF of the coefficients by the GCF for each variable.

Example:
Find the GCF of , ,
, ,
The GCF of the coefficients and each variable are shown
, ,
in the box to the right. The GCF of the polynomial is the
product of the four individual GCFs. , ,
So,
actoring Steps
Step 1: Factor out of all terms the GCF of the polynomial.
Step 2: Factor out of the remaining polynomial any binomials that can be ote: Typically only
steps 1 and 2 are
extracted.
needed in high school
Step 3: Factor out of the remaining polynomial any trinomials that can algebra problems.
be extracted.
Step 4: Continue this process until no further simplification is possible.

Examples:

actor: actor:

The factoring of the blue trinomial (2nd line) into The factoring of the blue binomial (2nd line) into
the square of a binomial is the result of binomials of lower degree is the result of
recognizing the special form it represents. Special recognizing the special form it represents. Special
forms are shown on the next two pages. forms are shown on the next two pages.

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Chapter 10 Polynomials Basic

Algebra
Special orms of Quadratic unctions

It is helpful to be able to recognize a couple special forms of quadratic functions. In particular,

if you can recognize perfect squares and differences of squares, your work will become easier
and more accurate.

Perfect Squares
Perfect squares are of the form:

dentification and Solution

The following steps allow the student to identify and solve a trinomial that is a perfect square:
Step 1: otice the first term of the trinomial is a square. Take its square root.
Step 2: otice the last term of the trinomial is a square. Take its square root.
Step 3: Multiply the results of the first 2 steps and double that product. If the result is the
middle term of the trinomial, the expression is a perfect square.
Step 4: The binomial in the solution is the sum or difference of the square roots calculated in
steps 1 and 2. The sign between the terms of the binomial is the sign of the middle
term of the trinomial.

Example:
otice that the middle term is double the product
of the two square roots ( and ). This is a
telltale sign that the expression is a perfect square.

e e r o er e re
 Take the square roots of the first and last terms. They are and .
 Test the middle term. Multiply the roots from the previous step, then double the result:
. The result (with a “ ” sign in front) is the middle term of the
original trinomial. Therefore, the expression is a perfect square.

o e re e r o e re o o
 The square roots of the first and last terms and make up the binomial we seek.
 We may choose the sign of the first term, so let s choose the “ ” sign.
 Having chosen the “ ” sign for the first term, the second term of the binomial takes the
sign of the middle term of the original trinomial (“ ”). Therefore, the result is:

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Chapter 10 Polynomials Basic

Algebra
Special orms of Quadratic unctions

Differences of Squares
Differences of squares are of the form:

These are much easier to recognize than the perfect squares because there is no middle term
to consider. otice why there is no middle term:

these two
terms cancel
dentification

To see if an expression is a difference of squares, you must answer “yes” to four questions:
1. Are there only two terms?
2. Is there a “ ” sign between the two terms?
3. Is the first term a square? If so, take its square root.
4. Is the second term a square? If so, take its square root.

The solution is the product of a) the sum of the square roots in questions 3 and 4, and b) the
difference of the square roots in steps 3 and 4.

e: e e o e e re o e e ere e o re e e
oe e o e r e re re e

Examples:
(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

AD ANCED: Over the field of complex numbers, it is also possible to factor the sum of 2 squares:

This is not possible over the field of real numbers.

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Chapter 10 Polynomials Basic

Algebra
actoring rinomials Simple Case Method

A common problem in Elementary Algebra is the factoring of a trinomial that is neither a

perfect square nor a difference of squares.

Consider the simple case where the coefficient of is 1. The general form for this case is:

sign 1 sign 2
coefficient constant
of x

In order to simplify the illustration of factoring a polynomial where the coefficient of is 1, we

will use the orange descriptors above for the components of the trinomial being factored.

Simple Case Method Example: actor

Step 1: Set up parentheses for a pair of binomials. Put “x” in the

left hand position of each binomial.

Step 2: Put sign 1 in the middle position in the left binomial.

Step 3: Multiply sign 1 and sign 2 to get the sign for the right
binomial. Remember:

Step 4: Find two numbers that: The numbers we seek are

Fill in: and because:
(a) Multiply to get the constant, and , and
(b) Add to get the coefficient of

Step 5: Place the numbers in the binomials so that their signs

match the signs from Steps 2 and 3. his is the final
answer.

Step 6: Check your work by multiplying the two binomials to see

if you get the original trinomial.

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Chapter 10 Polynomials Basic

Algebra
actoring rinomials AC Method

There are times when the simple method of factoring a trinomial is not sufficient. Primarily this
occurs when the coefficient of is not 1. In this case, you may use the AC method presented
here, or you may use either the brute force method or the quadratic formula method
(described on the next couple of pages).

AC Method
The AC Method derives its name from the first step of the Example: actor
process, which is to multiply the values of and from the
general form of the quadratic equation:

Step 1: Multiply the values of and .

Step 2: Find two numbers that:

Fill in:
(a) Multiply to get the value of ,
and
(b) Add to get the coefficient of

Step 3: Split the middle term into two terms, with coefficients
equal to the values found in Step 2. (Tip: if only one of
the coefficients is negative, put that term first.)

Step 4: Group the terms into pairs.

Step 5: Factor each pair of terms.

Step 6: Use the distributive property to combine the

multipliers of the common term. his is the final
answer.

Step : Check your work by multiplying the two binomials to

see if you get the original trinomial.

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Chapter 10 Polynomials Basic

Algebra
actoring rinomials rute orce Method

When the coefficient of is not 1, the factoring process becomes more difficult. There are a
number of methods that can be used in this case.

If the question being asked is to find roots of the equation, and not to factor it, the student may
want to use the quadratic formula whenever the coefficient of is not 1. Even if you are
required to factor, and not ust find roots, the quadratic formula may be a viable approach.

rute orce Method

This method is exactly what it sounds like. Multiple equations are possible and you must try
each of them until you find the one that works. Here are the steps to finding which equations
are candidate solutions:
Example: actor
Step 1: Find all sets of whole numbers that multiply to
get the coefficient of the first term in the Combinations that produce a product
trinomial. If the first term is positive, you need of are:
or
only consider positive factors.
Step 2: Find all sets of whole numbers that multiply to Combinations that produce a product
get the coefficient of the last term in the of are:
trinomial. You must consider both positive and or
negative factors.

Step 3: Create all possible products of binomials that

contain the whole numbers found in the first
two steps.

Step 4: Multiply the binomial pairs until you find one

that results in the trinomial you are trying to
factor.

Step 5: Identify the correct solution.

Notice the patterns in the candidate solutions in Step 4. Each pair of equations is identical except for
the sign of the middle term in the product. Therefore, you can cut your work in half by considering only
one of each pair until you see a middle term coefficient that has the right absolute value. If you have
everything right but the sign of the middle term, switch the signs in the binomials to obtain the correct
solution. Remember to chec your wor

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Chapter 10 Polynomials Basic

Algebra
actoring rinomials Quadratic ormula Method

Quadratic ormula Method

The Quadratic Formula is designed specifically to find roots of a second degree equation.
However, it can also be used as a back‐door method to factor equations of second degree. The
steps are:
Step 1: Apply the quadratic formula to determine the roots of the equation.
Step 2: Put each root into the form: .
Step 3: Show the two binomials as a product. ote that these binomials may
contain fractions. We will eliminate the fractions, if possible, in the next step.
Step 4: Multiply the binomials in Step 3 by the coefficient of the following way:
(a) Break the coefficient of into its prime factors.
(b) Allocate the prime factors to the binomials in a way that eliminates the fractions.
Step 5: Check your work.

Example:
actor:

Step 1:

Step 2: The two equations containing roots are: .

Step 3:

Step 4: The coefficient of in the original equation is 4, and . An inspection of the

binomials in Step 3 indicates we need to multiply each binomial by in order to
eliminate the fractions:

and

So that: in factored form

Step 5: Check (using FOI ) ,

which is the equation we were trying to factor.

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Chapter 10 Polynomials Basic

Algebra
Solving Equations by actoring

There are a number of reasons to factor a polynomial in algebra; one of the most common
reasons is to find the zeros of the polynomial. A “zero” is a domain value (e.g., x‐value) for
which the polynomial generates a value of zero. Each zero is a solution of the polynomial.

In factored form, it is much easier to find a polynomial s zeros. Consider the following:
is the factored form of a polynomial.
If a number of items are multiplied together, the result is zero whenever any of the individual
items is zero. This is true for constants and for polynomials. Therefore, if any of the factors of
the polynomial has a value of zero, then the whole polynomial must be zero. We use this fact
to find zeros of polynomials in factored form.

Example 1:
Find the zeros of .
Step 1: Set the equation equal to zero.

Step 2: The whole equation is zero whenever any of its factors is zero. For the example, this
occurs when:
, or The solution set, then, is:
, or , , , ,
, or or, more conventionally, the x‐values are put
in numerical order from smallest to largest:
, or
, , , ,

Set Notation: We may list the set

Example 2: of solutions to a problem by
Find the zeros of placing the solutions in braces ,
separated by commas.

The solution set contains the two

domain values that make the original
equation zero, namely:
,

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Chapter 11 Quadratic Functions

Algebra
ntroduction to Quadratic unctions

Standard orm of a Quadratic unction

The Standard Form of a second degree polynomial is:
h
An equation of this form is called a quadratic function.
The graph of this equation is called a parabola.

p or down
The direction in which the parabola opens on a graph is
based on the sign ( or ) of in the equation.
 If , the parabola points down and it opens up.
 If , the parabola points up and it opens down.

If you forget this rule, ust remember that “up or down”

depends on the sign of , and do a quick graph of ,
where on your paper.

ertex and Axis of Symmetry

In Standard Form, the vertex of the parabola has coordinates: , where “y” is calculated

by substituting for “x in the equation. The vertex is either the highest point on the graph
(called a maximum) or the lowest point on the graph (called a minimum). It also lies on the axis
of symmetry of the graph.

The equation is called the axis of symmetry of the parabola.

ertex orm of a Quadratic unction

A second useful form of a quadratic function is based on the vertex, and is called ertex Form:
h h, k h h
It is possible to convert from Standard Form to ertex Form and from ertex Form to Standard
Form. Both are equally correct.

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Chapter 11 Quadratic Functions

Algebra
Completing the Square

A very useful method for solving quadratic equations is Completing the Square. In fact, this is
the method used to derive the quadratic formula from the general quadratic equation in
Standard Form. The steps involved in Completing the Square and an example are provided
below:

Consider the starting equation:

Step 1: Modify the equation so that the coefficient of is . To do this, simply divide the
whole equation by the value of “ ”.
Example: Consider the equation:
Divide by to get:

Step 2: Get rid of the pesky constant. We will generate our own.
Example: Add to both sides :

Step 3: Calculate a new constant. The required constant is the square of one half of the
coefficient of . Add it to both sides of the equation.
Example:
Half it, then square the result: , .
Result:

Step 4: Recognize the left hand side of the equation as a perfect square. After all, that was the
reason we selected the new constant the way we did.
Example:

Step 5: Take the square root of both sides. Remember the “ ” sign on the constant term.
Example:

Step 6: Break the resulting equation into two separate equations, and solve.
Example:

Solution: ,

Version 3.5 Page 74 of 187 October 17, 2022

Chapter 11 Quadratic Functions

Algebra
able of Powers and Roots

Square Root Number Square Cube 4th Power

,
,
,
,
, ,

, ,
, ,
, ,
, ,
, ,

, ,
, ,
, ,
, ,
, ,

, ,
, ,
,
, ,
, ,

Version 3.5 Page 75 of 187 October 17, 2022

Chapter 11 Quadratic Functions

Algebra
he Quadratic ormula

The Quadratic ormula is one of the first difficult math formulas that students are asked to
memorize. Mastering the formula, though difficult, is full of rewards. By knowing why it works
and what the various parts of the formula are, a student can generate a lot of knowledge in a
short period of time.

For a quadratic function of the form:

Quadratic
The formula for the roots (i.e., where y = 0) is: ormula

ow Many Real Roots

The discriminant is the part under the radical:
 If the discriminant is negative, the quadratic function has real roots. This is because a
negative number under the radical results in imaginary roots instead of real roots. In
this case the graph the graph will not cross the x‐axis. It will be either entirely above the
x‐axis or entirely below the x‐axis, depending on the value of “a .
 If the discriminant is zero, the quadratic function has 1 real root. The square root of
zero is zero, so the radical disappears and the only root is . In this case, the
graph will appear to bounce off the x‐axis; it touches the x‐axis at only one spot the
value of the root.
 If the discriminant is positive, the quadratic function has 2 real roots. This is because a
real square root exists, and it must be added in the formula to get one root and
subtracted to get the other root. In this case, the graph will cross the x‐axis in two
places, the values of the roots.

Where are the ertex and Axis of Symmetry

The x‐coordinate of the vertex is also easily calculated from the quadratic formula because the
vertex is halfway between the two roots. If we average the two roots, the portion of the
formula disappears and the resulting x‐value is . The y‐value of the vertex must still
be calculated, but the x‐value can be read directly out of the quadratic formula.

Also, once the x‐value of the vertex is known, the equation for the axis of symmetry is also
known. It is the vertical line containing the vertex: .

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Chapter 11 Quadratic Functions

Algebra
Quadratic nequalities in One ariable

ote: The same process works for

Solve the inequality of the form: inequalities with , , or signs.

Step 1: If is negative, multiply the whole inequality by . This will make the problem
easier to work with. Don t forget to change the sign of the inequality.
Example: convert to

Step 2: Factor out any scalars that divide into all of the terms of the inequality. This will also
make the problem easier to work with.
Example: factor to
then divide by 3 to get:

Step 3: Solve the equation that corresponds to the inequality. The solutions of the equation
are the critical values in the solution of the inequality.
Example: solve , which gives: ,
The solution to the inequality, when shown on a number line, must be either outside
the solutions or between the solutions. That is, either:


But, which one? 1 2

Step 4: “Or” vs. “And”. ook at the inequality you are working with (at the end of Step 2). As in
solving inequalities with absolute values, use the following trick to remember if the
answer uses “Or” vs. “And”.
 If the inequality contains a sign, use “and.” Think: less thand
 If the inequality contains a sign, use “or.” Think: greator
 Don t forget to use , instead of , if they are in the original inequality.

