MAT3705 (Complex Analysis)

L.E. Labuschagne
ii
 Preface

This study guide is based on the prescribed book

J.W. Brown and R.V. Churchill: Complex variables and Appli-
cations (8th edition), McGraw–Hill, New York, 2009,
and must be used in conjunction with this book. In the guide the prescribed book
is called “the textbook”, and the chapter numbers correspond with those in the
textbook. Most of the guide consists of solutions to selected problems set in the
textbook, and, since we make many references to various sections of the textbook,
the guide will be of no use to you unless you have the textbook in front of you.

The study material consists of the following sections in the textbook:

Chapter 1: All sections. (Note that aside from section 11, the material in this chapter
is mainly a revision of material dealt with in MAT1511 and MAT1503.)
Chapter 2: Sections 12–27. We will only study section 27 up to and including the
formulation of the theorem on p. 84. (Note that in essence much of
the material of sections 15, 16 and 18 is also covered in MAT2613 and
MAT3711.)
Chapter 3: Study sections 29–35 only, and leave the section on inverse trigonometric
and hyperbolic functions.
Chapter 4: Study all sections (37–54). (Note that sections 37–39 are largely a revision
of concepts dealt with in MAT2615.)
Chapter 5: Study all sections (55–67). In section 66 the proofs of Theorems 1 and
2 may be left. (Note that aside from the fact that here we are dealing
with series of complex rather than real numbers, the material in sections
55, 56 and 63 and much of the material in section 67 was dealt with in
MAT2613 and hence may be viewed as revision.)
Chapter 6: Study sections 68, 69, 70, 72–77. (So leave section 71).
Chapter 7: Study sections 78–83 and sections 85–87. (So leave sections 84, 88 and
89.)
The material that is largely revision will not be greatly emphasized in this
course, but should nevertheless be studied as it forms essential background for the
rest of the course.

The guide consists mainly of solutions to some of the problems in the textbook.
Use these solutions as follows:
• First study the relevant sections in the textbook.
• Then get the numbers of the problems solved in the guide, BUT DO NOT
READ THE SOLUTIONS. Try and solve these problems on your own.
• Then compare your solutions with those in the guide.

When reading the textbook and this guide you should have paper and pencil
at hand. There will be steps left out by the author which you must fill in as you
read – it is not possible to write a mathematics book without leaving steps out and
iii
 iv

you should regard learning this “filling in ” process as part of your mathematical
training.

Finally keep in mind that no shortcut – no matter how slick – can ever serve
as a substitute for hard work. In the words of Thomas Edison: “Genius is 1%
inspiration and 99% perspiration”.

Good luck with your studies!

LE Labuschagne
 A road–map to MAT3705

This course aims at providing an introduction to the analysis of complex-valued

functions defined on some subset of the complex plane. It investigates and weaves
together the three strands of differentiability, Taylor and Laurent series, and inte-
gration theory. As the reader will realise the nature of complex analysis is such
that it rests on a number of extremely deep and elegant principles and techniques.
A lot of initial hard work is needed to establish these techniques and principles, but
once in place, they prove to be an extremely powerful, almost indispensable, tool
for solving a variety of problems in analysis. Initial effort at mastering and under-
standing these principles will be well rewarded. To fully appreciate the theory, you
will need some geometric insight. If you try to learn this material “parrot fashion”,
you may just scrape a pass, but you will neither be able to appreciate the beauty
of this theory, nor be able to exploit its power. In what follows we will attempt to
give a brief resumé of the course, and the road we are going to walk in adding the
powerful theory of complex analysis to our mathematical arsenal.

Chapter one of the textbook is mainly revisionary in nature and reviews the
fundamentals of complex numbers in addition to introducing the conceptual frame-
work within which we will proceed with deeper analysis in the subsequent chapters.
The main function of chapter 1 is to set the scene for what follows and since much of
this material is already covered in MAT1511 and MAT1503, you should not pause
too long here.

Chapter two introduces and studies the idea of differentiability of complex

functions, with cahpter three introducing and describing complex analogues of some
common elementary functions. Though much more can be said, two overriding
themes will emerge from your study of differentiability: Firstly the central role the
Cauchy–Riemann equations play in identifying the points at which a given function
is differentiable, and then later the close link of differentiability to power series.
As you will see when investigating differentiability, the Cauchy–Riemann equations
are an extremely powerful and useful tool in eliminating a large number of points
where a given function cannot possibly be differentiable. However, they are not
always as useful in finding points where the function actually is differentiable (see
the discussion at the start of section 22 of the textbook).

