TITLE PAGE

FORMULATION OF ARTIST PAINT

 ABSTRACT

This study was carried out principally for the formulation of artist paint using

available raw materials. Paint simplified is a material which may be applied to surfaces

in relatively thin layers and which changes to a solid and may occur by evaporation of

solvents, by chemical reaction or by combination of the two. Artist paint is the paint used

by artists to do their paintings. These paints comprises of the water color paint, poster

color paint, oil paint, acrylic paint and so on. The method generally used in this work

was first, the collection of pigment of different colors, grinding the gypsum and then

mixing of the substances. After which the substances was thoroughly stirred for proper

mixture and so as to obtain finely non-granulled paint. The product is much highly

efficient than individual paints. And it is cheaper to operate from this project. It is quite

possible to harness our natural endowment that will compete prodigiously with one

produced abroad, hence, our artists will do her expensive painting and the need to import

artist’s paints will be avoided.

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Properties of Artist Paint

1.2 Aim and Objective

1.3 Statement of Problem

1.4 Justification of Study

1.5 Limitation of the Study

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Literature Review

2.1 Kinds of Artist Paint

2.2 Properties of the Backbone Composition of Artist Paint

2.3 The Backbone Composition

2.4 The Characteristics Features of the Backbone Composition of Artist Paint

2.5 Principles Guiding an Effective Artist Paint Formulation

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Methodology

3.1 Raw Materials and Equipment

3.2 Formulation

3.3 Percentage Measurement of Materials Used

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Results/Discussion

4.1 Results

4.2 Discussion

4.3 Observations
CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 Conclusion and Recommendation

5.1 Conclusion

5.2 Recommendation

5.3 Reference
 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Paints usually consists of finely powdered insoluble materials, chiefly pigments,

(which contributes opacity, color, and hardness and bulk to the film, suspended in a

liquid binding medium known as a vehicle or binder, and a solvent or thinner which

controls the consistency.

1.1 PROPERTIES OF ARTIST PAINT

Artist paints, water color in particular are made by grinding in a gum Arabic

binding medium, together with certain necessary modifying ingredients. Clycerine and

honey or sugar syrup (plasticizers) are often added in order to keep the colors from

becoming mouldy and a wetting agent (such as ox gall) to make the colors “ take” well

and spread uniformly on the paper. The proposition of the binder to the pigment is

carefully balanced to give the pain, the exact correct properties. Upon application of the

paints, the tiny grains of pigment become embedded in the coarse meshes of the paper,

and this action is of as much importance in holding the color to the paper as he adhesive

action of the gum binder.

The careful balance of the modifying ingredients in artist paint is necessary not

only to give the correct working properties, but to ensure the proper balance of solubility

that is the dried layer of a good artist paint must be sufficiently resistant so that

subsequent brush strokes will not pick it up. On the other hand, the paint should not be so

insoluble that one cannot soften or run into it. Acqueous paints contain much less surplus

binder. Unlike oil paint, the bulk of the paint – the water –evaporates completely on

drying, leaving the pigment particles exposed partially to the air. This is not only causes

brightness of lives and a mathe effect, but also eliminate a good many ill to which
improperly painted oils are subject. However to achieve a performance a different set of

precaution is necessary, because the colors are inherently less resistant to atmospheric

conditions.

Water colors paintings leaves a very thin layer of pigment particles sufficiently held

together to be a permanent coating. This thin layer or film, in contrast to the heavy of oil

paint’s defects, such as cracking, peeling or blistering even so watercolors can be just

oils if properly preserved.

In other to produced artist paint, many factors need to be considered.

They include;

- composition

- condition of watercolor paint in the container

- viscosity

- opacity and spreading rate

- drying time

- Fastness to light i.e. the paint shall have little or no color change.

- Financers of curing i.e. when tested using “Hegman lange”, the paint shall be

finely ground to a max of less than 10 mirons (-10um)

- Bend tester: when tested the paint film shall not show cracking or loss of

adusion.

- Resistant to mould, insects.

The artists paint has to be formulated such that its composition has to be one that

performs its specific functions under the stated condition.

1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVE

This work is aimed at developing an economic and indigenous way of producing

artist paint using local /available raw materials in the best interest of small scale
industries thereby conserving the foreign exchange earnings. Also, to provide an

alternative source of raw materials for the formulation of artist pa int. This will in a very

large measure and in minimizing the importation from abroad.

Finally, an attempt is made at formulating specific brands of artist paint from

available raw materials using standard procedure.

1.3 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

This study centers on the formulation of artist paint (watercolors) from available

raw/local materials. In Nigeria all artist paints in use today are imported either as

finished or semi- finished product. Even the ones attempted to be formulated locally are

still based on synthetic raw materials which are also imported. This is rather unfortunate

considering the numerous natural sources locally available from which the basic raw

materials for the production of artist paint can be obtained.

Due to the increasing interest by art students and people who love art work

(paintings)alike, in the country, the nee artist for its production from local or available

raw materials like gypsum, honey, gum aerobic, pigment (natural)and so on, in order to

reduce the cost of buying from abroad and subsequent importation into the country.

1.4 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

This work is designed towards providing an alternative source of raw materials

for the formulation of artists point. This will in a very large measure aid in minimum if

not stopping entirely, the present importation syndrome which does not only constitute a

severe drain in our economy but also turn our country into feile dumping ground for

substandard quality and even very expensive artists paint making art painting expensive
to purchase, and it will create job opportunities for the producers even the graduate in he

country.