Example: Using this method, we start with and note the part of
the inequality. This means the result in the example would be
In interval notation this solution set is shown as: ,
In set notation, this solution is shown as:

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Chapter 11 Quadratic Functions

Algebra
Quadratic nequalities in One ariable cont d

Step 5: Checking your “Or” vs. “And” decision. The solutions to the equation in Step 3 break
the number line into 3 distinct pieces; in the example:
 ess than 1 a b c
 Between 1 and 2
 More than 2 1 2

Test to see if the original inequality is correct for a number in each of these segments of
the number line. Although you could test a derivation of the original inequality (e.g.,
after Steps 1 or 2), it is best to work with the original when checking your work.

So, you might test values like the following:

a. ess than 1: try the value 0
b. Between 1 and 2: try the value
c. More than 2: try the value

In the example, you find that works, but and do not work. The answer must then
be in the middle interval. This matches the answer obtained in Step 4.

Step 5 Alternative: Another way to check your work.

An alternative way to check your work is to graph the
equation corresponding to the inequality.
 Use the equation from Step 2
only if you are sure you performed Steps 1 and 2
correctly.
 The graph of the corresponding equation is at right.
 otice that the portion of the graph that is below
zero is the portion between 1 and 2.
 Because the “ ” sign includes the equals sign, the
endpoints of the intervals are included in the solution set.
 Therefore, the solution of the inequality is:
The portion of the graph below the ‐axis
is where the

 This matches the answer obtained in Step 4.

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Chapter 11 Quadratic Functions

AD ANCED
Algebra
itting a Quadratic Equation through hree Points

It takes three points to define a quadratic equation, ust like it takes 2 points to define a line. In
general, it takes (n 1) points to define a polynomial of degree “n”.

Starting with:
 the basic quadratic equation: , and
 three points: , , , , , ,
it is possible to calculate the coefficients of the quadratic equation by substituting in the x and
y values of the 3 points to create a system of 3 equations in 3 unknowns:

ow, that s a lot of symbols, so let s look at an example.

Example:

Find the quadratic equation that passes through the three points:

, , , , ,

Using the basic quadratic equation, and substituting in ‐values and ‐values, we get 3
equations in 3 unknowns:

These 3 equations can be solved by eliminating variables or by using Cramer s Rule, whichever
the student finds more comfortable. Solving by either method gives:

, ,

So that:

The odd thing about this process is that in most algebra problems the student is asked to solve
for or , but that is not the case in curve fitting. Instead, the student is asked to derive a
quadratic equation given 3 sets of s and s, which requires solving for , , and instead.

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Chapter 12 Complex umbers

Algebra
Complex Numbers ntroduction

Definitions
.
maginary Number Any number that can be expressed in the form where a is real.
Examples: , , ,
Complex Number Any number that can be expressed in the form where a, b are real.
Examples: ,
ote: all real numbers and all imaginary numbers are also complex numbers.
In the form ,
 is called the real part of the complex number, and
 is called the imaginary part of the complex number.

Absolute alue of a Complex Number

The absolute value of a complex number is also called its magnitude. Algebraically, it is:

Con ugate of a Complex Number

The con ugate of a complex number is denoted ; .
Examples:
Complex umber Con ugate Complex umber Con ugate

Comments about con ugates:

1. The con ugate of a con ugate is the number you stated with.
, ,
2. The product of con ugates is a real number.

3. Con ugate numbers have the same absolute value.

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Chapter 12 Complex umbers

Algebra
Operations with Complex Numbers

Adding and Subtracting

Add or subtract both the Real and Imaginary parts:

Example:

Multiplying
Step 1: Multiply like you multiply binomials.
Step 2: Substitute for and simplify.

Example:

Dividing
Step 1: Multiply by a fraction whose numerator and denominator are the con ugate of the
original expression s denominator.
Step 2: Substitute for and simplify.

The resulting complex number will have a denominator that is free of imaginary numbers.
Remember the method, not the formula

Example:

Version 3.5 Page 81 of 187 October 17, 2022

Chapter 2 Co ple N ers

A VA CE
Algebra
The S uare oot of i

f , what is
his is an interesting estion and solving it ill ill strate a very se l ethod in or ing ith
o ple n ers. o an se this ethod to al late the s are root o any o ple
n er.
 Re all that ea h o ple n er is o the or , here a and b are real.
 We ant a o ple n er that, hen s ared, generates .
o, e ant to al late a and b s h that

Let s sol e that e uation:

No , rea this into 2 e ations, one or the real part, and one or the i aginary part.
ere are the 2 e ations and

and

stit ting or ,

in e , and is real,

in e

o, o r andidates or are

et s try the
esults:

o, e have o nd not only the t o s are roots o , t

also the t o s are roots o .

Version 3.5 Page 82 of 187 October 17, 2022

Chapter 12 Complex umbers

Algebra
Complex Numbers Graphical Representation

Complex numbers of the form can be represented on a set of axes that represent Real
and Imaginary numbers instead of and . Consider the complex number . It would
look like this on a set of Real (R) and Imaginary (I) axes:
I
Graphical
R representation of

Polar Coordinates
Represented in this manner, complex numbers have interesting properties (see the next page
for some of these). Each complex number can be thought of as not only a pair of rectangular
coordinates, e.g., (3,4), but also as a set of polar coordinates with magnitude (i.e., length) and
angle . Then, to multiply complex numbers, you multiply their magnitudes and add their
angles.

Powers of i
This is a useful bit of information for seeing the value of in graphical terms. Since ,
algebraically, we have:

etc.

Since has magnitude 1, all powers also have magnitude 1. Each succeeding power of ,
then, results only in a change of the angle , and can be considered a 90 rotation in the
coordinate plane containing the Real and Imaginary axes, like so:

I I I I

R R R R

This shows the rotating pattern in the values of the powers of every 4 increments. After 4
rotations you return to where you started.

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Chapter 12 Complex umbers

AD ANCED
Algebra
Complex Number Operations in Polar Coordinates

Polar Coordinates
If a complex number is expressed in terms of its polar coordinates, many calculations are made
much easier. First, let s investigate the relationship between a point s rectangular coordinates
, and its polar coordinates , .

The magnitude, , is the distance of the point from the

origin:

The angle, , is the angle the line from the point to the
origin makes with the positive portion of the x‐axis.
Generally, this angle is expressed in radians, not degrees.

Conversion from polar coordinates to rectangular coordinates is straightforward:

and

Example: In the illustration above, the point shown has:

 Rectangular coordinates: ,
 Polar Coordinates: ,

Complex Number ormulas:

To see how useful this can be, consider the following formulas for complex numbers:
Multiplication: , , ,
So, to multiply complex numbers, you multiply their magnitudes and add their angles.

Division: , , ,
So, to divide complex numbers, you divide their magnitudes and subtract their angles.

Powers: , , Note on :
This results directly from the multiplication rule. Since i in polar coordinates is , ,
Using the root formula, ,
Roots: , ,
In rectangular coordinates, then,
This results directly from the power rule if the
exponent is a fraction.

Version 3.5 Page 84 of 187 October 17, 2022

Chapter 12 Complex umbers

Algebra
Complex Solutions to Quadratic Equations

Over the field of real numbers there are no roots to a quadratic function if the discriminant is
less than zero. Over the field of complex numbers, however, such a quadratic function has two
roots.

Quadratic Refresher

For a quadratic function of the form:

Quadratic
The formula for the roots (i.e., where y = ) is: ormula

The discriminant is the part under the radical:

ow Many Roots
The following table tells us how many real or complex roots exist for a function, based on its
discriminant:

alue of Discriminant Number of Roots

2 complex

1 real

2 real

ote: because of the “ ” sign in the quadratic formula, when there are 2 complex roots they
are con ugates.

Example 1: Solve

Example 2: Solve

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Chapter 13 Radicals

Algebra
Radical Rules

Simple Rules Involving Radicals

General Radical Rule Rule for Square Roots Example

√ ∙ √ ∙√ √ ∙ √ ∙√ √12 √4 ∙ √3 2√3

√ √ 5 √5 √5
√ √ 4 √4 2

Note also that: √

e.g., √ , so the rules for exponents also apply for roots.

Rationalizing the Denominator

Mathematicians prefer to keep radicals out of the denominator. Here are two
methods to accomplish this, depending on what’s in the denominator.

Case 1: Simple radical in the denominator. Solution: multiply the beginning

expression by a fraction which is the offending radical divided by itself.

√ √ √ √ √
Example: ∙
√ √ √

Case 2: Number and radical in the denominator. Solution: multiply by the

beginning expression by a fraction which is designed to eliminate the radical from
the denominator. The numerator and denominator of the fraction are created by
changing the sign between the number and the radical in the denominator.

√ √ √ √ √ √ √
Example: ∙
√ √ √

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Chapter 13 Radicals

Algebra
Simplifying Square Roots – Two Methods

Method 1: Extracting Squares

In this method, you pull squares out from under the radical. This is the quickest
method if you are comfortable with what the squares are and with dividing them
out of larger numbers.
1 1 11 121
Examples: (1) √98 √49 ∙ √2 2 4 12 144
7√2
3 9 13 169

(2) √9600 √100 ∙ √96 4 16 14 196

√100 ∙ √16 ∙ √6 5 25 15 225

10 ∙ 4 ∙ √6 6 36 16 256
40√6
7 49 17 289

8 64 18 324
Method 2: Extracting Prime Numbers
9 81 19 361
If you are not comfortable with Method 1, you can pull
10 100 20 400
prime numbers out from under the radical and pair them
up to simplify the square root.

Example: √54 √2 ∙ √27 Method 2 may take a lot longer than

Method 1, but it works. A good use for
√2 ∙ √3 ∙ √9
Method 2 is when you try using the
√2 ∙ √3 ∙ √3 ∙ √3 quicker Method 1 but get stuck – then
√2 ∙ √3 ∙ √3 ∙ √3 working with primes can get you back
on track toward solving the problem.
√2 ∙ 3 ∙ √3
3 ∙ √2 ∙ √3
3 ∙ √6 Note that the last step is to re‐combine roots
that do not come in pairs.

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Chapter 13 Radicals

Algebra
Solving Radical Equations

When an equation involves radicals, the radicals must be eliminated in order to obtain a
solution. The one special thing about these equations is that, in the process of eliminating the
radical, it is possible to add another solution that is not a solution to the original problem.
Solutions that are added by the process used to solve the problem are called Extraneous
Solutions. At the end of the problem, we must check for extraneous solutions and eliminate
them.

Solving a Radical Equation

The steps to solving an equation involving radicals are:
 Isolate the radical on one side of the equation. To do this, add or subtract any variables
or constants that are on the same side of the equation as the radical.
 If the radical is a square root, square both sides of the equation. If the radical is a cube
root, cube both sides, etc. This should get rid of the radical.
 If there are any radicals remaining in the problem, repeat the first two steps until they
are gone.
 Solve the equation that remains.
 Check all solutions to the problem using the equation in the original statement of the
problem.
 Discard extraneous roots.

Example: Solve √2 6 1
Starting Problem: √2 6 1
Subtract 1 from both sides: √2 6 1 If we allowed to
Square both sides: 2 6 2 1 be ‐2, the equation would
work and ‐1 would work as a
Subtract from both sides: 4 5 0 solution. However, the
Factor: 5 1 0 square root of a number is
defined to be the positive
Obtain Preliminary Solutions: 1, 5 root only. So, ‐1 fails as a
Test as a solution: 2 1 6 1 1 ? solution to the problem.

Test as a solution: 4 5 5 5 ?
Identify the final Solution Set:

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Chapter 13 Radicals

Algebra
Solving Radical Equations (cont’d)

Why Only Positive Square Roots?

It is generally taught in high school algebra that square roots have both positive and negative
roots. So why are we now saying that the square root of a number is defined to be a positive
number only?

The answer lies in the missing step, which is often not taught to high school students. What
you learn is this:

, . And, that is correct, but not because √ which it does not!

The Missing Step

In the box to the right is the development with the
missing step included. Notice that: Starting Problem:
 √ | | Take square roots: | |
 When we take square roots, we have positive
Solve for x:
numbers on each side of the resulting equation.
Both | | and 2 are positive.
 The two possible values for x come from solving the middle equation | | .

This solves the apparent arbitrariness of when a root is only positive and when it is both
positive and negative.

Inequalities
The “missing step” also provides an explanation for the method used to solve inequalities.
Consider the inequality: 9. The process for solving this with the missing step included is:

Starting Problem: 9
Take square roots: | | 3 Notice that | | converts to in Case I and to
– in Case ii. By the end of the problem, you
Case i Case ii see that the sign in Case ii has been flipped
around from the original problem. This is not
3 and 3 magic; it is the result of “The Missing Step”
3 and 3 being applied in all its mathematical glory!

Solution: | 3

Version 3.5 Page 89 of 187 October 17, 2022

Chapter atri es

Algebra
Matri Addition and Scalar Multiplication

What is a Matri

A atri is an ordered set o o e ts typi ally real or o ple n ers set p in a t o‐

di ensional array. atri es are very se l in alge ra, statisti s and other appli ations e a se
they provide a on ise ay to arry o t o ple athe ati al pro esses and ethods.

atri es have di ensions, e pressed as the n er o ro s the n er o ol ns. or

e a ple, a 2 atri read 2 y atri has 2 ro s and ol ns. no ing the
di ensions o a atri is i portant e a se any atri operations an only o r on
atri es ith ertain di ensions.

Adding Matrices

Ea h o e t in a atri is alled an ele ent. atri es are added y adding the orresponding
ele ents in the atri es. atri es st have the sa e di ensions i they are to e added.

E a ple

st
ro , st ol n ( )
st
ro , 2nd ol n ( )

Scalar Multiplication

ltiplying a atri y a s alar i.e., a n er is a o plished y ltiplying ea h ele ent in

the atri y the s alar. he ter s alar si ply re ers to s aling the atri y a ing its
val es larger or s aller. alar ltipli ation an e per or ed on atri es o any di ensions.

E ample:

st
ro , st ol n ( )
st
ro , 2nd ol n

Version 3.5 Page 90 of 187 October 17, 2022

Chapter atri es

Algebra
Matri Multiplication

Multiplying Matrices

ltipli ation o atri es is a ore o ple pro ess. Altho gh the st dent ay ind it di i lt
at irst, it is a po er l tool that is se l in any ields o athe ati s and s ien e.

atri ltipli ation an e per or ed only on atri es that are conformable i.e., o pati le
in si e . n order or t o atri es to e ltiplied together, the n er o ol ns in the irst
atri st e al the n er o ro s in the se ond atri . an m x n atri is ltiplied y
an n x p atri , the res lt is an m x p atri . his is ill strated as ollo s
st at h

si e o res lting atri

o ltiply atri es, ltiply the ele ents in a ro o the irst atri , ele ent y ele ent, y
the orresponding ele ents in a ol n o the se ond atri and add the res lts. ro i in
the irst atri is ltiplied y ro j in the se ond atri , the res lt is pla ed in ro i, ol n j
o the res lting atri . he ele ent in position i, j o a atri is o ten denoted , .