Laplace’s equation plays a very important role in Applied Mathematics. One

very valuable serendipity of the complex theory of differentiability, is that it provides
us with a large number of solutions of Laplace’s equation. Specifically if a complex
function is differentiable on some domain, then both its real and imaginary parts
turn out to be solutions to Laplace’s equation on that same domain.

With the theory of differentiability in place, we proceed to investigate integra-

tion theory for complex functions. The theory of complex integration is extremely
elegant and once again closely linked to the concept of analyticity. In chapter four
we initiate our investigation of complex integration by first of all considering the
v
 vi

problem of existence of antiderivatives, and then (through the Cauchy–Goursat

theorem) showing that analyticity of a function is sufficient to guarantee the exis-
tence of antiderivatives. Building on this foundation we may then derive the very
powerful Cauchy Integral formulae.

Besides yielding other unexpected bonuses like Liouville’s theorem, the Fun-
damental Theorem of Algebra, and the Maximum Modulus Principle, the Cauchy
Integral formulae provide the tools we need to proceed to the next phase of our
programme which is to show that any function which is analytic on a region except
maybe at finitely many exceptional points, can effectively be broken up into powers
of (z − z0 ) on that region. We develop these ideas in a mathematically precise way
in the form of the theory of Taylor and Laurent series in chapter five. For example
if we compare Taylor’s theorem to the corollary on p. 215 of the textbook, it is clear
that that a function is analytic at a point (i.e. differentiable is some neighbourhood
of a point) if and only if it can be written as a power series at that point. Ultimately
we will see that any function f which is differentiable in a neighbourhood of z0 ,
except perhaps at z0 itself, can be written in the form
X∞
f (z) = an (z − z0 )n
n=−∞
n
around z0 . Therefore terms of the form (z − z0 ) , prove to be the basic building
blocks of such functions. Now let γ be a positively oriented circle in this neighbour-
hood centred at z0 . The easily established fact that
Z 
n 0 if n 6= −1
(z − z0 ) dz =
γ 2πi if n = −1
(n ∈ Z) now proves to be rather more significant than anticipated. Arguing formally
we have that
Z X∞ Z
n
f (z) dz = an (z − z0 ) dz = 2πi a−1
γ n=−∞ γ

The integral of any such function may therefore be computed by effectively breaking
the function up into its component parts and integrating each component separately.

Having shown that any “nice” function may be broken up into powers of (z − z0 )
at each point z0 , we are finally in a position to establish the promised residue theory
in chapter six. In short the result basically says that if a function f is of the form
X∞
f (z) = an (z − z0 )n
n=−∞

inside and on a positively oriented closed curve γ (with z0 inside γ), then
Z
f (z) dz = 2πia−1 .
γ
For such functions the process of integration therefore consists of computing the
coefficient a−1 (the so–called residue of f at z0 ). As may be expected much of
chapter six is then devoted to developing techniques for computing the coefficient
a−1 . This simple yet elegant principle of integrating by computing residues enable
us to effectively compute a wide range of diverse complex integrals.

Finally in chapter seven we turn to applications, showing how the power of

complex analysis may be used to elegantly solve a number of highly non–trivial
real integrals.
 Contents

Preface iii
A road–map to MAT3705 v
Chapter 1. Complex Numbers 1
Chapter 2. Analytic Functions 21
Chapter 3. Elementary Functions 39
Chapter 4. Integrals 59
Chapter 5. Series 83
Chapter 6. Residues and Poles 107