1.5 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

This work is limited to the use of available raw materials for study. This work is

also limited to the study by traveling to places like Asaba where gypsum is located Ekiti

and Kano where raw pigment is gotten, Lagos etc where the materials needed are

naturally located. The scope was also limited by problem of proximity, that is getting

through to the foreign manufacturers was not possible for me and there are no known

factories in Nigeria that manufacturers artists paints so as to get the appropriate /standard

specifications for formulation. This work was limited by time factor; with examination

approaching and intensified constant lectures one has to battle with the problem of

limited time in carrying out the research that would have given it a perfect finish.
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Paint making is a large and often dry subject, a Sahara of facts. In paint making,

“water color” or artist paint, refers to painting done on a special hand –made rag paper

with pigments very finely ground in a binding medium composed of an aqueous solution

of gum Arabic. In watercolor and other water paints, as the name implies, the only

“thinner” is water

2.1 KINDS OF ARTIST PAINT

A. Water –Soluble Paints

Aqueous media are divided into two main groups those forming films which can

be readily dissolved again when water is applied to them

-those when dry are resistant to resolution in water.

In the first group are such paints as transparent watercolor or aquarelle gouache (which is

watercolor containing a white pigment), “size or distemper a color” (which is the term

for gelatins or purified glue, this is an independent medium and pigments that are usually

mixed with white to form opaque paint). These employs binders as gums or starches

which do not undergo any chemical changes en they dry or dissolve, but instead dry only

by the evaporation of the water content of the paint. In the second group are the various

tempera paints which change their chemical composition as they dry and so become

relatively water resistant after they harden. The binders of these materials usually consist

of a combination of an adhesive material, oil and water Troche J. H 1971.

B. Water – Resistant Paints

 Casein, a powdered protein made from milk is a blinder and an adhesive of

grounds made under scientifically controlled conditions. It is a cacheable and a

permanent binding material which has been successful aqueous paints. Casein powder is

not soluble in water. When treated with certainty, equaling tempera in this respect

tempera is the term used to designate water – thinned paints which dry to a somewhat

water proof or at least water resistant, state troche J.N. 1971.

C. Emulsions.

An emulsion is a combination of two liquids which in the ordinary sense cannot

be mixed, such as oil and water. If these are stirred together, drops of one will suspired

in the other. If nothing is done, the drops will eventually come together, and the two

liquids will again separate. To prevent this emulsifying agent is introduced into the

mixture, and this has the effect of surrounding or suspending the drops, and preventing

their coalescing. According to troche J.N. in her book when an emulsion dries it becomes

insoluble in water.

D. Oil paint

Oil paints consists of finally divided pigment particles evenly dispersed in an oil medium

which in drying, forms a continuous adherent film. Linseed oil a so – called drying oil is

usually voluble for oil painting as it allows the color to be applied and to spread out. It

can also be said to be a paint varnish and which by the oxidation or polymerization of the

binder, as opposed to water paints in which the binder an emulsified oil dispersed in

water and which dry initially by evaporation oil distempers which are bound with such

materials as casein or glue size and which dry by the evaporation of the water content,

emulsion paints which are bound by the coalescence of synthetic resion particles etc.

cooler J.N. (Dictionary of painting and decorating).

E. Casein protein of cheese is produced for artist’s colors from milk curdled by

rennet. It is insoluble in water, but can be dissolved by the addition of a little

ammonia, potash, or time. When it hardens, casein becomes insolvable again.

Troche J. N. 1971. Paints made by printing pigments casein solution are used for

permanent painting in the gouache manner and also in mural painting in the

fresco manner. Casein solutions are also used as tempera ingredients. They

emulsify readily with waxes, resins and vegetable oils. However, most authorities

contend that casein is inferior to glue as a sizing material and binder for grounds

because of its tendency to become bottle with age. Many paints also rate it below

the Arabic of watercolor or gouache paint in manipulative qualities (Ralp. 1948)

F. Aqueous Acrylic Paints

The Acrylic polymer Emulsion (case medium) the base medium, sold under

various trade names, is perhaps the most versatile of the acrylic materials. A milky –

white liquid, it is used as a blinder, glaze, color vehicle or adhesive and sometime all of

these at the same time. The base medium can be used by or combined with other acrylic

materials such as acrylic colors, gesso or gel, to achieve varied textures, thick impastos,

glazes and transparent opaque effects experiment with the base medium in as many ways

as you can think of, you can use it alone, combine it with acrylic material and so on.

When mixed with acrylic colors the base medium allows great color intensity

because of its clarity and light – refractive powers one can vary the degree transparency

by mixing different proportions of pigment with the base medium. Aqueous medium

normally produce matte effects which can be converted to a gloss by varnish one can

achieve surface reflections ranging from dull to a bright finish. Glazes of any degree of

thickness and transparency are possible with the base medium and produce luminosity

that cannot be achieved using other materials. If gel is added to the base medium –
acrylic color mixture, you can build up transparent or translucent impassion. (al et also

lengthens the drying time of the paint film) troche J.N. 1971 by using the acrylic medium

as a valuable in which to grind colors, you can make you own paint. This especially

useful if you want to achieve special textures and colors effects. To achieve this one has

to the color with a palette knife into the base medium on a glass plate, using little or on

water so you will be sure of obtaining paints with prohaper the raid drying properties. Oil

painters find that they often have to want days or even weeks they can over paint, but

with the acrylic base medium over painting can be done in as little as 20 minutes for thin

layers and 1 to 2 hours for impostors however, “fat over lean” paints as in oil painting

need not be used. Once dry, the binder thought out the painting is identical, thereby

eliminating anything which could produce stresses in the film. When dry the base

medium is impervious to water, light, acids and gases, through acetone and lot will

dissolve it the base medium has be tested under extreme conditions for permanency. It

dries waterproof is flexible, and non – yellowing as well. The medium remains in prefect

suspension and atmospheric moisture will not harm it. In addition the base medium is

non – toxic to the skin and non – inflammable which makes it an ideal material for young

children as well as adults. (Troche 1971)

Aqueous Acrylic colors

In the acrylic polymer emulsion scale are pigments with complete thematic range

in opaque and transparent colors and the base medium in its wet stay is actively alkaline.

Alizarin crimson has a base which is reactive with the alkaline medium and

would solidify in time the jar. Viridian has a tendency to cause emulsion to back down.

Zinc white, like alizarin, is reactive with the medium.