E ample 1:
Noti e that ltiplying a 2 x 3
atri y a 3 x 2 atri res lts
in a 2 x 2 atri .

st
ro , st ol n ( )
st
ro , 2nd ol n ( ) ( ) ( )
nd
2 ro , st ol n ( )
2nd ro , 2nd ol n ( ) ( ) ( )

E ample 2:
Noti e that ltiplying a 3 x 2
atri y a 2 x 3 atri res lts
in a 3 x 3 atri .

ro these e a ples, it is lear that matri multiplication is not commutati e. hat is, i e
na e t o atri es and , it is generally not true that . rther, i atri es
are not s are i.e., having the sa e n er o ro s and ol ns , atri ltipli ation is
never o tative that is .

Version 3.5 Page 91 of 187 October 17, 2022

Chapter atri es

Algebra
dentity Matrices and n erse Matrices

dentity Matrices

or real n ers, the ltipli ative identity is 1 e a se or any real n er

hat is, hen a n er is ltiplied y 1, the res lt is the original n er. t does not atter
hether e ltiply y 1 on the le t or the right in either ase, the res lt is the original
n er.

he sa e is tr e or s are atri es. e ltiply a s are atri y the identity atri ith
the sa e di ensions, the res lt ill e the original atri . t does not atter hether e
ltiply y the identity atri on the le t or right the res lt is the sa e.

dentity atri es e ist or ea h s are di ension. dentity atri es have s along the diagonal
and s in every other position. or e a ple, the ollo ing are identity atri es o ran ,
and . dentity atri es are generally denoted y the letter

E ample: e de ine s are atri , then as ollo s

n erse Matrices

or real n ers, ltiplying a n er y its inverse res lts in the identity, . or e a ple,
. i ilarly, ltiplying a atri y its inverse res lts in the identity atri ith
the sa e di ensions as the original atri .

E ample: sing the sa e s are atri as a ove, as ollo s

Version 3.5 Page 92 of 187 October 17, 2022

Chapter atri es

Algebra
n erse of a 2 2 Matri

sing atri notation

 et the identity atri o si e e alled
 et an atri e alled
 et the deter inant o atri e denoted
 et the inverse o atri e denoted 1
 hen, 1 1

Not all s are atri es have inverses. n order or a atri to have an inverse, its deter inant
st e non‐ ero. hat is, atri has an inverse i and only i .

Formula for the n erse of a 2 2 Matri

a2 2 atri has ele ents , , and d, s h that , then 1

n ords, the inverse is al lated as ollo s

 ro the original atri , s it h ele ents a and d, and hange the signs o b and c.
 ivide the res lting atri y the deter inant o the original atri . Note the
deter inant o a atri is a s alar .

he deter inant o atri , is al lated as .

E ample: 2 2 Matri n erse Calculation

et

hen

1 1
o

1 1
inally, he to a e s re

and

Version 3.5 Page 93 of 187 October 17, 2022

Chapter atri es

Algebra
eterminants The eneral Case

eter inants are very se l in atri operations. he deter inant o a 2 2 matri is de ined to e

note alternative notation or is

n ords, the diagonals are ltiplied and the prod t o se ond diagonal is s tra ted ro the
prod t o the irst diagonal. his pro ess is generali ed in deter inants o larger atri es sing hat
are re erred to as inors. A inor is hat is le t o a atri hen the ro and ol n o the ele ent
are eli inated.
he deter inant o a atri an e al lated y sele ting a ro or ol n and ltiplying ea h
ele ent o that ro or ol n y the deter inant o its orresponding inor. he res lts are
alternately added and s tra ted to get the val e o the deter inant. he sign o ea h ter is
deter ined y the ro and ol n in hi h it resides. he sign or the ele ent in ro m and ol nn
is he ollo ing atri es o signs sho ho they are applied to ea h ro ele ent

2 2

sing inors o the irst ro to eval ate a 3 3 matri ,

r, sing inors o the se ond ol n to eval ate the sa e 3 3 matri ,

he res lts o the al lation ill e the sa e, regardless o hi h ro or ol n is sele ted, e a se o

the po er o atri es and deter inants.

E ample for a 3 3 matri using minors of the first row:

Note this is the atri that or s
the deno inator in the sol tion o
the syste o e ations in the
Cra er s R le e a ple.

he sa e pro ess is ollo ed or larger deter inants. or e a ple, a deter inant is irst red ed
to a s o ive ele ents ea h ltiplied y their inors. Ea h o the inors is red ed to a
s o o r ele ents ea h ltiplied y their inors, et . he pro ess is al lation intensive
today it o ld typi ally e per or ed sing an advan ed al lator or a o p ter.

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Chapter atri es

Algebra
Matri i ision and n erses

ltipli ation and division are inverse pro esses ith hi h the st dent is a iliar hen
or ing ith real n ers. ltipli ation o atri es, as des ri ed a ove is h ore
o ple than ltipli ation o real n ers. o, ho do yo divide atri es

ivision o real n ers an e onsidered to e the pro ess o ltiplying a n er y the

inverse o the n er y hi h yo ant to divide. or e a ple

 i.e., 2 divided y is the sa e as 2 ti es the res lt is either

ay .
 ividing y is the sa e a ltiplying y the inverse o , hi h is .
 and are ltipli ative inverses e a se hen ltiplied, they res lt in , hi h is
the ltipli ative identity .

atri division or s in a si ilar ashion. t is typi ally handled y ltiplying the dividend
top atri y the inverse o the divisor otto atri . or atri es and , i e ant to
divide y , e o ld instead multiply y .

o e ethods or al lating inverses o a s are atri es are sho n in the ollo ing pages.
Only square matrices have inverses. dentity atri es st also, y de inition, e s are.

E ample:

et

(see the following pages for

hen
methods to calculate this inverse)

And

Note that e a se atri ltipli ation is not o tative, yo are very li ely to get a
di erent res lt i yo ltiply y on the le t instead o the right. hat is, in general,
.

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Chapter atri es

Algebra
Calculating n erses The eneral Case

he al lation o the inverse o a atri o si e greater than 2 2 an e per or ed y a

pro ess alled a ss‐ ordan Eli ination. he pro ess is also alled, ore generi ally, Ro
Red tion. n this pro ess, yo egin ith t o side‐ y‐side atri es, the one yo ant to
invert the s e t atri and the identity atri o the sa e si e. perations are per or ed
on oth atri es, grad ally onverting the original atri to the dentity atri .

Allo a le operations are

 ltiplying or dividing a ro y a s alar i.e., a n er .
 it hing ro s.
 Adding or s tra ting a ltiple o one ro to or ro another.

When this pro ess is o plete, the original identity atri has een onverted to the inverse
atri . elo is an e a ple o the develop ent o an inverse o a atri sing this
pro ess

tart ith the identity

atri to the right o the
original s e t atri .

Ea h operation
per or ed on the original
s e t atri is also
per or ed on the original
identity atri .

End ith the inverse

atri to the right o the
ne identity atri .

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Chapter atri es

Algebra
Calculating n erses sing Ad oint Matrices

efinitions and otation

 inor A inor is hat is le t o a atri hen the ‐th ro and ‐th ol n i.e.,
the ro and ol n ontaining ele ent o the original atri are eli inated.
 Co a tor he o a tor o is ltiplied y the deter inant o the inor
. hat is, .
 Co a tor atri he o a tor atri is the atri o o a tors o ea h ele ent o the
original atri . t is o ten denoted .
 Ad oint atri he ad oint atri is the transpose o the o a tor atri . hat is,
. he ad oint atri is also alled the ad gate atri or ad n t atri .
 Re all that the original atri st e s are and not sing lar i.e., in order
to have an inverse. A sing lar atri has a deter inant o ero.

he inverse o a atri is e al to its orresponding ad oint atri divided y the deter inant
o the original atri . hat is
Note the transpose o a atri inter hanges
ro s and ol ns o the original atri . or
e a ple
E ample: 2 2 Matri n erse Calculation

et

hen here ore

And

1
o

1 1
inally, he to a e s re

and

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Chapter atri es

Algebra
Calculating n erses sing Ad oint Matrices (cont d)

E ample: 3 3 Matri n erse Calculation

E a ple o to Eli inate Ro

et
ad st to get and ol n

Co a tors

Ad oint

eter inant o

nverse

1
inally, he to a e s re

Note: If a square matrix has an inverse from either the left or the right, then that matrix is an
inverse from both the left and the right, and is, therefore, the inverse of the original matrix.

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Chapter atri es

Algebra
Cramer s ule 2 E uations

Cra er s R le provides a po er l and si ple ay to solve syste s o t o or three linear

e ations. n larger syste s o e ations, it is a se l ay to solve or st one o the
varia les, itho t having to solve the entire syste o e ations. o solve an entire syste o
o r or ore e ations, a etter te hni e o ld e a ss‐ ordan Eli ination, espe ially i the
st dent is aided y a o p ter and spreadsheet so t are s h as i roso t E el.

Cra er s R le or s as long as the deter inant o varia le oe i ients i.e., the deter inant in
the deno inator is non‐ ero. this deter inant is ero, then there is no ni e sol tion to
the syste o e ations.

eneral Case for 2 E uations in 2 nknowns

he standard or o the e ations is

sing deter inant notation, Cra er s R le states that the sol tions or x and y are

Noti e that the deter inants in the deno inators are the sa e the ol ns in these
deter inants are the oe i ients o the varia les in the e ations. he deter inants in the
n erators are al ost the sa e as the ones in the deno inators the only di eren e is that
the ol n o oe i ients asso iated ith the varia le eing eval ated is repla ed y the
e ations onstant ter s.

E ample: Consider these e ations:

hen,

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Chapter atri es

Algebra
Cramer s ule 3 E uations

eneral Case for 3 E uations in 3 nknowns

he standard or o the e ations is

sing deter inant notation, Cra er s R le states that the sol tions or x, y and are

As in the ase ith t o e ations, the deter inants in the deno inators are all the sa e the
ol ns in these deter inants are the oe i ients o the varia les in the e ations. he
deter inants in the n erators are al ost the sa e as the ones in the deno inators the only
di eren e is that the ol n o oe i ients asso iated ith the varia le eing eval ated is
repla ed y the e ations onstant ter s.

Note that the deter inant o

E ample: Consider these e ations: varia le oe i ients st e non‐
ero in order to se Cra er s
R le. this deter inant is ero,
there is no ni e sol tion to the
syste o e ations.
sing deter inant notation

er or ing the re ired al lations, e o tain the ni e sol tion

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Chapter atri es

Algebra
Augmented Matrices

Sol ing Simultaneous E uations

ne relatively advan ed ethod o solving si ltaneo s e ations is thro gh the se o an
A g ented atri . A atri is onsidered a g ented i it onsists o the atri o the
oe i ients o the varia les, a g ented y the onstant ter s. n order or a syste o
e ations to e solved in this or , they st e ritten in standard or .

E ample:

o solve the he a g ented

syste atri o ld e

auss ordan Elimination

A pro ess alled a ss‐ ordan Eli ination E is sed to anip late the a g ented atri to
o tain a sol tion to the e ations. E is also alled Ro Red tion e a se ea h step ad sts
the val es in one ro o the a g ented atri . At the end o the pro ess, the ro s o the
oe i ient atri are red ed to the dentity atri .

he ollo ing anip lations o the ro s are allo ed

 ltiplying or dividing a ro y a s alar i.e., a n er .
 it hing ro s.
 Adding or s tra ting a ltiple o one ro to or ro another.

When this pro ess is o plete, the onstant ol n o the a g ented atri has een
onverted to the sol tion o the syste o e ations. Why does this or he pro ess sed is
essentially the sa e as solving a syste o e ations y the eli ination ethod. n E, yo
ignore the varia le na es y sing atri es, t the anip lations are the sa e.

n erse Matri
his pro ess an also e sed to develop an nverse atri . o do this,
 la e an identity atri to the right o the a g ented atri at the start.
 er or all ro operations on this atri as yo progress.
 At the end, the original identity atri ill have een onverted to the inverse atri .

n the ollo ing e a ples, a g ented atri es are anip lated to develop sol tions to
syste s o e ations and identity atri es are onverted to inverse atri es.

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Chapter 14 Matrices

Algebra
2x2 Augmented Matrix Examples

Problem: solve the following set of simultaneous equations using row reduction 2x 8y = 36
(formally called Gauss‐ ordan Elimination) x 5y = 10

Action Taken Why? Augmented Matrix Inverse Matrix

Start x y =
Starting Augmented Matrix 2 8 36 1 0
1 5 10 0 1
Ad ust op Row
(Row 1) (a11) ‐‐ Row 1 To get a 1 in column 1 1 4 18 0.5 0
Row2 (no change) 1 5 10 0 1
Ad ust 2nd Row
Row1 (no change) 1 4 18 0.5 0
(Row 2) ‐ (a21 Row 1) ‐‐ Row 2 To get a 0 in column 1 0 1 ‐8 ‐0.5 1
Ad ust 2nd Row
Row1 (no change) 1 4 18 0.5 0
(Row 2) (a22) ‐‐ Row 2 To get a 1 in column 2 0 1 ‐8 ‐0.5 1
Ad ust op Row
(Row 1) ‐ (a12 Row 2) ‐‐ Row 1 To get a 0 in column 2 1 0 50 x 2.5 ‐4
Row2 (no change) 0 1 ‐8 y ‐0.5 1
nverse Matrix

Matrix nverse est Original Matrix nverse Matrix Product Matrix

2 2. 4 1
1 . 1 1

Problem: solve the following set of simultaneous equations using row reduction ‐x 3y = 13
(formally called Gauss‐ ordan Elimination) 2x ‐ y = 4

Action Taken Why? Augmented Matrix Inverse Matrix

Start x y =
Starting Augmented Matrix ‐1 3 13 1 0
2 ‐1 4 0 1
Ad ust op Row
(Row 1) (a11) ‐‐ Row 1 To get a 1 in column 1 1 ‐3 ‐13 ‐1 0
Row2 (no change) 2 ‐1 4 0 1
Ad ust 2nd Row
Row1 (no change) 1 ‐3 ‐13 ‐1 0
(Row 2) ‐ (a21 Row 1) ‐‐ Row 2 To get a 0 in column 1 0 5 30 2 1
Ad ust 2nd Row
Row1 (no change) 1 ‐3 ‐13 ‐1 0
(Row 2) (a22) ‐‐ Row 2 To get a 1 in column 2 0 1 6 0.4 0.2
Ad ust op Row
(Row 1) ‐ (a12 Row 2) ‐‐ Row 1 To get a 0 in column 2 1 0 5 x 0.2 0.6
Row2 (no change) 0 1 6 y 0.4 0.2
nverse Matrix