Chapter 7. Applications of Residues 127

vii
 CHAPTER 1

Complex Numbers

All sections must be studied. The work in this chapter is mainly revisionary
in the sense of revising much of the material on complex numbers dealt with in
MAT1511 and MAT1503. Whereas sections 1–10 are more technical, the material
in section 11 is more conceptual by nature. Some of these concepts may be new
to you. Be sure you grasp their meaning as they will form the framework within
which we will describe more advanced concepts and techniques in later chapters.
The set of all complex numbers is essentially a two-dimensional extension of
the field of real numbers. By a complex number we mean a number comprising a
real and imaginary part. It can be written in the form a + ib, where a and b are real
numbers, and i is postulated to be the imaginary unit with the property i2 = −1.
The complex numbers clearly contain the real numbers – these may be identified
with the complex numbers for which the imaginary part is zero. Extending the field
of numbers from the reals to the complex numbers, will enable us to solve equations
like w2 = −1, that we weren’t able to solve using only real numbers. Specifically
with complex numbers, a solution exists to every polynomial equation of degree
one or higher. However although we gain a lot in passing to complex numbers,
we also lose something: in view of the fact that the field of complex numbers is
two-dimensional, there is no sensible way in which to order complex numbers. In
other words statements like p ≥ q that seem so natural when dealing with the reals,
make no sense for complex numbers.
In this first chapter we revise the basic algebraic properties of complex num-
bers, we look at two ways of representing complex numbers (cartesian form and
polar form), we look at the process of computing roots of complex numbers, and
investigate the properties of the modulus and complex conjugation functions.

1
 2

Solutions to selected problems

Below you will find solutions to some of the exercises in chapter 1. Be sure to
attempt these yourself before you work through the solutions.

Exercise 1, §2, p. 5

Verify that
√
√

(a) 2 − i − i 1 − 2i = −2i; (b) (2, −3) (−2, 1) = (−1, 8) ;
 
1 1
(c) (3, 1) (3, −1) , = (2, 1) ;
5 10

Solution:
(a)
√   √ 
2 − i − i 1 − 2i
√  h  √ i
= 2 − i + (−i) 1 − 2i
√  h  √    √ i
= 2 − i + 0.1 − (−1) − 2 + i (−1) 1 + 0 − 2
√   √ 
= 2−i + − 2−i
√ √ 
= 2 − 2 + i (−1 − 1)
= −2i
(b)
(2, −3) (−2, 1) = (2 (−2) − (−3) 1, (−3) (−2) + 2.1)
= (−1, 8)
(c)
   
1 1 1 1
(3, 1) (3, −1) , = [(3, 1) (3, −1)] ,
5 10 5 10
 
1 1
= (3.3 − 1 (−1) , 1.3 + 3 (−1)) ,
5 10
 
1 1
= (10, 0) ,
5 10
 
1 1 1 1
= 10. − 0. , 0. + 10.
5 10 5 10
= (2, 1)

Exercise 4, §2, p. 5
Verify that each of the two numbers z = 1 ± i satisfies the equation
z 2 − 2z + 2 = 0.

Solution:
z = 1 + i yields
2
(1 + i) − 2 (1 + i) + 2 = ((1 − 1) + i (1 + 1)) − 2 (1 + i) + 2
= 2i − (2 + 2i) + 2
= 0.
 3 MAT3705/1

Similarly if z = 1 − i then
2
(1 − i) − 2 (1 − i) + 2 = −2i − (2 − 2i) + 2 = 0.

Exercise 5, §2, p. 5
Prove that multiplication is commutative, as stated at the beginning of Sec. 2.

Solution:
Let z1 = x1 + iy and z2 = x2 + iy2 where x1 , x2 , y1 and y2 are real. Then
using the fact that multiplication of real numbers is commutative, we can show that
z1 z2 = (x1 + iy1 ) (x2 + iy2 )
= (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + i (y1 x2 + x1 y2 )
= (x2 x1 − y2 y1 ) + i (x2 y1 + y2 x1 )
= (x2 + iy2 ) (x1 + iy1 )
= z2 z1 .

Exercise 7, §2, p. 5
Use the associative law for addition and the distributive law to show that
z (z1 + z2 + z3 ) = zz1 + zz2 + zz3 .

Solution:
z (z1 + z2 + z3 ) = z ((z1 + z2 ) + z3 ) by (2) of section 2
= z (z1 + z2 ) + zz3 by (3) of section 2
= (zz1 + zz2 ) + zz3 by (3) of section 2
= zz1 + zz2 + zz3 by (2) of section 2

Exercise 9, §2, p. 5
(a) Write (x, y) + (u, v) = (x, y) and point out how it follows that the complex
number 0 = (0, 0) is unique as an additive identity.
(b) Likewise, write (x, y) (u, v) = (x, y) and show that the number 1 = (1, 0)
is a unique multiplicative identity.