In place of alizarin naphtha IIR crimson has the same hue, but it is brighter in

color and actually light resistant.

The following is a partial list of read – to used acr – water – base color, those pigments

be transparent or opaque depend upon how one needs to use them

YELLOW Yellow light, Hausa (py3) Yellow medium, azo

Cadmium Yellow medium Yellow Orange

Cadmium Orange
Orange
Naphthol DTR red light PR 170
Red Indo Orange Red Napthol TTR Cormson Acra (R)
Red
Red Onlide etc.

Cerulean blue
Blue Phthalo cyanine blue Rs cobalt blue
Ultimarine blue

Hookers green
Green Light green Oxide green
Phythalocyanine green BS

Ara (R) Violet

Purple Dioxazine purple

Burnt Umber
Brown Burnt sienna PBr7
Raw sienna PBr7
Raw Umber.

Mars black (troche J.N. 1971

Black

Below are the structural formulas of few of the colors mentioned above.

CH3 – C – CH – N = - N=N – CH –C – CH3

O=C N
N C=O cl cl
N
N
A ZO orange pigment (Dichlorbenzidine orange)

O R R
H

R R HO C N R

R N=N R R

Fig 2.2

Naphohol red pigments R = H, cl, och3, NO2, etc.

Herman f. mark et al 1970

(Herman F. market al 1970)

2.2. PROPERTIES OF THE BACKBONE COMPOSITION OF ARTIST PAINT

A paints behaviour depends on the six fundamental pigment attributes –

i. Chemical composition

ii. Particle size

iii. Refractive index

iv. Specific gravity

v. Dispensability and

vi. Tinting strength

These effect the specific vehicle recipe or backbone composition used by the paint

manufacture, which determines finished paints transparency, staining, granulation and

actively wet in wet.

Tvery paints is a mixture of microscopic pigment particles, which provide the paints

color, mixed in a liquid paint vehicle that holds the pigment in suspension, allows it to be
 applied with a brush, then dries to bind it to the support (paper, board or canvas). The

vehicle also contains other substance that adjusts the visual appearance and handling

attributes of the paint, increase its shelf, life, and reduce manufacturing costs (Bruce M.

E. 2004).

2.3 THE BACKBONE COMPOSITION

To develop a preparatory backbone composition a base recipe of pigment and

vehicle ingredient than tweaks the exact proportions of this recipe to address the

sometimes competing requirements of imposed by the costs, particle size, permanency,

dispensability, tinting strength, etc. of different pigments.

The backbone composition of modern watercolors usually includes most or all of

the following ingredients

i. One more pigment, and sometime

ii. A brightener, transparent or “white” crystals that lighten the value and increase

the chroma if the dried paints, dispersed in a vehicle or medium consisting of

iii. Binder, traditionally and still commonly gum serabic but sometime a synthetic

glycol or dextrin

iv. Plasticizer, usually glycerin, to soften the dried gum erabic and help it redissolve

v. Humectants, simple syrup or honey but now often the sugar source corn syrup, to

help the paint retain moisture

vi. Extender or filler, such as dextrin, used to bulk out or thicken the paint without

noticeably affecting the color

vii. Manufacturing additives in particular dispersants to prevent clumping of the row

pigment and to assist in milling (mixing) the pigment and vehicle ingredients, and

a preservative or fungicide to suppress the growth of mould or bacteria and

viii. Water which dissolves or suspends all the ingredients, carries them onto the

paper, and evaporates when its work is done.

Paints most obviously vary in viscosity (from pasty to runny) but there are wide

and invisible differences in the amount and kind of additives in the vehicles.

A SCHEMATIC BACKBONE COMPOSITION OF MODERN ARTIST

PAINT.

PIGMENT

BRIGHTENER

VEHICLE
EXTENDER (DEXTRIN)

BINDER (GUM ARABIC)

DISPERSANT
PLACTICIZER (GLYCEMINE)

WATER
HUMECTANT (CORNSYRUP)

These ingredients are described below. The backbone composition is the foundation for

the manufacturer’s brand style and quality standards. (Bruce M.E. 2004)

2.4 CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF THE BACKBONE COMPOSITION

OF ARTIST PAINT

A PIGMENT
 Pigment are insoluble substances in finely divided form which impart color and

opacity to paint, paint, they may also possess some other property such as the power to

inhibit rusting, resistance to heat, resistance to some specific form of chemical attack,

and so on, which enhance their value for some particular purpose pigment can also be

said to be solid chemicals with appealing or useful color attributes that do not dissolve in

water paint are a dispersion of tiny pigment practical suspended in the vehicle just as the

Mississippi is a suspension of dirt, clay and effluent in water.(bruce M. E. 2004, p 3). All

professional quality tube and pan water color are made with pigments.

In contrast, a dye is completely soluble (dissolves) in water and binds directly

with the materials it contacts (through a mediating chemical called a mordant must often

be present to make this bond happened). Some brands of liquid artist paint or brilliant

water colors are made with DYES.

As the same mass or quantity of pigment is divided into smaller and smaller

particles total surface area of the pigment particles increases exponentially, which greatly

increases the amount of vehicle (and the proportion of water and dispersant in the vehicle

recipe) necessary to completely wet (disperse) the pigment. Strongly tinting pigments

especially dark pigment such as the phtjalocynines or dioxozine violet – must such as the

more vehicle (and the proportion of extenders or fillers in the vehicle recipe is increased)

to make the color intensity and mixing strength comparable with other paints.

Pigments that are both finely divided and strongly tinting are usually formulated with the

largest proportion of vehicle and filler.

Paints made with softer pigments such as ultramarine blue or the cadmiums,

which have a larger particle size and lower tinting strength but tend to cake or clump

during milling will short wet in wet simple because more dispersant was used to

accelerate the mixing of pigment and vehicle

PIGMENT TYPES

All pigments can be classified according to two criteria: whether the pigments are

1. Natural or synthetic, and

2. Inorganic or organic

1. The term natural means that the pigment molecule is extracted from a mineral,

plant or animal source that occurs in nature, and is only modified by grinding,

washing, filtering or heating, while synthetic means that the molecule was

originally assembled or significantly modified by an indusial process.