Matrix nverse est Original Matrix nverse Matrix Product Matrix

1 3 .2 . 1
2 1 .4 .2 1

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Chapter 14 Matrices

Algebra
3x3 Augmented Matrix Example

Problem: solve the following set of simultaneous 2x ‐ y 3z = ‐

equations using row reduction (formally called x 4y ‐2z = 1
Gauss‐ ordan Elimination) 3x y 2z = 2

Action Taken Why? Augmented Matrix Inverse Matrix

Starting Augmented Matrix x y z =
Starting Augmented Matrix 2 ‐1 3 ‐ 1 0 0
1 4 ‐2 1 0 1 0
3 1 2 2 0 0 1
Wor Down
Row1 1/2 ‐‐ Row1 To get a 1 in column 1 1 ‐0.5 1.5 ‐3.5 0.5 0 0
Row2 ‐ (new Row1) ‐‐ Row2 To get a 0 in column 1 0 4.5 ‐3.5 20.5 ‐0.5 1 0
Row3 ‐ (3 new Row1) ‐‐ Row 3 To get a 0 in column 1 0 2.5 ‐2.5 12.5 ‐1.5 0 1
Wor Down
Row1 (no change) 1 ‐0.5 1.5 ‐3.5 0.5 0 0
Switch Rows 2 and 3 ew Row2 looks easier to work with 0 2.5 ‐2.5 12.5 ‐1.5 0 1
Switch Rows 2 and 3 ew Row2 looks easier to work with 0 4.5 ‐3.5 20.5 ‐0.5 1 0
Wor Down
Row1 (no change) 1 ‐0.5 1.5 ‐3.5 0.5 0 0
Row2 / 2.5 ‐‐ Row2 To get a 1 in column 2 0 1 ‐1 5 ‐0.6 0 0.4
Row3 2 ‐‐ Row3 To get rid of the fractions 0 9 ‐ 41 ‐1 2 0
Wor Down
Row1 (no change) 1 ‐0.5 1.5 ‐3.5 0.5 0 0
Row2 (no change) 0 1 ‐1 5 ‐0.6 0 0.4
Row3 ‐ (9 Row2) ‐‐ Row 3 To get a 0 in column 2 0 0 2 ‐4 4.4 2 ‐3.6
Wor Down
Row1 (no change) 1 ‐0.5 1.5 ‐3.5 0.5 0 0
Row2 (no change) 0 1 ‐1 5 ‐0.6 0 0.4
Row3 .5 ‐‐ Row3 To get a 1 in column 3 0 0 1 ‐2 2.2 1 ‐1.8
Wor p
Row1 ‐ (Row3 1.5) ‐‐ Row1 To get a 0 in column 3 1 ‐0.5 0 ‐0.5 ‐2.8 ‐1.5 2.
Row2 Row3 ‐‐ Row2 To get a 0 in column 3 0 1 0 3 1.6 1 ‐1.4
Row3 (no change) 0 0 1 ‐2 2.2 1 ‐1.8
Wor p
Row1 (Row2 .5) ‐‐ Row1 To get a 0 in column 2 1 0 0 1 x ‐2 ‐1 2
Row2 (no change) 0 1 0 3 y 1.6 1 ‐1.4
Row3 (no change) 0 0 1 ‐2 z 2.2 1 ‐1.8
nverse Matrix

Matrix nverse est Original Matrix nverse Matrix Product Matrix

2 1 3 2 1 2 1
1 4 2 1. 1 1.4 1
3 1 2 2.2 1 1. 1

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Chapter atri es

Algebra
Characteristic E uation and Eigen alues

Characteristic E uation

he hara teristi polyno ial or hara teristi n tion o a s are atri is de ined as
alternatively ritten as

As a si ple e a ple, let s ind the hara teristi polyno ial o atri .

he hara teristi e ation o a s are atri is deter ined y setting its hara teristi
polyno ial e al to ero. he hara teristi e ation o atri , a ove, is

Note that
 st e a s are atri .
 is an s are atri , then the hara teristi polyno ial is o degree .
 here are roots o the hara teristi e ation, so e o hi h ay not e real.

Eigen alues, Trace, and eterminant

he roots o the hara teristi e ation, i.e., the val es o , are alled the eigenval es o
the atri . he pre i eigen o es ro the ld t h eaning to o n, re erring to the
essen e o so ething. o, the atri o ns its eigenval es and they are ey to its e isten e.

or atri in the e a ple a ove, the eigenval es are and e a se

,

he tra e o a s are atri , , is the s o its diagonal val es ro pper le t to lo er

right . o theore s relate the tra e and deter inant o a atri to its eigenval es
Theorem: he tra e o a s are atri is e al to the s o its eigenval es.
Theorem: he deter inant o a s are atri is e al to the prod t o its eigenval es.

n the e a ple a ove the tra e o is , and the s o the eigenval es o

is , and the prod t o the eigenval es o is

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Chapter 14 Matrices

Algebra
Eigenvectors

Eigenvectors
Associated with each eigenvalue of a matrix is a corresponding eigenvector of . The
eigenvectors of , , are obtained by solving the equation: for each
value of . ote that is the zero vector, which is size: x 1.

Example: For matrix , defined in the example above, let us find the eigenvectors associated
with the eigenvalues and .

Consider :

et be any arbitrary value except zero and we can solve for . etting gives:

So, an eigenvector associated with the eigenvalue of is . ote that any

vector of the form satisfies the above equation and so it is also an eigenvector of
associated with the eigenvalue .

Consider :

Again, let . Then,

So, an eigenvector associated with the eigenvalue of is . ote that any

vector of the form satisfies the above equation and so it is also an eigenvector of
associated with the eigenvalue .

Conclude: One set of eigenvectors of is: , .

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Chapter 14 Matrices

Algebra
2x2 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors General Case

Characteristic Equation

Eigenvalues

et:

Eigenvectors

Working with the top row:

h , h ,

Finally, you may wish to simplify by reducing its elements to lowest terms, if possible.

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Chapter 14 Matrices

Algebra
Calculating nverses sing Characteristic Equations

amilton Cayley heorem: Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation.

That is, if a matrix is substituted for in matrix s characteristic equation, the result is a true
statement, i.e., , where is the characteristic polynomial of .

Example: In the case of matrix , defined above, with characteristic equation

, it must be true that , where is the appropriate zero
matrix. et s demonstrate that this is true.

sing amilton Cayley to Calculate nverses

By setting , we can develop another method for calculating inverse matrices.

Consider the case of a x matrix . The characteristic equation of must be of the form:

, for some values , , , , with .

Then, by the Hamilton‐Cayley Theorem, it must be true that:

Multiply both sides by on the right (or the left) to get:

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Chapter 14 Matrices

Algebra
Calculating nverses sing Characteristic Equations cont d

Example: Find the inverse of the x matrix

is the characteristic equation of .

By the Hamilton‐Cayley Theorem, then,

Multiply both sides by on the right (or the left) to get:

(next, solve for )

This result matches the inverse developed using the augmented matrix method that was
illustrated earlier in this chapter.

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Chapter 15 Exponents and ogarithms
Algebra
Exponent ormulas

Word Description Math Description Limitations

Examples
of Property of Property on variables

Product of Powers

Quotient of Powers

Power of a Power

Anything to the zero power is 1

, if , ,

Negative powers generate the

reciprocal of what a positive
power generates

Power of a product

Power of a quotient

Converting a root to a power

Version 3.5 Page 109 of 187 October 17, 2022

Chapter 15 Exponents and ogarithms
Algebra
Logarithm ormulas

Word Description Math Description Limitations

Examples
of Property of Property on variables
, implies
Definition of logarithm implies
is undefined

Log (base anything) of 1 is

zero
Exponents and logs are ,
inverse operators, leaving
what you started with
Logs and exponents are ,
inverse operators, leaving
what you started with
The log of a product is the , ,
sum of the logs

The log of a quotient is the , ,

difference of the logs

The log of something to a ,

power is the power times the
log
Change the base to whatever , ,
you want by dividing by the ,
log of the old base

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Chapter 15 Exponents and ogarithms

AD ANCED
Algebra
e

What is “e”
 e is a transcendental number, meaning that it is not the root of any polynomial with
integer coefficients.
 e is the base of the natural logarithms.

What Ma es “e” so Special

e shows up over and over in mathematics, especially in regard to limits, derivatives, and
integrals. In particular, it is noteworthy that:

Perhaps, most interestingly, the following equation, called Euler s Equation, relates five
seemingly unrelated mathematical constants to each other.

Some Series Representations of e

There are many more series involving e.

A sampling of these is provided at:
[Link]

Decimal Expansion

h h h h h
e

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Chapter 15 Exponents and ogarithms

Algebra
able of Exponents and Logarithms

Definition: if and only if

24

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Chapter 15 Exponents and ogarithms

Algebra
Converting etween Exponential and Logarithmic orms

To convert between an exponential expression and a logarithmic expression, it is often helpful

to use the “first‐last‐middle” rule to perform the conversion. If necessasy, set the expression
equal to before applying the rule.

oe e r e r e re re e o r or e o e or o o e
e re o eo e e eo ee o

Converting from Logarithmic Form Converting from Exponential Form

to Exponential Form to Logarithmic Form

“first last middle” “first last middle”

Examples: Examples:

1) Solve for : Convert the expression, to

irst is “4”, last is “ ” and middle is logarithmic form.
“64.” So, . irst is “2”, last is “32” and middle is
Then, ; ; “5”.
So, we have:
So, we have:

Solve for : Convert the expression, to

(remember is shorthand for ) logarithmic form.

, ,

converts to: converts to:

So, we have: So, we have:

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Chapter 15 Exponents and ogarithms

Algebra
Expanding Logarithmic Expressions

Expanding a logarithmic expression is a process best described by example. Each step of the
process is described and illustrated in the example below.

Expand:

When expanded:
 Each item in the numerator will become a term preceded by a “ ” sign
 Each item in the denominator will become a term preceded by a “‐” sign.
 All exponents become term coefficients in expanded form.

Step 1: Simplify terms in the original expression, if possible:

Step 2: Write the log of all of the items in parentheses in the simplified expression:

Step 3: Write the exponents from the simplified expression as coefficients of each log:

Step 4: Write the signs (“ ” for items in the numerator; “ “ for items in the denominator):

Step : Simplify terms in the solution, if possible:

Result:

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Chapter 15 Exponents and ogarithms

Algebra
Condensing Logarithmic Expressions

Condensing a logarithmic expression is a process best described by example. Each step of the
process is described and illustrated in the example below.

Condense:

Step 1: Review the expression and identify each element.

 The argument of each log will become the base of an exponential term.
 The coefficient of each log will become an exponent on that term
 The sign of each term determines whether the exponential term goes in the
numerator ( ) or denominator of the condensed expression.

exponents When condensed, each term will

become exponential in form. All
terms in the numerator will be
multiplied together. All terms in
the denominator will be multiplied
“‐“ indicates that a term together.
“ ” indicates that a term
goes in the denominator goes in the numerator

Step 2: Set up the log expression with the proper base and parentheses to contain the various
terms. If there is at least one negative sign, set up a fraction inside the parentheses:

Step 3: Convert any constants to powers of the base of the log:

Step 4: Bring in each term containing a variable as an exponential expression with the proper
exponent and base:

Step 5: Simplify to the extent possible:

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Chapter 15 Exponents and ogarithms
Algebra
Condensing Logarithmic Expressions More Examples

Suggestions for doing problems:

 Use parentheses liberally to help yourself see what is going on in the problem.
 Do the problems one step at a time, working carefully down the page.
 eave yourself a lot of room to do the work; there may be a lot of steps.

Some additional examples to help see how the various rules fit together:

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Chapter 15 Exponents and ogarithms

Algebra
Graphing an Exponential unction

Graphing an exponential or logarithmic function is a process best described by example. Each

step of the process is described and illustrated in the examples over the next few pages.

Graph the function:

Step 1: he horizontal asymptote occurs at the

value of the constant term. This is because the
exponential term approaches zero as the
exponent becomes more and more negative.
is the asymptote.

Step 2: Select points for the graph:

In selecting points for an In this example, select so that:

exponential curve, good
choices often relate to the ,
value of the exponent. ,
Choose values that make
,
the exponent ‐1, 0 and 1; or
‐1, 0 and 2.

Step 3: Graph the exponential function:

3A: Graph the

asymptote 3 : Graph the points 3C: S etch in the curve

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Chapter 15 Exponents and ogarithms

Four Exponential Function Graphs h

h
( ) h h ( h h
) h

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Chapter 15 Exponents and ogarithms

Algebra
Graphing a Logarithmic unction

Method 1: Direct Method

Graph the sample Function:

Step 1: ind the vertical asymptote at the value of

x that makes the argument of the log zero.
, is the asymptote.

Step 2: Select points for the graph:

In selecting points for a logarithmic curve, good choices often relate to the value of the argument.
Choose values that make the argument 1 and the base of the logarithm (1 and 4 in this example).

In this example, select so that:

, 2
,
See what happens when we do this ee o e e re e e re
in the table to the right: e eo e o e o o e o e e

oe o o e e o r e r e e e o r e oe

Step 3: Graph the logarithmic function:

3A: Graph the

asymptote 3 : Graph the points 3C: S etch in the curve

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Chapter 15 Exponents and ogarithms

Algebra
Graphing a Logarithmic unction cont d

Natural Logarithm Notation:

stands for “logarithmus naturalis” ( atin for “natural logarithm”) and is the logarithm with base .
The notation was invented in the late 1800 s, when a lot of work was done by hand (there were no
electronic calculators or computers). Those who worked with logarithms often used natural logarithms
extensively, so this shorthand notation became quite popular, and has survived to this day.
So, when you see: think .

Method 1: Direct Method when the base of the logarithm is

Step 1: ind the vertical asymptote at the value of
x that makes the argument of the log zero.
, is the asymptote.

Step 2: Select points for the graph:

In selecting points for a logarithmic curve, good choices often relate to the value of the argument.
Choose values that make the argument 1 and the base of the logarithm (1 and e in this example).

In this example, select so that:

, 2
,
You need to know that . ee o e e re e e re
So, . e eo e o e o o e o e e

oe o o e e o r e r e e e o r e oe

Step 3: Graph the logarithmic function:

3A: Graph the

asymptote 3 : Graph the points 3C: S etch in the curve

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Chapter 15 Exponents and ogarithms

Algebra
Graphing a Logarithmic unction cont d

Method 2: Double Inverse Method

Step 1: ind the inverse function: Step 2: ind the vertical

Switch variables: asymptote at the value of x
Subtract the constant: that makes the argument of
the log zero.
Result:

Take powers of the log base: , is the asymptote.

Simplify:
Subtract the constant:

Resulting I ERSE Function: or

Step 3: Select points for the graph:

In selecting points for an In this example, select so that:

exponential curve, good
choices often relate to the ,
value of the exponent. ,
Choose values that make
,
the exponent ‐1, 0 and 1; or
‐1, 0 and 2.

Step 4: Switch the x and y values to get points for the logarithmic function:

Step : Graph the logarithmic function:

A: Graph the
asymptote : Graph the points C: S etch in the curve

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Chapter 15 Exponents and ogarithms

Four Logarithmic Graphs h h

h h ( h
( ) h ) h

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Chapter 15 Exponents and ogarithms

Algebra
Graphs of arious unctions

y = 2x y = (½)x
10.0 10.0

5.0 5.0

0.0 0.0
‐10.0 ‐5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 ‐10.0 ‐5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0

‐5.0 ‐5.0

‐10.0 ‐10.0

y = log2 x y = log½ x
10.0 10.0

5.0 5.0

0.0 0.0
‐10.0 ‐5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 ‐10.0 ‐5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0

‐5.0 ‐5.0

‐10.0 ‐10.0

y=x y = x2 y = x3
10.0 10.0 10.0

5.0 5.0 5.0

0.0 0.0 0.0

‐10.0 ‐5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 ‐10.0 ‐5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 ‐10.0 ‐5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0

‐5.0 ‐5.0 ‐5.0

‐10.0 ‐10.0 ‐10.0

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Chapter 15 Exponents and ogarithms

Algebra
Applications of Exponential unctions

o e ro e

ote: if you let the end value be

represented by and the
start value by , you get similar
formulas to the interest
formulas below.

ere or

et: = Amount of money at time

= Principal (starting amount of money); note that
= the annual rate of interest (e.g., 4 or .04)
= the number of times per year that interest is credited

Compound interest pays interest a number of times during the year; that is, in
periods after the first, interest is paid on the original amount invested plus
interest earned in prior periods.

Compound interest paid n times a year:

Simple case. If interest is compounded on an annual basis, we get the simplest

formula:

Annual interest paid once a year:

Continuous compounding. The more frequent the compounding of interest, the

more money you get. The best return on your money occurs if interest is
compounded continuously. Because of the definition of the mathematical
constant , we get the following formula (known as the “Pert” formula).

Interest compounded continuously:

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Chapter 15 Exponents and ogarithms

Algebra
Solving Exponential and Logarithmic Equations

ogarithms and exponents are inverse operations in the same way addition and subtraction are,
and in the same way multiplication and division are. So, to undo an exponent, you take a
logarithm, and to undo a logarithm, you take an exponent.

Solving an Exponential Equation

Sometimes an equation has a variable in an exponent. To solve this kind of equation, follow
these steps:
 Isolate the term with the exponent on one side Example:
of the equation. That is, undo any additions,
Start:
subtractions, multiplications, and divisions in
the equation. Subtract 2:

 Take a logarithm of both sides of the equation. Divide by 4:

Use the base that exists in the exponential Take logs:
term.
Simplify:
 Solve the equation that remains.
Add 2:
ote: in the example at right, the base of 3 is selected
for the logarithms because it is the base of the exponent in the problem.

Solving a Logarithmic Equation

To solve an equation with a logarithm in it, follow these steps:
 Isolate the logarithm on one side of the
equation. That is, undo any additions, Example:
subtractions, multiplications, and divisions in
Start:
the equation.
 Take the base of the logarithm to the power of Add 1:
both sides of the equation. Use the same base Multiply by :
that exists in the logarithmic term.
Exponentiate:
 Solve the equation that remains.
Simplify:
ote: in the example at right, the base of is selected
Subtract 1:
for use in exponentiation because it is the base of the
logarithm in the problem.

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Chapter 16 Polynomials Intermediate

Algebra
Polynomial unction Graphs

Definitions
 Local Maximum The largest value that a function takes in a neighborhood around the
point. There must be smaller values on both sides of the local maximum.
 Local Minimum The smallest value that a function takes in a neighborhood around the
point. There must be larger values on both sides of the local minimum.
 A function is ncreasing over an interval if it
generates larger values as x increases over the
same interval.
 A function is Decreasing over an interval if it
generates smaller values as x increases over the
same interval.

The graph at the right has two local maxima and two local
minima. It also has three intervals where it is increasing
and two intervals where it is decreasing.

Characteristics of the Graph of a Polynomial

If is a polynomial of degree , then …
 is continuous over all values of x.
 Roots (i.e., zeros) of exist wherever the graph intersects the x‐axis. There are at
most of them.
 The y‐intercept of the graph occurs at , which is the constant term of the
polynomial.
 will have at most local extrema (either maxima or minima). For example, a
5 degree polynomial will have at most 4 extrema; the example above has 4 extrema.
th

 At each extreme, the slope of a line tangent to the curve will be zero. However, if the
slope of the tangent line to the curve at a point is zero, the point is not necessarily an
extreme.
 At a local maximum, the polynomial must be increasing on the left and decreasing on
the right.
 At a local minimum, the polynomial must be decreasing on the left and increasing on
the right.

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Chapter 16 Polynomials Intermediate

AD ANCED

Algebra
inding Extrema with Derivatives

Derivatives
The derivative of a monomial is:

The notation means “take a derivative with respect to the variable x.” We need to know two
other things about derivatives in order to find extrema with them.
 The derivative of a sum is the sum of the derivatives. That is:

 Derivatives provide information about the slopes of lines tangent to the curve at each
point. Since the slope of a tangent line at a minimum or maximum is zero, we can
calculate the derivative of a polynomial and set it equal to zero to find the x‐values of its
extrema.

inding Extrema with Derivatives

If is a polynomial, any extrema lie at points where .

Example 1: Take the general quadratic equation:

We know that the graph of this equation has a single maximum or minimum which is the vertex
of the parabola. Taking a derivative of this formula and setting it equal to zero, we get:

Solving for x, we get : , which we already know is the x‐value of the vertex.

Example 2:
Find local maxima and minima for the cubic equation:

Solving this for x, we find local maxima or minima may exist at ,

One caution: When a derivative is equal to zero, it only provides the possibility of an extreme;
it does not guarantee an extreme. It is possible for the slope of a curve to be zero and not have
either a local maximum or minimum. For an example of this, look at where .

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Chapter 16 Polynomials Intermediate

Algebra
actoring igher Degree Polynomials

Sum and Difference of Cubes

The sum of cubes is of the form:

The difference of cubes is of the form:

Notice the following about these two formulas:

 Each formula factors into a binomial and a trinomial.
 Each term in the binomial is of degree 1.
 Each term in the trinomial is of degree 2.
 Each formula has one minus sign in its factorization.
 In each formula, the second term of the binomial factor takes the sign of the second
term of the original expression.

dentification
To see if an expression is a sum or difference of cubes, you must answer “yes”
to three questions: able of
1. Are there only two terms? Cubes
2. Is the first term a cube? If so, take its cube root to get the value of a.
3. Is the second term a cube? If so, take its cube root to get the value of b.

The solution is based on the appropriate formula above, substituting the cube
roots of the two terms for a and b. Be careful

e: e e o e e re o e e or ere e o
e e e oe e o e r e re e ee o e o
e r e re e o

Examples:
(1)

(2)

(3) ,
,
(4)
,

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Chapter 16 Polynomials Intermediate

Algebra
actoring igher Degree Polynomials

ariable Substitution
On occasion you will encounter a polynomial that looks familiar except that the exponents on
the variables are higher than usual. In this case, a technique called ariable Substitution may
be useful.
The steps for variable substitution are:
 Identify which kind of equation the problem resembles.
 Identify what terms are likely to require substitution. Often there are only one or two
terms that need to be substituted.
 Create new variables for purposes of substitution.
 Re‐write the problem in terms of the new variables.
 Solve the problem in terms of the new variables.
 Substitute the original variables into the solution.
 Perform any additional work that is needed based on the original variables.
 Check your work.

Example 1:
actor:
This looks like a typical trinomial factoring problem except for the large exponents.
Create two new variables: and
Re‐write the expression:
Factor the expression:
Substitute original variables:
Perform additional work:
Check your work by multiplying the factored form to see if you get the original polynomial.

Example 2:
actor:
This looks like a sum of cubes.
Create two new variables: and
Use the sum of cubes formula:
Substitute original variables:
Check your work by multiplying the factored form to see if you get the original polynomial.

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Chapter 16 Polynomials Intermediate

Algebra
actoring igher Degree Polynomials

Synthetic Division
Synthetic Division is a short‐cut to dividing polynomials by a linear factor. Here s how it works.
We will use an example to illustrate the process.
Example 1:
Step 1: In the linear term take the value r as the divisor. In the example, the divisor
will be . We use the letter r to indicate that the value is actually a root of the equation. So,
in synthetic division, the root is used as the divisor.
Step 2: ine up the coefficients of the terms from highest
degree to lowest degree in a row to the right of the divisor. If
a term is missing, use a zero for the coefficient of that term.
We will call this array of coefficients the dividend.
Step 3: Bring the leading coefficient down below the line.
Step 4: Multiply the divisor by the number ust placed below
the line and put the result above the line and one column to
the right. Add the two numbers in that column to get a
number below the line for that column.
Step : Repeat Step 4 until all of the columns have been
completed.
The final result is a set of coefficients of the polynomial that
results from the division. The exponents of the terms of the
resulting polynomial begin one lower than the degree of the
original polynomial.
In the example, the result is , with a remainder of . The remainder of is a good
indication that the division was performed properly.

Example 2:
From the synthetic division to the right, we get:

There is no constant term and no remainder in the

solution to this example.

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Chapter 16 Polynomials Intermediate

Algebra
Comparing Synthetic Division to Long Division

Advantages of Synthetic Division

Synthetic division has the following advantages over long division:
 The divisor is a possible root of the polynomial; it is a root if the remainder is zero.
 It is shorter.
 It is much quicker.
 It works by addition and multiplication instead of by subtraction and division. Because
of this, it is much less prone to error.

Comparison of Methods
It is instructive to compare synthetic division and long division to get a better idea of why
synthetic division works. Consider the division:

The two methods of performing this division are laid out below. otice the following
correspondences between the examples:
 Root vs. actor. Synthetic division uses the root of the Synthetic Division
polynomial as the divisor. ong division uses the whole factor.
The signs on the root are opposite in the two methods.
 Dividend. The dividends in the two methods are the same
(except that synthetic division leaves out the variables).
 Second Row. The second row in synthetic division
corresponds to the “secondary” coefficients of
each division in long division (but with opposite
Long Division
signs).
 Answer Row. In synthetic division the answer row
(of coefficients) is calculated directly by adding the
values in the rows above it. In long division, it is
necessary to subtract expressions to determine
another expression that must be divided by the
divisor to get the next term of the answer.
 Adding ariables. In synthetic division, it is
necessary to add the variables after the answer is
determined. In long division, the answer is
provided directly.

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Chapter 16 Polynomials Intermediate

Algebra
eros of Polynomials

Developing Possible Roots

If a polynomial has the form:

Then,
 will have exactly complex roots. For example, a 5th degree polynomial will have
exactly 5 complex roots. ote: some of these roots may be the same, and some of
them may be real.
 will have exactly real roots, where is a whole number. For example, a
5 degree polynomial will have either 5 real roots, 3 real roots, or 1 real root.
th

 Descartes Rule of Signs. oe o e o e e o e

o The number of positive real roots of a polynomial is equal to the number of
sign changes in , or is less than this by a multiple of 2.
o The number of negative real roots of a polynomial is equal to the number
of sign changes in , or is less than this by a multiple of 2. Note: to
generate quickly, ust change the signs of the terms with odd exponents.
 will have an even number of non‐real roots. For example, a 5th degree polynomial
will have either 0 non‐real roots, 2 non‐real roots, or 4 non‐real roots. Further, the
non‐real roots exist in con ugate pairs; so if is a root of , then so is
.

 Rational Root heorem. Any rational roots have the characteristic . This
fact is especially useful if the lead coefficient of the polynomial is 1; in this case, any real
roots are factors of the constant term. This fact, in combination with the ease of
synthetic division, makes finding integer roots a quick process.

Example:
What can we say about the roots of ? (note: 4 sign changes)
 First, note that (note: zero sign changes)
 So, has 4 complex roots. 0, 2, or 4 of them are real; all real roots are positive.
 The real roots must be 1, 2, or 4 (the positive factors of the constant term 4).
 To find out more, we have to test the possible real root values.

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Chapter 16 Polynomials Intermediate

Algebra
eros of Polynomials

esting Possible Roots

The following two theorems are very useful in testing possible roots (zeros) of Polynomials.

actor heorem: is a factor of a polynomial if and only if .

Remainder heorem: If is divided by , then the remainder is

Methods of esting Possible Roots

If a polynomial can be factored, then first, factor the polynomial; the problem will be easier to
solve after factoring. In addition, if you are able to produce linear or quadratic factors, the
roots of those factors will be roots of the polynomial.
After factoring, the following methods can be used to test possible roots of a polynomial.
 se synthetic division to test possible roots. Because synthetic division is quick, several
potential roots can be tested in a short period of time.
 Substitute possible roots into the polynomial to see if the remainder is zero.
If , then is a root of .
 Graph the polynomial. Real roots exist wherever the graph crosses the x‐axis. Although
this method may help find the approximate location of roots, it is not a reliable method
for determining exact values of roots.

Example: Factor and find the roots of

Using synthetic division:
Trying first the possible root , then the possible root
, we find that they both work. So,

Using the quadratic formula on the quadratic factor in this

expression we find two non‐real roots. So the four roots are:

, , ,

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Chapter 16 Polynomials Intermediate

Algebra
ntersections of Curves

General Case ezout s heorem

ezout s heorem states that the maximum number of intersections of two distinct curves in
the complex field is the product of the degrees of the curves. ( ote: for these purposes, a line
is considered a curve of degree 1.) For graphs in two dimensions, if the degrees of two distinct
curves are r and s, then:
 There are at most intersections of the two curves.
 There are also cases where fewer than intersections exist.
 To solve for the points of intersection, either set the two equations equal to each other
or use variable substitution; then solve.