2. Inorganic means that the pigment is mineral compound, typically an oxide or

sulfide of one or more metal or rare earth elements; organism means that the

pigment contains carbon in combination primary with hydrogen, nitrogen or

oxygen. (Note that many modern organic pigments are not found in living things.

The two criteria can be combined to define for pigment categories.

 Natural inorganic metal or earth pigment extracted from natural mineral deposits.

 Synthetic inorganic metal or earth pigments created by combing raw chemicals

and ores through industrial manufacture

 Natural organic, pigments made as extracts from animal or plant matter.

 Synthetic organic, carbon based pigment, often made from petroleum compounds

that mimic life based colorants.

Today, with very few exceptions all commercial artists’ paints use synthetic

pigments.

The proportion of pigment to Vehicle in tube paints

This generally ranges from less than 10% to around 20% of total volume for a

finally divided, strong pigment such as the phthalocyanines,

 Red quinacridones dioxazine violet or
alizarine crimson
Form 20% 3% for
Prussion blue carbon blacks the “raw”
(uncalculated) black and red oxides
zinc white
Ultramarine blue yellow quinacridones
benzinidazolones and most other
synthetic organic pigments.
From 30% 40% for The yellow iron oxides viridian
ultramarine deep blue ultramarine violet
and the finer grained cobalt pigments
(blue, cerulean, turquoise, green)
From 40% 50% for The cadmium yellows cobalt violet
and “burt” (calculate) red any yellow
iron oxides
And 50% or more for Cadmium Orange the cadmium reds
mange violet and manganese blue.
(Bruce M.E 2004)

CHEMICAL OF PIGMENTS

So for one can deduct that bulk of the paint is the pigment without pigment in a

paint no color no paint.

Water Paints Comes In The Forms;

- hard in small pans or cakes and

- moist in tubes

for regular paint the moist tubes are preferred moist manufacture produce “student color”

and ‘artists’ color” the following is a listing of watercolor pigments that are rated for

permanence
 WHITE Zinc Oxide poo4
Titanium oxide p106

YELLOW Aurolin (cobalt yellow)

Cadmium yellow call shades)
Hansa yellow py97
Mar yellow
Raw sienna PB7
Yellow Ochre PY43

ORANGE Cadmium Orange

Mar Orange

RED Cadmium red

Alizarin crimson
Earth reds (Venetion, indiant English, etc.)
Mar red. Etc.

Ultramarine blue
BLUE Cobalt blue
Phthalocyanine blue
Manganese blue etc.

Cobalt violet
VIOLET Ultramarine Violet
Mars violet

Viridian
GREEN Chrome Oxide
Terre Verte

Umber, raw and burnt

BROWN Sienna, raw and burnt
Burnt green earth
Mars brown.

Ivory black
BLACK Lamp black
Mars black.

Paint’s grey, in the high grade prepared artist paints is a permanent pigment valued as a

useful and convenient” colors by some painters.

In pigment application durability is of prime importance and whites the best of

the monoazo pigments have satisfactory light fastness, to solvent is decient. A higher

level of fastness, arise from disazo pigments such as in (23) below. In recent years ciba –
geigy of Germany have favoured the preparation of high molecular weight pigment with

their chromophtha pigments. In these a marked increase in molecular weight is brought

about at the least stage of the preparation. This is achieved by reacting the acid chloride

of an carboxylic acid, typically 2,5-dichloro – aniline 2 – hydroxy – 3 –

naphthoic acid, with benzidine in a high boiling solvents, the product is seen in 2.5

below

DIAGRAM

Water – insoluble azo compounds possess high tinctional strength and soft texture and

are thus suitable for use as pigments for paint and plastic media c pgs 687 -688 materials

and technology volume iv) they are mainly useful in the yellow red region of

the spectrum, these slades are available yellow, pyrazolones (yellow – orange) and so

The structure above is one of the hausa yellows of major importance G 5a,10g, 13G,

and a recently patented more light fast type known as dalamar yellow (8) they are formed

by the coupling of substituted other introanitines and acetoanitness and

acetoacetaryhides.

DIAGRAM

Nicked Azo yellow is a nickel – compered azo pigment in which 2,4-

dihydroxyguinoline is the couling component (herman f. mark et al 1970 – enuylopedia

of polymer science and tech.)

PREPARATION OF SOME PIGMENTS

Some pigment colors can be produced through the following chemical reactions
Orange the important insoluble azo arrange pigment are dischlorozenzidine orange,

dianisidine orange etc.

Dichlorbenzidine and 3 – methyl – 1- phenyl – 5- pyrazolone.

DIAGRAM

dichlorobenzidine orange

dianisidine orange (2.8) is prepared by coupling 3,3 – dimethonlybenzidine and

acetoacetanilide.

DIAGRAM

Tolyl orange (2.9) results from the coupling of 3,3 – dichlorobenzidine and 3 – methyl –

1- tolyl – 5- pyrazolone. It has slightly better properties than dichlorobenzidine orange,

especially in its light fastness and solvent resistance

Diagram

Reds: insolution red azo colorants dichloro benzidine (pyrazolone) red, para and

chlorinated para reds naphthols and toluidines.

Chlorinated para red and para red are prepared by either coupling p – nitroaniline or o –

chloro p – nitroaniline to B – naphtol As a class of insloutble azo colorants, they are

characterized by extremely vivid shades of yellow reds to scarlets

Diagram

- Yellow – yellow B – Aminoanthraquinone condensation pigment (17). This pigment

(2.11) is produced by condension if two moles of B – aminoan – thraquinone with one

mole of phthalyl dichloride it has a reddish – yellow hue. Although its properties

DIAGRAM

Limit its use in polmer systems it is widely used in the spin dycing of cellulose acetates,

in altged resins cellulose nitrate, and poly (vinglacetate later paints

TESTS FOR PIGMENTS

ASTM D 153 – 54 (1966) Specific Gravity of pigments

ASTM D 279 – 31 (1963) Blessing of pigments
ASTM D 387 - 60 (1960) Mass color and tinting strength color pigments
ASTM D 963 – 65 (1965) Standard specifications for copper phthalocyanine
Blue (specification includes tests for
Gystallization and flocculation).

ASTM D 1210 – 64 (1964) Fineness of Dispersion of pigment vehicle

systems.

British standard 3483 (1962) Oil absorption Dispersion of pigment

British standard 3483 (1962) Hiding Power
British standard 3483 (1962) Fastness to light scale for pigments
International Organization standard
R105 part 1 Hiding power scale for pigments
IOSR105 Solvent staining scale for pigments
IOSR105 part 2 Fastness to light scale for pigments

Table 2.1

Herman F mark et al 1970) in their book made to understand that stable dispersions of

pigments must be prepared. However to do research, acknowledges of many aspects of

colloid chemistry is desirable. These exist in paints as colloids is essential, and

knowledge of the processes of wetting and adsorption is required.

Up to this point those factors concerning protection and decoration have been

considered since decoration and protection are the common purpose for coating.

Pigment Particle Size

Most pigments are manufactured to a specific particle size which cannot be

modified by addition and milling by the paint manufacturer. But particle size is not a

simple attribute. Most pigment s champ or flocculate into larger chunks called aggregates

(cluster of particles) or agglomerates (clump of aggregates), this vary with the quality
and methods of pigment, manufacture and the dispensability of the pigment, and these

clumps can be reduced by more extensive milling by the paint manufacture Bruce M.E

(2004) in his work made it obvious that pigment particles size ,/affect the transparency

and mixing characteristics of the pigment in specific applications the table (2.2) below

gives the average particles size for common pigments used in watercolor paints in

microns (micrometers). i.e. “NM” is one millionth of a meter, or 0.000036 inches.

1mm 10- 3 .
500mm .
100mm 10-4 .
50mm Cobalt violet
Manganese blue
10mm 10-5 Cobalt green

microns meters Representative pigments

Cobalt turguoise
Cerulean blue
Manganese violet

5m Ultramarine blue (Rs)

Viridian
Cobalt blue

1mm 10-6 Ultramarine blue (GS)

Violet (brown) ion Oxides
Normal iron blue

0.5mm Semiopaque
Synthetic organis
Diarylides
Perylenes
Naphthols
Perinone orange
Chromium Oxide green
Black iron Oxidies etc.
0.1mm
10- 7 Semitransparent
Synthetic organic
Acrylides
Benzimidazolones
Dioxazines
Bismuth yellow etc.
 0.05mm Transparent
Synthetic Organics
Quinacoidones
Transparent red iron oxides
Transparent yellow iron Oxides
Transparent cobalt blue

0.01m 10- 8 Carbon black

Transparent iron blue
0.0015 10 – 9 Glucose (corn syrup) molecules

0.0003mm 10- 10 Water molecule

PIGMENT PARTICLE SIZE

TABLE (2.2)

However, one should note that the particle measurement s are approximate and

represent, the average of a distribution of sizes, the shape of pigment particular varies

widely across type of a chemical s size characterizations can be arbitrary.

The size of pigment particle depends on methods of manufacture. All pigment

particular tend to clump into aggregates or agglomerates, which may be 5 to 50times

larger than the individual pigment particular. Particular size is responsible for several

important different in pigment characteristics Across different in watercolor pigment,

smaller Particles size in general characterize pigment that are more transparent more

staining, and more strongly tinting x within the same watercolor, pigment ,smaller

particular size[down to a limiting size] of approximately 0.5mm or the wave length of

light) tend to make the pigment less saturated and lighter value [in oils and acrylics;

smaller particular size makes the pigment more transport and up to appoint more

saturated; as the particles are entirely embedded in the dried paint vehicle ;which

reduces light scattering at the particle ‘surface]

B. BRIGTTINER
 This is a more highly refracting substances added into the artist paint to enhance the

luminosity or chrome of the finished color. These includes,

 Aluminum cryohydrate [aluminum trihydroxide]

 Titanium dioxide or

 Micronized barium sulfate[blanc fixed]

The particles size and specific gravity of brighteners is usually similarly to the

pigment ,so they do not separate from the pigment when the paint is mixed with

water.

It is possible with a microchip examination of draw down samples to determine

whether the paint contains a significant amount of filler and/or brightener the largest

particles are visible as clear, colorless. Chunks .mixed in with the pigment. It is not

possible to judge the relative amount of addition by this method alone .excessive

amount of brightener can impart a whitish or sparkly appearances to the dried

paint ,or can forma , a thin, Whitish coating on top of the dried paint in a drying and

rewetting test. They can also compromise the light fastness or permeate of the color.

According to Bruce M.E [2004] in his book, the most reliable method to assess. Paint

formulations is the tinting test which directly revels the proportion and the quality

pigment used in the paint ,no matter what other additive are present.

In the past , brightener were community found in watercolor is a ref

lection both of consumer preferences water color for birth color and completive

cost pressures .the best brand , if they use such additives balance operating costs,

profits, paint handling characteristics, consumer preferences and finished color in

developing their formulation.

C. BINDER
 Binder is an adhesive material which binds together the particles of pigment in

any type of paint, holding them in suspension while the paint wet and then drying to

form a skin which keeps the particles together that holds them firmly to the surface. The

binder usually determines the name of a medium.

Linseed oil for egg tempera

Egg white or yolk for egg tempera

Acrylic polymer emulsion for acrylic paints

Watercolors are named for their solvent, water, and historically have used a

variety of gums, starches or animal glues as binder. In European painting since from the

solidified sap of thorny, shrubby acacia trees (species acacia Arabic or Acacia Senegal).