To apply this theorem, it is useful to set up each curve as an equation equal to zero. Examples
are provided below and on the pages that follow.

wo Lines
Two distinct lines may have either zero or one point of intersection, as shown in the following
illustrations:

Parallel ines: Intersecting ines:

0 points of intersection 1 point of intersection

ines have the form: , so the equations of any two lines can be written as:
and

otice that both lines are of degree ; i.e., and . Using Bezout s Theorem:
 The maximum number of intersections is: .
 There may be less than one intersection.

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Chapter 16 Polynomials Intermediate

Algebra
ntersections of Curves

A Line and a Parabola

The general forms for a line and a parabola are: ote: we use the letter “t” instead of
 Line: “b” in the equation of a line in order to
avoid confusion with the coefficient
 Parabola:
“b” in the equation of a parabola.
For purposes of Bezout s Theorem, these convert to:
 Line:
 Parabola:

Using Bezout s Theorem, the maximum number of intersections is: . Cases for 0, 1,
and 2 intersections are provided below:

0 points of intersection 1 point of intersection 2 points of intersection

inding the Point s of ntersection

In order to find any points of intersection, set the two original equations equal to each other
and solve:

This equation can be solved for x by any of the methods used to find the roots of a quadratic
equation. The value of y can be calculated for each value of x by substituting x into either of
the original equations.

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Chapter 16 Polynomials Intermediate

Algebra
ntersections of Curves

A Circle and an Ellipse

The general forms for a circle and an ellipse are:
 Circle:

 Ellipse:

For purposes of Bezout s Theorem, these convert to:

 Circle:

 Ellipse:

Using Bezout s Theorem, the maximum number of intersections is: . Cases for 0, 1, 2,
3 and 4 intersections are provided below:

0 points of intersection 1 point of intersection 2 points of intersection

3 points of intersection 4 points of intersection

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Chapter 1 Rational Functions

Algebra
Domains of Rational unctions

Rational Expressions are fractions with polynomials in both the numerator and denominator. If
the rational expression is a function, it is a Rational unction.

inding the Domain of a Rational unction

The domain (e.g., x‐values) of a rational function is the set of all values that result in valid range
values (e.g., y‐values). Generally, there are two situations where a value is not included in the
domain of a rational function:
 Any x that generates a zero in the denominator.
 Any x that generates a square root of a negative number.

Example 1:

Consider the rational function: .

Since there are no square roots, the only value for which
we cannot calculate is where or, where
. So the domain is all real x except , or:

otice the hole in the graph of the function at the point

, This indicates that the function does not have
a value for .

Example 2:

Consider the function:

This function has no valid x‐values for because

they would generate the square root of a negative
number in the numerator. In addition, the denominator
would be zero if . So the domain is all real x
greater than 3 except , or:

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Chapter 1 Rational Functions

Algebra
oles and Asymptotes

oles
A hole in a graph exists whenever a factor occurs
more times in the numerator than in the denominator of a
rational function.

Example: In the function the factor is

in both the numerator and the denominator. In fact, the
function can be reduced to except at the point
where the function is undefined.

ertical Asymptotes
A vertical asymptote exists whenever a factor occurs more times in the denominator
than in the numerator of a rational function.

Example: In the
factors and occur in the denominator but not
in the numerator of the function, so they generate vertical
asymptotes. The vertical asymptotes are shown as red
dotted lines at and in the graph at right.

orizontal Asymptotes
There are three separate cases for horizontal asymptotes of a rational function :

1. If the degree of P(x) the degree of Q(x), there is no horizontal asymptote.

2. If the degree of P(x) = the degree of Q(x), a horizontal asymptote exists at the line:

3. If the degree of P(x) the degree of Q(x), a horizontal asymptote exists at the line .

Example: In the function the degrees of the polynomials in the numerator

and denominator are the same, and the ratio of their lead coefficients is . The location
of the horizontal asymptote is shown as the red dotted line in the graph above.

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Chapter 1 Rational Functions

Algebra
Graphing Rational unctions

Rational functions are of two types:

 Simple rational functions are of the form or an equivalent form that does
not contain a polynomial of degree higher than 1 (i.e., no , , ust s and
constants).

 General rational functions are of the form where either or is a

polynomial of degree 2 or higher (i.e., contains an , , ).

In general, it is a good idea to find the asymptotes for a function first, and then find points that
help graph the curve. The domain and any holes can typically be easily identified during this
process. The range and the end behavior become identifiable once the function is graphed.

Simple Rational unctions

If you can put a rational function in the form , here s what you get:

ertical Asymptote: Occurs at . The vertical asymptote is easy to find because it occurs
at . At this value of , the denominator is , and you cannot divide by zero.
Hence, as approaches , the denominator of becomes very small, and the graph shoots
off either up or down.

orizontal Asymptote: Occurs at . The function cannot have a value of because

that would require the lead term, to be zero, which can never happen since .
Hence, the function will approach , but will never reach it.

Domain: All Real . o value of exists at any vertical asymptote.

Range: All Real . o value of exists at a horizontal asymptote in simple rational

functions.

oles: None.

End ehavior: Both ends of the function tend toward the horizontal asymptote, so:
, and ,

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Chapter 1 Rational Functions

Algebra
Simple Rational unctions Example

Recall that the simple rational

Example:
form is:
i n e h n

ertical Asymptote: Occurs at because if , the denominator, , would be

zero.

orizontal Asymptote: Occurs at because the lead term, , can never be

zero. Hence, the function can approach , but will never reach it.

Domain: All Real . o value of exists at any vertical asymptote.

Range: All Real . o value of exists at a horizontal asymptote in a simple rational

function.

oles: one.

End ehavior: Both ends of the function tend toward the horizontal asymptote, so:

, and ,

Graphing:
Step 1. Graph the vertical and horizontal asymptotes
(the dashed horizontal and vertical lines shown).

Step 2. Pick some ‐values and calculate the

corresponding y‐values. I like to pick a couple of ‐
values to the left of the vertical asymptote ( ) and
a couple of x‐values to its right. So, let s try some.

‐2
‐1 oe e er e o o e
oe oor e ,
0
2 Step 3. Draw a curve on each side of
the vertical asymptote: through the
3 points on that side and approaching
4 both the horizontal and vertical
asymptotes.

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Chapter 1 Rational Functions

Algebra
General Rational unctions

General rational functions are of the form:

The easiest way to graph a general rational function is to factor both the numerator and
denominator and simplifying the resulting fraction.

Example: in the in the numerator and denominator can be

eliminated to obtain the function to be graphed: .

ertical Asymptotes and oles: Any root (also called a “zero”) of the denominator of a rational
function (prior to simplification) will produce either a vertical asymptote or a hole.
ertical Asymptote: If is a root of the denominator is also a root of the simplified
denominator, then is a vertical asymptote of the function.
ole: If is a root of the denominator and is not a root of the simplified denominator, then
defines the location of a hole in the function.

orizontal Asymptote: One way to find the horizontal asymptotes of a general rational
function (also, see the section on o e o e , above) is to eliminate all terms of
the polynomials in both the numerator and denominator except the ones with the single
greatest exponent of all the terms. Then,
 If all terms are eliminated from the numerator, the horizontal asymptote occurs at

Example: has a horizontal asymptote at .

ote that all terms in the numerator were eliminated because none of them had the
greatest exponent in the rational function, which in this example is

 If a term remains in both the numerator and denominator, the horizontal asymptote
occurs at the reduced form of the remaining terms

Example: has a horizontal asymptote at

 If all terms are eliminated from the denominator, the function does not have a
horizontal asymptote

Example: does not have a horizontal asymptote.

ote that all terms in the denominator were eliminated because none of them had the
greatest exponent in the rational function, which in this example is .

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Chapter 1 Rational Functions

Algebra
General Rational unctions cont d

Domain: The domain is always “all Real ” except where there is a vertical asymptote or a hole.
o function value is associated with at either a vertical asymptote or a hole (or when an even
root of a negative number is required).

Range: The range is a bit trickier. You will need to look at the graph to determine the range.
You might think that no ‐value would exist at a horizontal asymptote, like in simple rational
functions. However, it is possible for a function to cross over its horizontal asymptote and then
work its way back to the asymptote as or as . Odd but true (see below, right).

For oddities in the range of a function, check these out these two rational functions:

End ehavior: Both ends of the function tend toward the horizontal asymptote if there is one.
However, if there is not one, you can look at the graph to determine end behavior. ote that
the function below does not have a horizontal asymptote:

In this function,
, ,
,

Although this function does not have a

horizontal asymptote, it does have a
“slant asymptote”: the line .

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Chapter 1 Rational Functions

Algebra
General Rational unctions Example

Example:

actor both the numerator and the denominator:

,
Get the Roots:
,

Simplify: Since is a root of both the numerator and the denominator, the function may be
simplified as follows:

ertical Asymptotes and oles: “ ” and “ ” are roots of the original denominator, so they
must generate either vertical asymptotes or holes.

ertical Asymptote: After simplification, this function still contains “ ” as a root in the
denominator. Therefore, is a vertical asymptote of the function.

ole: “ ” is a root of the denominator of the original function but is not a root of the
denominator of the simplified function. Therefore, this function has a hole at .

orizontal Asymptote: Eliminate all terms of both polynomials except any with the single
greatest exponent of all the terms. In this case:

is a horizontal asymptote. Since a term remains in both the

numerator and denominator, the horizontal asymptote occurs at the reduced form of the
remaining terms

Domain: All Real except where there is a vertical asymptote or a hole.

So, the domain is all Real .

We must graph the function in order to get a good look at its range and end behavior. We
must plot points on both sides of the vertical asymptote.

r o e e

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Chapter 1 Rational Functions

Algebra
General Rational unctions Example cont d

Graphing:

Step 1. Graph the vertical and horizontal asymptotes.

Step 2. Pick some ‐values on each side of the vertical asymptote and calculate the
corresponding y‐values.

Step 3. Draw a curve on each side of the vertical asymptote:

through the points on that side and approaching both the
x horizontal and vertical asymptotes.

‐4 Step 4: Draw an open circle at the point of any holes.

‐3

‐2
ee he h e
0
,
1 (a hole)

Range: The range can be determined from the graph.

It appears that the range excludes only the horizontal asymptote and the hole.
So the range is: all Real , .

End ehavior: In this function,

, , ,

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Chapter 1 Rational Functions

Algebra
Operating with Rational Expressions

Performing operations with rational expressions is very similar to performing operations with
fractions. After all, that s really what rational expressions are fractions involving polynomials.

Addition and Subtraction

To add or subtract rational expressions:
 Factor both the numerator and denominator as much as possible.
 Create a common denominator.
 Add or subtract expressions.
After the numerators are added, you must
 Simplify. check to see if the new numerator can be
factored. If so, further simplification may
Example: be possible. Note: no further
simplification is possible in this example.

Multiplication and Division

To multiply or divide rational expressions:
 Factor both the numerator and denominator as much as possible.
 Multiply or divide expressions. (Remember, to divide, “flip that guy and multiply.”)
Cancel all factors that appear in both the numerator and denominator.
 Simplify.
ote that you can cross out common
Example: factors in the numerator and
denominator across the expressions
that are being multiplied.

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Chapter 1 Rational Functions

Algebra
Solving Rational Equations

Solving Rational Equations

Solving rational equations involves one main rule: Get rid of the denominators
A fuller listing of the steps involved is:
 Multiply by whatever expressions are necessary to eliminate the denominators.
 Pay careful attention to which values make the expressions you use equal to zero
(because you are not allowed to multiply both sides of an equation by zero).
 Solve the remaining problem.
 Check each answer to see if it is a solution to the original problem. ote: as long as you
do not multiply by zero, your solutions are likely to be valid.

Example 1: Solve Example 2: Solve

First note that x cannot be 3 or 1 since First note that x cannot be ‐8 or 3 since
each of these creates an undefined each of these creates an undefined
fraction in the original problem. fraction in the original problem.
The easiest way to start this problem is to The easiest way to start this problem is to
cross multiply to get: cross multiply to get:

Then, Then,
So, So,
And finally, And finally,

Check work: Check 4:

Check 2:

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Chapter 1 Rational Functions

Algebra
Solving Rational nequalities

Solving Rational nequalities

Solving Rational Inequalities is a bit more involved than solving Rational Equations. The key
issue in the Inequalities is whether in the step where you eliminate the denominator, you are
multiplying by a negative number. Remember, when you multiply by a negative number, you
must flip an inequality sign.
The steps involved are similar to those for solving rational equations:
 Multiply by whatever expressions are necessary to eliminate the denominators.
 Identify when the denominators are positive and when they are negative; set up cases
for each situation. Within each case, you will need to meet multiple conditions (i.e.,
using the word “and” between conditions within a case).
 Pay careful attention to which values make the expression you multiply equal to zero
(because you are not allowed to multiply both sides of an inequality by zero).
 Solve the remaining problems. Any of the cases produces valid results, so you must
combine the solutions for the various cases with “or s.”
 Check sample answers in each range you develop to see if they are solutions to the
original problem. Alternatively, graph the solution to see if the results are correct.

Example: Solve

We want to eliminate the denominator but we need to create 2 cases:

he combined result of the two cases is:
Case 1:
Then:
So, To check the result, we graph the function and see
The solution here requires: where it produces a y‐value above 2; this is the set
of x‐values where the dark green curve intersects
Which simplifies to: the light green region in the graph below.

Case 2:
Then:
So,
The solution here requires:

Which simplifies to:

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Chapter 18 Conic Sections

Algebra
ntroduction to Conic Sections

The intersection of a cone and a plane is called a conic section.

There are four types of curves that result from these intersections
that are of particular interest:
 Parabola
 Circle
 Ellipse
 Hyperbola
Each of these has a geometric definition, from which the algebraic
form is derived.

Geometric Definitions
Parabola The
set of all points
that are the
same distance
from a point
(called the
focus) and a
line (called the
Directrix).

Ellipse The set of all points for

Circle The set of all points that are the which the sum of the distances to
same distance from a point (called the two points (called foci) is constant.
center). The distance is called the radius.

yperbola
The set of all
points for
which the
difference of
the distances
to two points
(called foci) is
constant.