Gum Arabic was originally exported from middle faster sources harvesting done

by subsistence farmer in arid regions of North Africa – the Sudan and Chad alone

provide roughly 85% of the total world supply, hence the alternative names gum Sudan

or gum kordofan for the product. (Gum Senegal is considered superior but it is currently

produced in limited quantities and is hard to identify by appearance alone). As with

commercial manufacture skin a tiny portion of global gum Arabic production, which is

used as an emulsifier or digestible coating in the soft drinks, processed foods, cosmetics

and pharmaceutical industries. Recent civil wards (in Dafur and elsewhere) drought and

firewood harvesting in Africa have substantially reduced native acacia forest and

gum production and this has more that doubled the price of high quality gum

Arabic on world markets [Bruce.M E.2004]

Gum is a PH neutral salt of acidic polysaccharides which are type of sugar or

carbohydrate), the gum may include potassium or magnesium -but the primary

component is calcium. Gum Arabic is sticky when wet and quite hard and transparent

when dry – in that respect like household sugar. Pure gum Arabic dissolves in water
more slowly than ordinary sugar, but it is suggested to let the dried gum soak in water

overnight.

In raw form, gums are sometime found as yellow or brownish glassy beads or

“tears”, about the size of lentils. But it is gotten in dried form as a powder or coarse

grains, which are easier to dissolve in water. The best gums have a clear, pale honey

colors in solution with vary little or no visible sediment or resident. Impure or low grade

gums will contain neutral salt of acidic polsaccarides. The figure below shows the

farming of the gum acacia in Senegal.

PICTURE

D. HUMECTANTS

The is as well known as carbohydrate moistener, either in sugar syrup (nowadays

glucose, in the form of corn syrup) or honey. Clycerin which is added into the paint dry

out relatively quickly, even in tube paints however, to counteract this, humectants is also

adapt into it.

These sweet carbohydrates are hydroscopic – they tend to absorb and retain water from

the atmosphere which makes the paints considerably easier to redissolve once they have

dried, and extends the life of the paint in the tube.

Humectants extend the paint drying time so that washes can be manipulated more

easily, and they may increase the staining action of paint by prolonging the capillary

action that pulls small pigment particles deep between the paper fibers (that is cohesion).

Honey is more effective than corn syrup at retaining water (in fact, honey will crystallize

but never dries out), but it is also roughly 14 times more expensive. If too much honey is

used in a paint, thick or concentrated paint layers will remain sticky after they dry, and

may reabsorb moisture on humid days, damaging the painting. Used in excess, the sugars

will also attract insects or mold. (Bruce. M.E. 2004)

E. FILLER

As larger amounts of glycerin and gum Arabic are added to the paint for example,

in strongly tinting or finely divided pigment – the paints texture becomes stringy or

taffylike, the gloss of the paint increase, and the paint bronzes more readily. These paints

tend o lift (redissolve) to easily from the paper, which can lead to undesired blurring,

bleeding or lifting of color areas when new paint is applied over or alongside than.

To counteract these problems, many artist paint are formulated with a colorless,

inert filler added to thicken the paint and to make the various pigment and vehicle

mixtures within a watercolor line of similar consistency. Filler is also used to subdue

intensely

Tingly pigment such as the phyalocyanines or quinacridones, or simply to reduce the

proportion of costly pigment such as the paint.

The most commonly used fillers dextrin – clear, gelatinous processed wheat or

corn starch which thickens paint, alter the taffy like vehicle to a smooth, buttery

consistency, and reduces surface gloss or bronzing in the dried color sometimes

conservative grade, water soluble adhesives – including funori, a gelatinous

polysaccharide extracted from a type of Japanese seaweed (genus gloiopeltis) or

carrageen an – are used for the same purpose. Dextrin also acts as a binder in

combination with coring place of) gum Arabic.

Dextrin can also be used as an extender, to bulk out the paint and cut down on the

amount of costly pigment used, especially in cobalt and cadmium paints. However, if too

much dextrin is used, the paint will dry to a dull, matte finish and will be prone to

flaking. When this occurs a finely powdered, transparent filler (such as Kaolin or China

Clay, Calcium Carbonate or gypsum) may be used as well. (Bruce M.E 2004). In some
cases – pigments that are dark or intensely staining, or concentrations (such as the

cadmium M.S.) attributes or color appearance of the paint.

F. OTHER ADDITIVES

They are also known as manufacturing additives

They are:

a. Wetting agent

b. Ox gall

c. Preservative

d. Alcohol

i. Wetting agent or dispersant is the most common of these manufacturing additives

that accelerates and improves the mixing (wetting and dispersing) of the pigment

in the water base vehicles, much the same way as dispersants can be used a labor

saving chart cut in any paint, but they are common in finely divided or water

repelling synthetic pigments such as carbon black, pthaloycyanines, alizarin

crimson, transparent iron Oxides and Prussian blue – which is the iron compound

of the Ferro cyanide radical (Fe CN)6]” and contain also an alkali metal or

ammonia – and in soft cake pigments such as the cadmiums or ultramarine blue.

(Below is the structural formulary of the synthetic pigments)

ii. Ox gall: (the yellowish extract of dried bovine gall bladders) was and still is

commonly used for this purpose, but synthetic surfactants are sometimes used

instead.

iii. Preservative: or fungicide this is added in small quantity trilobite the growth of

mold in the tube and on the palette or the finished painting, especially when

significant amount of sugar or honey are used in the formulation.

iv. Alcohol: though this is not a standard watercolor ingredient, it is sometime added

by artist to improve the wetting action of washes or shorten the drying time in

dap or cool conditions.

G Water

Artist paint are manufactured with excess water in the vehicles as this reduces the

viscosity of the vehicles and decreases the amount of time (labor) and electrical energy

necessary to mill the paint. Water is also sometimes added to the paint during milling to

counteract evaporation.

Creating an effective artist paint (water color) vehicles is a complex balancing

act. Each ingredient contributes its own benefits and dranvacks to the formulation of the

paint and the best formulation are based on considerable manufacturing experience,

according to Bruce M.E. (2004) in his book, and consistently maintained quality

2.5 PRINCIPLES GUIDING AN EFFECTIVE ARTIST PAINT FORMULATION

A. PAINT TESTING

All paint material is subjected to vigorous testing by the manufactures to ensure

the maintenance of the quality of existing lines and to develop new products with

improved properties. Tests are carried out under actual normal working conditions

which pertain on the site, in addition, a number of techniques have been involved for

testing some specific aspect of a paints performance and for proding a reasonably

reliable assessment of its properties without a great deal of delay the following are some

of the test in common use.

B. Durability

The disability of a paint is tested on small paints placed on exposure racks in

various parts of the country and subjected to the effects of the sum, rain, frost, etc.
Because of the length of time required to gain information by this method, use is also

mode of accosted weathering test weathering test in which the paints are placed in a

rotating drum and exposed to a constant succession of ultra violet radiation from a

carbon or and saturation with a water spray in order to similar rapidly the conditions

leading to breakdown.

C. Viscosity

This is tested by means of the flow cup in which the rate of flow through a

standard sized hole is measured, or by a torsion viscometer or paddle viscometer in

which a cylinder on wire or a paddle is immersed in the material, or by a falling ball

viscometer in which the passage of a metal ball through the material is timed.

D Opacity:

The hiding power of a paint is tested on cards or board divided into chequered or

storied patters in black and white, or by the used of opacity meters or by means of a

device where by a tapering space between two glass plates is filled with paint and the

point at which the material cease to be transparent is molted.

E. Color.

Compassion of color are made with the human are which is more sensitive than

instruments although for source purpose use is also made of colorimeter or spectra

photometers.

F. Drying time:
 This is tested by sprinting a painted surface with sand and noting at what point

the sand can be dusted off without injury to the surface. Use is also made of a device

known as a mechanical thumb which simulates the twisting action of the human thumb

pressed down on painted surface. The drying time may also ascertained by a form of

scratch test in which point needled is drown through a paint the film ceases to flow

together is noted.

G. Hardness:

This is tested by a form of scratch test in which weight of increasing value are

place on a needle traveling access the paint film until scoring takes place, another

instrument for the purpose is a hardness rocker, which consists of two hoops, a pendulum

and a calibrated scale, the number of pendulum swings being covering by the tackiness

or otherwise of the surface the mechanical thumb is used.

H. Adhesion and Elasticity

These are measured by means of the bend rest in which a strip of painted metal is

bent around a higher or by a drop test in which weights are dropped on to a painted

panel. A simple test is to score the surface with a knife or coin.

Water Resistance

Tests are used to note low much water is absorbed by a paint film and also to

what extent the paint allows the passage of moisture.

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 METHODOLOGY

Once a paint manufacture has assembled the necessary raw ingredients, the

methods of mixing paints have remained relatively constant for over a century. Today
larger machine and manufacturing line can produce greater quantities of paint, but for

basic steps remain the same:

i. Finishing the pigments by added grinding

ii. Premixing the materials,

iii. Milling the premixed paste and

iv. Packaging the paint.

This is achieved with the small batch method using a three roller machine.

3.1 RAW MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT.

REAGENTS RAW MATERIALS

PIGMENTS (synthetic) – 4 colors Honey
Formaldehyde Gypsum and cassava starch
Titanium dioxide (in place of white wheat starch
Crum
Iriethoholamiu
Water

Equipment

 A three roller machine

 Beaker

 Weighting Balance

 Dispersing Machine

FORMULATION

The pigment was first premixed with the vehicle in gradients (gum, water,

glycerin, gypsum, honey and other additive) in the proportions necessary to make a

thick paste. These proportions vary with the pigment used. Absorptive or finely ground

pigment particles require more vehicle (because the total surface area of pigment
 increase as the average size of the individual particles gets smaller) and strongly tinting

(or in some brands, very expensive) pigments are more diluted with vehicles and filler

Next, the premix thoroughly milled under large stone or metal rollers, (in my case

I used laboratory motar and pestle) turning in opposite direction at different speeds. (In

paint manufacture “milling” means mixing payment and vehicle not crushing or grinding

the pigment particles these are usually three roller on these machines and they mix the

pigment with the vehicles through the act of crushing, smearing and folding the paste.

In the three roller machine the premix was poured into a reservoir between the

two first rollers

(A.) Because it will be so vicious, most of the paint simply swirls around in this trough A

small amount is pulled down into the opening between the roller where it is

sheared and crushed. As it course out the other side it is pulled apart, which pulls

open undeserved pigment clumps sticking to the rollers, half is carried back

around to the reservoir at A, and the other half to a second accumulation trapped

between the second and third rollers.

(B.) Here most of the paint again swirls in place, but a small amount is crushed and sheared

through the smaller opening between the second and third rollers. Half this paint

back to the reservoir at A. When the reservoir at B gathers enough paint, it is

crapped of the third roller by a floating metal tray.

(C.) This milling can take anywhere from several hours up to several days and involve

successive adjustment of the roller spacing. Water or other ingredients may be

added during the milling to adjust the paint viscosity.

(D.) After milling the paint allowed to age (which is the best way) in large containers for

anywhere from a few days to a few weeks to make sure that the pigment has

completely stabilized with the vehicles.

 After milling, the paints allowed to age (which is the best way) in large

containers for anywhere from a few days to a few weeks to make sure that the pigment

has completely stabilized with the vehicles.

If package to quickly after milling (especially) Aureolin Py40) it will continue to expend

– a problem that has caused tubes of Blockx aureolin Burst open in inventory, or squirt

when the tubes is first opened. Other cobalt pigment will continue to soak up vehicles

after mixing and will harden in the tube if packaged to soon.

Finally the mixed paint is poured tubes or paints.

DIAGRAM

Preferably, metal paint tubes with the paint milling machine open and the cap already

screwed on is used to store the a dispensing machine, crip fold the end of the tube to seal

the paint inside and apply the appropriate label as an adhesive paper or plastic film

For dry paints the paints are filler into dry pan or shaping the paint (usually

mixed with less water into a clay like paste) that is extruded as a strike and broken or

sawed into segments.