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Chapter 18 Conic Sections

Algebra
Parabola with ertex at the Origin Standard Position

i n i ec i e ic i ec i

Characteristics of a Parabola in Standard Position

orizontal Directrix ertical Directrix

Equation

If opens up opens right

If opens down opens left

Eccentricity (“e”)

alue of p (in illustration)

ertex , ‐ the origin , ‐ the origin

Focus , ,

Directrix

Axis of symmetry (y‐axis) (x‐axis)

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Chapter 18 Conic Sections

Algebra
Parabola with ertex at ,

i n i ec i e ic i ec i

Characteristics of a Parabola with ertex at Point ,

orizontal Directrix ertical Directrix

Equation

If opens up opens right

If opens down opens left

Eccentricity (“e”)

ertex , ,

Focus , ,

Directrix

Axis of symmetry

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Chapter 18 Conic Sections

Algebra
Parabola in Polar orm

i n i ec i e ic i ec i

Characteristics of a Parabolas in Polar orm

orizontal Directrix ertical Directrix

Equation (simplified)

opens up opens right

If in denominator
Directrix below Pole Directrix left of Pole

opens down opens left

If in denominator
Directrix above Pole Directrix right of Pole

Eccentricity (“e”)

distance between the Directrix and the Focus

Focal Parameter (“p”)
oe o r or ere ro re or

Coordinates of ey Points: e e o eo o e e o or

ertex , ,

Focus , 0,0)

Directrix

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Chapter 18 Conic Sections

Algebra
Circles

Characteristics of a Circle
in Standard Position
Equation

Center , ‐ the origin

Radius

In the example

Characteristics of a Circle
Centered at Point h,
Equation

Center ,

Radius

Characteristics of a Circle
in Polar orm
Equation

Pole ,

Radius

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Chapter 18 Conic Sections

Algebra
Ellipse Centered on the Origin Standard Position
e ic i
i n i

Characteristics of an Ellipse in Standard Position

orizontal Ma or Axis ertical Ma or Axis

In the above example , , , ,

Equation

alues of and

alue of

Eccentricity (“e”)

Center , ‐ the origin

Ma or Axis ertices , ,

Minor Axis ertices , ,

Foci , ,

Directrixes (not shown)

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Chapter 18 Conic Sections

Algebra
Ellipse Centered at ,
e ic i
i n i

Characteristics of an Ellipse Centered at Point ,

orizontal Ma or Axis ertical Ma or Axis

Equation

alues of and

alue of

Eccentricity (“e”)

Center ,

Ma or Axis ertices , ,

Minor Axis ertices , ,

Foci , ,

Directrixes (not shown)

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Chapter 18 Conic Sections

Algebra
Ellipse in Polar orm Pole One ocus
e ic i
i n i

Characteristics of an Ellipse in Polar orm

orizontal Ma or Axis ertical Ma or Axis

Equation

alue of “a” distance from the Center to each ma or axis ertex

alue of “c” distance from the Center to each Focus

Eccentricity (“e”)
Focal Parameter (“p”) h

Coordinates of ey Points:
If in denominator all coordinate values are shown below
If in denominator change all instances of , below, to
Center , ,

Ma or Axis ertices , ,

Foci , ,

Directrixes

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Chapter 18 Conic Sections

Algebra
yperbola Centered on the Origin Standard Position

i n T n e e i e ic T n e e i

Characteristics of a yperbola in Standard Position

orizontal ransverse Axis ertical ransverse Axis

In the above example , , , ,

Equation

alue of “c”

Eccentricity (“e”)

Center , ‐ the origin

ertices , ,

Foci , ,

Asymptotes

Directrixes (not shown)

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Chapter 18 Conic Sections

Algebra
yperbola Centered at ,

i n T n e e i e ic T n e e i

Characteristics of a yperbola Centered at Point ,

orizontal ransverse Axis ertical ransverse Axis

Equation

alue of “c”

Eccentricity (“e”)

Center ,

ertices , ,

Foci , ,

Asymptotes

Directrixes (not shown)

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Chapter 18 Conic Sections

Algebra
yperbola in Polar orm Pole One ocus

i n T n e e i e ic T n e e i

Characteristics of a yperbola in Polar orm

orizontal ransverse Axis ertical ransverse Axis

Equation

alue of “a” distance from the Center to each ertex

alue of “c” distance from the Center to each Focus

Eccentricity (“e”)
Focal Parameter (“p”) h

Coordinates of ey Points:
If in denominator all coordinate values are shown below
If in denominator change all instances of , below, to
Center , ,

ertices , ,

Foci , ,

Directrixes

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Chapter 18 Conic Sections

Algebra
yperbola in Polar orm Pole One ocus
Partial Construction Over the Domain: to

It is instructive to look at partial constructions of a hyperbola in polar form. et s take a look at

a curve constructed by varying from to , quadrant by quadrant:

, , ,

In the plots below, each quadrant in the domain is represented by a separate color. The
portion of the curve added in each illustration is presented as a thicker line than the rest of the
curve. The Foci of the curve are dark blue points and the Directrixes are light blue vertical lines.

The final curve looks like this. The cosine function has a ma or Q I: Domain . ote
The curve is plotted over the impact on how the curve graphs. that the curve starts out on the
domain but could ote the two yellow points left and switches to the right at
where . At these , where the curve is
also be plotted over the domain
points, the curve is undefined. undefined.
.

Q II: Domain . The Q III: Domain . Q IV: Domain .

curve continues on the right side The curve continues its gentle The curve continues on the right
of the graph and gently curves swing below the x‐axis. is and switches to the left at
down to the x‐axis. essentially a reflection of the , where the curve is
curve in over the x‐axis. undefined.

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Chapter 18 Conic Sections

Algebra
General Conic Equation Classification

The General Case of the Conic Equation is:

The second term may be omitted if the curve is not rotated relative to the axes in the Cartesian
Plane, giving the simpler form:

Conic Classification ree

In this form, it is relatively easy to identify which type of curve the equation represents, using
the following decision tree:
Examples:

Are and The equation is not

yes
both missing? a conic. It is a line.

no

Is either or
yes The equation is a
missing?
parabola.

no

Are the signs on

yes The equation is a
and
hyperbola.
different?

no

Are and the

yes The equation is a
same number?
circle.

no

Are and The equation is an

yes
different numbers? ellipse.
( )

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Chapter 18 Conic Sections

Algebra
General Conic Equation Manipulation

After a conic equation is classified, it must be algebraically manipulated into the proper form.
The steps involved are:
1. If there are negative coefficients in front of the square terms ( and/or ), you may
choose to eliminate them by multiplying the entire equation by .
2. Group the x‐terms on the left, the y‐terms on the right, and move the constant to the
right side of the = sign. Set up parentheses around the x‐terms and the y‐terms.
3. Factor out the coefficients of the and terms.
4. Complete the squares for both the x‐terms and the y‐terms. Be careful to add the same
numbers to both the right and left sides of the equations.
5. Reduce the completed squares to squared‐binomial form.
6. If necessary, divide both sides by the required scalar and rearrange terms to obtain the
proper form.

Example 1:
Solve: Equation
Step 1: Change signs
Step 2: Group variables
Step 3: Factor coefficients
Step 4: Complete Squares
Step 5: Reduce Square Terms

Step 6: Divide by
The final result is a hyperbola
with center (1, 6) and a
Rearrange Terms
vertical transverse axis.

Example 2:
Solve: Equation
Step 1: Change signs
Step 2: Group variables
Step 3: Factor Coefficients
Step 4: Complete Squares
Step 5: Reduce Square Terms
The final result is a circle with
Step 6: Divide by
center (2, ‐1) and radius .

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Chapter 18 Conic Sections

AD ANCED
Algebra
Parametric Equations of Conic Sections

Parabola (note:

Parametric Equations Parametric Equations

Centered at the Origin Centered at h,

Circle

Parametric Equations Parametric Equations

Centered at the Origin Centered at h,

Ellipse

Parametric Equations Parametric Equations

Centered at the Origin Centered at h,

yperbola

Parametric Equations Parametric Equations

Centered at the Origin Centered at h,

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Chapter 19 Sequences and Series

Algebra
ntroduction to Sequences and Series

Definitions
 A Sequence is an ordered set of numbers.
 A erm is an element in the set of ordered numbers.
 An nfinite Sequence has no end. A inite Sequence has a final term.
 An Explicit ormula is one that specifically defines the terms of the sequence based on the
number of the term. By convention, the number of the term is usually expressed in terms
of the variables or . We talk of the nth er or the kth er of the sequence or series.
 A Recursive ormula defines a term based on one or more previous terms.
 A Series is an ordered summation of a sequence.

Example Sequence and Series :

Consider the sequence defined by the explicit formula: .
The notation refers to the h term of the sequence. So, we can construct both a sequence
and a series from this. Here are the first seven terms of the sequence and the series:

n 1 2 3 4
4 10 13 16 19 22
Sum of 4 11 21 34 50 69 91

Example Recursive ormula :

One of the simplest and most famous recursive formulas is the ibonacci Sequence, defined as:

This simply means that each term is the sum of the two terms before it. The Fibonacci
Sequence begins with a pair of ones, and uses the recursive formula to obtain all other terms:

n 1 2 3 4
1 1 2 3 5 8 13
Sum of 1 2 4 12 20 33

This sequence has some very interesting properties, which will be discussed on another page.

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Chapter 19 Sequences and Series

AD ANCED
Algebra
he ibonacci Sequence

The ibonacci Sequence was first published in 1202 by eonardo Fibonacci (of Pisa). It starts
with a pair of ones and continues with the recursive formula: . The beginning
of the sequence looks like this:
, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,

Properties of the ibonacci Sequence

It is possible to spend a long time exploring the properties of this simple sequence. Here are a
few of the more interesting properties:
llustration 1: Add the sequence to create a series.
n 1 2 3 4 1
1 1 2 3 13 21 34
1 2 4 12 2 33 4 88 143
otice that : .
That is, the nth sum is one less than the term of the original sequence two positions further to
the right

llustration 2: Calculate the squares and add the resulting sequence to create a series.
n 1 2 3 4 1
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55
1 1 4 9 25 64 169 441 1156 3025
1 2 6 15 40 104 2 3 14 18 0 4895
otice that : .
That is, the nth sum of the squares is the product of the two terms from the original sequence,
one of which is in the same position and one of which is one position to the right

he Golden Ratio f
Ratios of successive values of the Fibonacci Sequence approach the Golden Ratio: f .

… One way to express this result is:

The approximate value of f f

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Chapter 19 Sequences and Series

Algebra
Summation Notation and Properties

Summation Notation
Mathematicians are fond of finding shorthand ways of expressing things, so they invented
notation for the summation of numbers. If we consider the series for , the
notation for the series would be:

This simply means that the nth term of the series is defined by adding the first n term of the
sequence for .

Example:

n 1 2 3 4
4 10 13 16 19 22
4 11 21 34 50 69 91

ote that .

Although it looks complicated at first, after you write a few series longhand, you will begin to
appreciate the shorthand notation.

Summation Properties
Here are a couple of useful properties of summations, all of which are based on the algebraic
properties of addition, multiplication and equality. and are two series. c and d are real.

You can factor a constant out of a

summation if is a factor of all the terms.

The sum of two series can be broken out

into the summations for each series.

This is basically the distributive property of

multiplication over addition.

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Chapter 19 Sequences and Series

Algebra
Some nteresting Summation ormulas

The following are a few interesting summation series. The development of some series like this
may be possible with algebra, but others require either calculus or the calculus of finite
differences. ote: parentheses are used in the formulas to aid reading them; the parentheses
are not required.

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Chapter 19 Sequences and Series

Algebra
Arithmetic Sequences

An Arithmetic Sequence is one in which the terms are separated by a constant. The constant,
often indicated by the letter d, is called the Common Difference. Arithmetic sequences, then
meet the condition:
, where d is the common difference.

Example:

n 1 2 3 4
9 12 15 18 21 24

irst Differences 3 3 3 3 3

In this sequence, the common difference is 3. If there is not a common difference, the
sequence is not arithmetic.

nth erm of an Arithmetic Sequence

The formula for the nth term of an arithmetic sequence is:

The problem with this formula is the that gets multiplied by . Sometimes this is hard
to remember. An alternative method would be to first calculate a term zero,

Then: , which seems a nicer formula

The value of this alternative is that it also allows the student to establish a formula in
form for the sequence, where is the y‐intercept, and , the common difference, is the
slope.

Example: In the above example, the nth term of the sequence can be written:

These two equations

Or, first calculate: are equivalent.

Then: or

Either method works; the student should use whichever one they find more comfortable.

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Chapter 19 Sequences and Series

Algebra
Arithmetic Series

An Arithmetic Series is the sum of the elements of an arithmetic sequence. The sum of the first
n terms of an arithmetic sequence is:

In words, the sum is the product of n and the average term.

Since , we can derive the following formula: otice that the last term
is the sum of the first n
integers. That is,

Or, perhaps better:

This last equation provides a method for solving many arithmetic series problems.

Example: Find the 8th sum of the sequence .

To check this, let s build a table:

n 1 2 3 4
9 12 15 18 21 24 2 30
9 21 36 54 5 99 126 156

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Chapter 19 Sequences and Series

Algebra
Pythagorean Means

Consider a set of n values. We can take a mean of these n values in several ways. The three
classical methods of calculating a mean are called Pythagorean Means.

Arithmetic Mean
The arithmetic mean is the one that students are most familiar with. It is also called the
average. It is simply the sum of the n items, divided by n.

Example: Calculate the arithmetic mean of 5 test scores: 92, 94, 85, 2, 99

ric : A shortcut to calculating an arithmetic mean:

ric Example:
 Estimate a value for the average by “eyeballing” the values. For Score alue vs.
the example above, it looks like 90 would be a good estimate.
92 2
 Subtract the estimate from each value to get a set of n 94 4
differences. 86 ‐4
 Add the n differences and divide by n. 4 ‐16
 Add the result to the original estimate. The result is the 99 9
arithmetic mean of the original set of values. In the above Total ‐5
example, the result is: . Average ‐1

Geometric Mean
The geometric mean is the n‐th root of the product of the n values.

Example: Calculate the geometric mean of 2, 9, and 12:

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Chapter 19 Sequences and Series

Algebra
Pythagorean Means cont d

armonic Mean
The harmonic mean is reciprocal of the arithmetic mean of the reciprocals of the n values. It
has applications in science.

Example: Since the harmonic mean looks so odd, it is useful to look at a real‐life example.
Consider a car that travels 15 miles at 30 miles per hour, then another 15 miles at 15 miles per
hour. e er e ee o e r o er e e er e e r o e
First, calculate the average speed from basic principles:
 15 miles at 30 miles per hour takes 30 minutes.
 15 miles at 15 miles per hour takes 60 minutes.
 Total trip is 30 miles in 90 minutes, for an average speed of 20 miles per hour.
ow, calculate the harmonic mean of the two speeds:

Comparing Means
Compare the values of the three Pythagorean Means of 3, 6, and 12:

h
In general, it is true that:

h However, if the values being

averaged are all the same,

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Chapter 19 Sequences and Series

Algebra
Geometric Sequences

An Geometric Sequence is one in which the ratio of successive terms is the same. The ratio,
often indicated by the letter r, is called the Common Ratio. Geometric sequences, then meet
the condition:
, where r is the common ratio.