One should quickly note that poured paints often have a characteristic drip around the lip

of the pan, and may have a dimple in the center of the pan where the paint has shrunk

during drying

DIAGRAM

PIC 3.4 Applying labels to tubes filled with paints Percentage Measurement of Materials

Used

1 Pigment (synthetic) 10% (for each color)

2 Glycerin 0.58
3 Titanium dioxide 10g
4 Formaldehyde 0.5%
5 Crum 30%
 6 Triethanolamine (Emulsifier) 0.2%
7 Water 10%(10mlo)
8 Honey 10%
9 Cassava starch
10 Gypsum 20g

From the above formaldehyde is the preservative used, as explained earlier

before, it inhibit the growth of mold in the tube and on the finished painting.

Triethanolamine serves as an emulsifier (dispersant) while titanium dioxide acts as the

brightener, water as one of the vehicle gum as a binder, and gypsum serves as the filler.

All of these was mixed together with the pigment and hand milled to produce a

standardized artist paint.

After the formulation, the paint had to go through the following paint test which

include

 Percentage composition: this is the proportion of the backbone composition.

 Condition of the paint in the container

 Viscosity of the paint is tested by means of the flow cup in which the rate of flow

through a standard sized hold is measure, or by a torsion Viscometer.

 Opacity and spreading rate the hiding power of paint is rested on a canvas or

drawing paper into chequered or stripped palters or by the use of opacity meters.

 Color compassion of color are made with the human eye, which is more sensitive

than instrument, as it first of poured and displayed in the beaker.

 Fastness to light i.e. the paint shall have little or no color change

 Fine of grind i.e when tested using Hegman Guage it should be finely ground.
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS /DISCUSSION

4.1 RESULTS:

A good result was obtained when the paint was tested by

i. Brushing out on blank watercolor paper, using both went in wet and wet in dry

applications

ii. leaving a large drop to dry on the glass sheet

iii. it was smooth (finely ground).

4.2 DISCUSSION

The careful balance of the modifying ingredient in artist paint is necessary not

only to give the correct working properties, but to ensure the proper balance of solubility,

that is the dried layer of good artist paint must be sufficiently resistant so that subsequent

brush strokes will not pick it up. On the other hand, the paint should not be so insoluble

that one cannot soften or run into it.

To attain or formulate a paint product close to the manufacturers standard or

formulating principle was used. This was achieved by following a laid down variation

and modification and also in using other two classes of material being dealt with, binders

(including linseed oil for oil paint, polymer emulsion for acrylic paints and combinations

there of) and, to a lesser extend, solvent.

Formulars are written up either in weight units of all ingredients, or pounds of

pigment and gallons of liquids the formular, however, often has to work in terms of

volume relationship, and the pigment volume concentration (PVC) is usually an

important consideration. Pigment volume of non volatiles ie, nonvolatile vehicle volume

plus pigment volume.

PVC = Pigment Volume

(Pigment volume) + (binder volume)

OBSERVATIONS

 Paint that does not adhere to paper contain too much pigment or was made with

too much water and not enough gum erabic.

 Paint that dried rock hard cracks or flakes or has a glossy or bronzed finish on the

paper contains too much gum Arabic or not enough glycerin.

 Paint that remain sticky or gummy after it dries on the glass contains to much

humectants (i.e, honer or corn syrup).

 Paint that dries on the paper with a dull, malte, whitish or flaky finish contains to

much dextrin

 Paint that shoots wildly wet in wet contains too much dispersant.

 Paints that appear dull and grainy was probably in sufficiently mulled.

However, much manual labor and fine tuning of ingredient (raw material) is

necessary and was used to produce a decent artist. The main problem was that different

pigments require different proportions of vehicles ingredient and different proportions of

vehicle to pigment.

Precaution taken, during the course of the work was that wore hand gloves to

prevent direct contact of materials/ chemical since some of them are harmful.

I made sure that I did not inhale the powder.

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION

most artist paint used by artists for their paintings are imported, that is they are

foreign products. The manufacture of artist paint will encourage skill and increase in the

use of natural resources, this will lead to doing more research work formulating,
manufacturing/ making of and using new equipment that will give the appropriate

product with high quality standard. Equipment like spectrophtography, infrared and

ultraviolet spectrographs, such instrument will be perfected to expedite production

5.2 RECOMMENDATION

PERFECTION OF GYPSUM

Using gypsum instead of white starches the filler in the production of this artist

paint is better because gypsum is more efficient and lasts longer that the wheat starch

since the starch will later make the whole thing to be watery. Though other chemical

used is costly.

REFERENCES

Bruce, M.E, (2004) Paints – How Water Color Paints Are Made, 5 th Ed;
USA; PP. I22

Debussy, J.H, (1972)

Materials and Technology Volume TV. Untied States and The
Philippines – Barnes And Noble Books, Longman Croup Ltd PP.
687 – 688.

Goodier, J.H, (1974)

Dictionary of Painting and Decorating Griffin London, PP

Herman F. Mork, G. Gaylord Norman and [Link] Kales Norbert (1970)

Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and Technology Volume 10 And
 13, Inter science Publishers A Division Of John Wiley And Sons,
Inc PP. 170 – 192, 492 – 510

Torche J.H, Ed. D. (1971) Acrylic and Other Water – Base Paints For the
Artists, 4th Ed, New York, Sterling Publishing Co, Inc. PP 5-19

McGraw, Hill (1971)

Encyclopedia of Sciences and Technology, Volume TX, United
States, Mc Graw Hill, Inc. PP 558 – 559.

Morgan’s W.M. P.H.D; F.R.T.C, (1969)

Outlines Of Paint Technology Charles Griffin And Company
Limited 42 Drury Lane, London, W.C. 2 PP 91, 127 And 130.

Photos from the Old Holian watercolor paint catalogues