Example:

n 1 2 3 4
6 12 24 48 96 192

irst Ratios 2 2 2 2 2

In this sequence, the common ratio is 2. If there is not a common ratio, the sequence is not
geometric.

nth erm of an Geometric Sequence

The formula for the nth term of an arithmetic sequence is:

The problem with this formula is the that is the exponent of . Sometimes this is hard
to remember. An alternative method would be to first calculate a term zero,

Then: , which seems a nicer formula

Example: In the above example, the nth term of the sequence can be written:

These two equations

Or, first calculate: are equivalent.

Then:

Either method works; the student should use whichever one they find more comfortable.

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Chapter 19 Sequences and Series

Algebra
Geometric Series

An Geometric Series is the sum of the elements of an geometric sequence. The sum of the first
n terms of an geometric sequence is:

nfinite Geometric Series

Of particular interest are nfinite Geometric Series. These series never end; they go on forever.
An infinite geometric series may have a sum as the series goes to infinity. The sums along the
way are called Partial Sums. The formula above works for the partial sums of an infinite
geometric series.
Starting with the above formula, for a series that does not end, consider the case where :

So,

The term shrinks as n gets larger, and in the infinite case, it disappears altogether.

Convergence
An infinite series converges if it approaches a single value as more terms are added. Otherwise
the series diverges.

Example: Show examples of where the series:

For the series gives: This looks good

For the series gives: Uh oh This looks very wrong

otice that in this series, the common ratio . The reason why the first value of x works
and the second does not is because this series converges only when . This is very
common for infinite series with increasing exponents.

The set of values for which a series converges is called the nterval of Convergence. For the
series in the example, the interval of convergence is or .

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Chapter 19 Sequences and Series

Algebra
A ew Special Series

Series nvolving

Series nvolving e

Cubes of Natural Numbers

Consider the Series of cubes of the natural numbers:

n 1 2 3 4
1 8 2 54 125 216 343
1 9 36 100 225 441 84

So, the sums of cubes are squares. In fact successive sums are the squares of the riangle
Numbers. The Triangle umbers are the sums of the sequence of natural numbers:

n 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 3 1 1 21 2

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Chapter 19 Sequences and Series

Algebra
Pascal s riangle

Pascal s riangle starts with the number one at the top and creates entries in successive rows
by adding the two numbers above it. For example, in the 4th row, the number 6 is the sum of
the 3 to its upper left and the 3 to its upper right. The triangle continues forever and has some
very interesting properties.
1 Row 0
1 1 Row 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1

Properties of Pascal s riangle

The Triangle starts with Row 0. The number of a row is the value of the second number in the
row. Then, the rth number in row n is given by:

The symbol comes from Probability Theory, and represents the number of ways items
can be selected from a set of n items. This value is also a Binomial Coefficient; the binomial
coefficients are the coefficients of the variables in the expansion of .
Here are a few other interesting properties of Pascal s Triangle:
 It is symmetric along a vertical line containing the top entry.
 The row contains elements.
 The sum of the entries in row is .
 It contains the natural numbers in the second diagonal.
 It contains the triangle numbers in the third diagonal.
 , which is how the triangle is formed in the first place.

wo Outcome Experiments
In a two‐outcome experiment, like flipping a coin, the probability of an
event occurring exactly r times in an experiment of n trials is given by the
expression at right. This is because there are outcomes for the
event out of a total of total possible outcomes.

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Chapter e en es and eries

Algebra
inomial E pansion

Steps to a Constructing a inomial E pansion eneral Formula:

. tart ith the ino ial oe i ients
2. Add in the po ers o the irst ter o the ino ial
. Add in the po ers o the se ond ter o the ino ial
. i pli y

Consider the following e ample: E pand and simplify

Step 1: Start with the binomial coefficients

Step 2: Add in the powers of the first term of the binomial

Step 3: Add in the powers of the second term of the binomial

Step : Simplify:

otice the following about the e pansion:

. here are ter s, here is the e ponent o the ino ial eing e panded.
2. is the top n er in every ino ial oe i ient.
. he otto n ers in the ino ial oe i ients o nt p ro 0 to .
. When a ter o the original ino ial is negative, the signs in the sol tion alternate.
. he e ponent o the irst ter in the original ino ial o nts do n ro to 0.
. he e ponent o the se ond ter in the original ino ial o nts p ro 0 to .
. he e ponents o the t o ter s in the original ino ial add to in every ter o the
e pansion.

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Chapter 19 Sequences and Series

AD ANCED
Algebra
Gamma unction and n

Definition
The Gamma Function is defined by the following definite integral for :

Initially, this integral appears daunting, but it simplifies nicely under certain conditions, and has
some very interesting properties.

Properties and alues

The following properties and values of the Gamma Function are of particular interest:

 for integer values of

Factorials
 for values of where exists

 for

 for any value of

 Some other functions relate to the Gamma Function. Examples:

Stirling s ormula

For large values of n, Stirling s ormula provides the approximation:

Example: Direct Calculation:

Using Stirling s Formula:

This represents an error of less than 0.1 .

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Chapter 19 Sequences and Series

AD ANCED
Algebra
Graphing the Gamma unction

Gamma unction Graph

Here is a graph of the Gamma Function. For , the function is continuous and passes
through all the factorials.
 For , the graph moves
asymptotically vertical as .
 For , the function has
vertical asymptotes at each
integer value and forms a “U”
between the integers, with
alternating positive and negative
values by interval.
 approaches as
becomes increasingly negative.

Calculating G(x)
Each value of G( ) can be calculated using the
definition of the Gamma Function on the previous
page. Recall that a definite integral is a measure
of the area under the curve of the function being
integrated. Based on this, we have the following
examples of G( ) values and graphs that illustrate
the curves which determine those values.

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 Algebra Handbook
Index

Page Subject

A sol te Val e
A sol te Val e n tions
E ations
8 ne alities
Ad oint atri
Alge rai roperties
Arith eti ean
Asso iative roperty
Asy ptotes
, Coni e tions
E ponential n tions
a a n tion
‐ 2 ogarith i n tions
8‐ Rational n tions
0 A g ented atri
ino ial E pansion
o ethod
2 ltiplying ino ials
ltiplying olyno ials
0 Cartesian lane
0 Chara teristi E ation
2 Cir les
Clos re roperty
Co a tor
Co a tor atri
22 Co inations
Co tative roperty
Co ple N ers
80 A sol te Val e
8 Adding and tra ting
80 Con gate
80 e inition
8 raphi al Representation
8 ltiplying and ividing
8 perations in olar Coordinates
Condensing a ogarith i E pression

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 Algebra Handbook
Index

Page Subject

Coni E ations
, Chara teristi s
0 Classi i ation
8 e initions
Coni e tions
anip lation
2 ara etri E ations
also see entries or spe i i rves
2, Consistent ines
Converting et een E ponential and ogarith i E pressions
0 Coordinates in a lane
Cra er s R le
2 E ations
00 E ations
28 C i E ations ‐ and i eren e or las
2 e ay E ponential
2, ependent ines
2 es artes R le o igns
, eter inants
2 2 atri
eneral Case
istri tive roperty
ividing olyno ials
e
0 , 0 Eigenval es
0 , 0 Eigenvestors
Ellipse
Centered at oint (h, k)
Centered on the rigin tandard osition
olar or
2 E ations ‐ olving y a toring
E ler s E ation
E panding a ogarith i E pression
2 E ponential E ations
E ponential n tion raphs
raphing a n tion
8, 2 a ple raphs

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 Algebra Handbook
Index

Page Subject

E ponents
Converting an E ponential E pression to ogarith i or
2 E ponential E ations
2 E ponential n tions ‐ ro th, e ay, nterest
or las
2 a le o E ponents
a torials
a toring
AC ethod
0 r te or e ethod
adrati or la ethod
8 i ple Case ethod
i ona i e en e
2 ethod o ltiplying ino ials
n tions
2 Adding and tra ting
2 Co positions
2 e initions
2 E ponential ro th, e ay, nterest
2 raphs o Vario s n tions
28 nverses
2 ine ests
2 ltiplying and ividing
2 Notation
2 perations
2 rans or ation ‐ ilding a raph
a a n tion
a a n tion ‐ Cal lating
a a n tion ‐ e inition
a a n tion ‐ raphing
a ss‐ ordan Eli ination
eo etri ean
olden Ratio f
raph (look up the type of curve you are trying to graph)
2 reatest nteger n tion
2 ro th E ponential
0 ar oni ean

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 Algebra Handbook
Index

Page Subject

0 a ilton‐Cayley heore
yper ola
Centered at oint (h, k)
Centered on the rigin tandard osition
8 olar or
olar or ‐ Constr tion ver the o ain 0 to 2
80 i
2 dentity atri es
dentity roperty
aginary N ers
80 i
80 e inition
8 o ers o i
82 are Root o i
2, n onsistent ines
2, ndependent ines
ne alities
Co po nd in ne i ension
raphs in ne i ension
raphs in o i ensions
o i ensions
ntegers
nteger n tions
2 reatest nteger n tion
2 east nteger n tions
2 Nearest nteger n tions
nterse tion o C rves
Cir le and Ellipse
eneral Case
ine and ara ola
ines
2‐ 8, 0 nverse atri es
nverse roperty
2 east nteger n tions
inear ependen e

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 Algebra Handbook
Index

Page Subject

inear E ations
8 oint‐ lope or o a ine
8 lope‐ nter ept or o a ine
8 tandard or o a ine
inear atterns
20 ln
2 ogarith i E ations
ogarith i n tion raphs
raphing ethods
22, 2 a ple raphs
ogarith s
, Condensing a ogarith i E pression
Converting a ogarith i E pression to E ponential or
E panding a ogarith i E pression
0 or las
2 ogarith i E ations
2 a le o ogarith s
ong ivision o olyno ials
atri es
0 Addition
Ad oint atri
0 A g ented atri es
02 A g ented atri E a ples 2 2
0 A g ented atri E a ple
0 Chara teristi E ation
Co a tors
, eter inants
ivision
0 Eigenval es
0 Eigenve tors
0 a ilton‐Cayley heore
2 dentity atri es
nverse o a 2 2 atri
2‐ 8, 0 nverse o a eneral atri
inors
ltipli ation
0 alar ltipli ation
0 ra e

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 Algebra Handbook
Index

Page Subject

, 0 eans ‐ ythagorean
inor
ltiplying olyno ials
lti‐ tep E ations
8 Reverse E A
ips and ri s
n
20 Nat ral ogarith s
Nat ral N ers
2 Nearest nteger n tions
N er atterns
Co pleting N er atterns
Converting a inear attern to an E ation
2 denti ying N er atterns
Re ogni ing inear atterns
N er ets ‐ Real N ers
20 dds
perating ith Real N ers
rder o perations
arentheti al evi e
E A
ara ola
0 Verte at oint (h, k)
Verte at the rigin tandard osition
olar or
arallel and erpendi lar ines
arallel and erpendi lar ines ‐ lopes
arallel, Coin ident or nterse ting ines ‐ lo hart
0 arallel, erpendi lar or Neither ines ‐ lo hart
ara etri E ations
2 Coni e tions
eneral
arentheti al evi e
as al s riangle
E A
0 lotting oints on a Coordinate lane
8 oint‐ lope or o a ine

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 Algebra Handbook
Index

Page Subject

8 ,8 olar Coordinates
olyno ials
Adding and tra ting
0 e inition
0 egree
2 olyno ials eveloping ossi le Roots
a toring
2 inding E tre a ith erivatives
2 raphs
reatest Co on a tor
2 ltiplying ino ials , o , N eri al ethods
tandard or
28 and i eren e o C es
0, yntheti ivision
esting ossi le Roots
2 Varia le stit tion
o ers and Roots a le
ro a ility
20 ro a ility and dds
2 ro a ility ith i e
roperties o Alge ra
roperties o Addition and ltipli ation
roperties o E ality
roperties o ero
roperties o ne ality
2 Addition and tra tion
2 ltipli ation and ivision
, 0 ythagorean eans
8 adrati E ations ‐ Co ple ol tions
adrati or la
adrati n tions
Co pleting the are
i eren es o ares
itting ith hree oints
pening p or o n
er e t ares

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 Algebra Handbook
Index

Page Subject

adrati n tions
tandard or
Verte and A is o y etry
Verte or
adrati ne alities in ne Varia le
88, 8 Radi al E ations
Rational E ations
Rational E pressions
Addition and tra tion
ltipli ation and ivision
Rational n tions
o ain
eneral Rational n tions
8 oles and Asy ptotes
0 i ple Rational n tions
Rational ne alities
Rational N ers
Re le ive roperty
Real N ers
Roots
2, olyno ials i.e., eros
8 Radi al R les
8 Rationali ing the eno inator
8 i pli ying are Roots
ienti i Notation
8 Adding and tra ting
Conversion to and ro e i als
or at
ltiplying and ividing
e en es
Arith eti
e initions
i ona i e en e
eo etri

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 Algebra Handbook
Index

Page Subject

eries
8 Arith eti
e initions
2 eo etri
pe ial , e, es
ation or las
ation Notation and roperties
igns
igns o Added or tra ted N ers
igns o ltiplied or ivided N ers
ing lar atri
lope
lope o a ine ‐ 8 Variations
lope o a ine ‐ athe ati al e inition
lope o a ine ‐ Rise over R n
8 lope‐ nter ept or o a ine
lopes o arallel and erpendi lar ines
2 ta ed olyno ial ethod o ltiplying ino ials
ta ed olyno ial ethod o ltiplying olyno ials
8 tandard or o a ine
2 tatisti al eas res
tirling s or la
stit tion roperty
ation S
or las
Notation and roperties
y etri roperty
yntheti ivision
yntheti ivision ‐ Co parison to ong ivision
0 yntheti ivision ‐ ro ess
yste s o E ations
2 Classi i ation
Eli ination ethod
raphing a ol tion
0 stit tion ethod
yste s o ne alities ‐ o i ensions
0 ra e o a atri

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 Algebra Handbook
Index

Page Subject

rans or ations
ilding a raph
ori ontal tret h and Co pression
2 Re le tion
ary
2 ranslation
0 Verti al tret h and Co pression
ranspose o a atri
ransitive roperty
Whole N ers
2, eros o olyno ials

Version 3.5 Page 187 of 187 October 17, 2022