Solution:
(a) Let (u, v) be any complex number such that (x, y) + (u, v) = (x, y) for all
(x, y) ∈ C. Then surely
(0, 0) = (0, 0) + (u, v) by assumption
= (u, v) by (4) of section 2.
(b) Let (u, v) be given such that (x, y) (u, v) = (x, y) for all (x, y) ∈ C. Then
(1, 0) = (1; 0) (u, v) by assumption
= (u, v) (1, 0) by (1) of section 2
= (u, v) by (4) of section 2.

Exercise 1, §3, p. 8

Verify that
1 + 2i 2 − i 2 5 i
(a) + =− ; (b) = ;
3 − 4i 5i 5 (1 − i) (2 − i) (3 − i) 2
4
(c) (1 − i) = −4.
 4

Solution:
(a)
1 + 2i 2 − i (1 + 2i) 5i + (3 − 4i) (2 − i)
+ =
3 − 4i 5i (3 − 4i) 5i
(−10 + 5i) + (2 − 11i)
=
20 + 15i
(−8 − 6i)
=
(20 + 15i)
(−2) (4 + 3i)
=
5 (4 + 3i)
2
= −
5
(b)
5 5
=
(1 − i) (2 − i) (3 − i) [(2 − 1) + i (−2 − 1)] (3 − i)
5
=
(1 − 3i) (3 − i)
5
=
((3 − 3) + i (−9 − 1))
5 10i
= − ×
10i 10i
50i
=
100
i
=
2
(c)
4 2
(1 − i) = [(1 − i) (1 − i)]
2
= [(1.1 − (−1) . (−1)) + i ((−1) 1 + 1 (−1))]
2
= [−2i]
= (0.0 − (−2) (−2)) + i (0. (−2) + (−2) 0)
= −4

Exercise 4, §3, p. 8
Prove that if z1 z2 z3 = 0, then at least one of the three factors is zero.
Suggestion: Write (z1 z2 ) z3 = 0 and use a similar result (Sec. 3) involving two
factors.

Solution:
Suppose z1 z2 z3 = 0. By the discussion at the start of section 3, it is clear
that if (z1 z2 ) z3 = 0 then one of z1 z2 and z3 is zero. If therefore z3 6= 0 we must
then have z1 z2 = 0 in which case one of z1 and z2 must then be zero. Therefore if
z1 z2 z3 = 0, then at least one of z1 , z2 and z3 is zero.

Exercise 2, §4, p. 12
Verify inequalities (3), Sec. 4, involving ℜz, ℑz, and |z|.
 5 MAT3705/1

Solution:
Let z = ℜ (z) + iℑ (z). Now since ℑ (z)2 ≥ 0 we have that
2 2 2 2
ℜ (z) ≤ ℜ (z) + ℑ (z) = |z| .
Taking square roots now yields
q
2
|ℜ (z)| = ℜ (z) ≤ |z| .
Since by definition 
−ℜ (z) if ℜ (z) < 0
|ℜ (z)| =
ℜ (z) if ℜ (z) ≥ 0
we also have
ℜ (z) ≤ |ℜ (z)| .
In a similar fashion we can show that
ℑ (z) ≤ |ℑ (z)| ≤ |z| .

Exercise 4 (a) & (b), §4, p. 12

In each case sketch the set of points determined by the given condition:
(a) |z − 1 + i| = 1; (b) |z + i| ≤ 3;

Solution:
(a) Here 1 = |z − 1 + i| = |z − (1 − i)| . Thus this denotes the circle with
centre (1 − i) and radius 1.
y

1 x
O
_i

(b) 3 ≥ |z + i| = |z − (−i)| This is the locus of all points within a distance of

no more than 3 units from (−i) .
y

2i

x
_i
3

_ 4i

Exercise 5, §4, p. 12
Using the fact that |z1 − z2 | is the distance between two points z1 and z2 , give
a geometric argument that
(a) the equation |z − 4i| + |z + 4i| = 10 represents an ellipse whose foci are
(0, ±4) ;
(b) the equation |z − 1| = |z + i| represents the line through the origin whose
slope is −1.
 6

Solution:
(a) |z − 4i| + |z + 4i| = 10 is the set of points z = (x, y) for which the sum
of the distance from 4i = (0, 4) and from −4i = (0, −4) is precisely 10 (a
constant). Since 10 is larger than the distance between (0, 4) and (0, −4),
(8 units) this yields an ellipse with foci at (0, 4) and (0, −4).
(b) |z − 1| = |z + i| is the set of all points equi–distant from 1 = (1, 0) and
−i = (0, −1). The locus of points is
therefore a straight line. Note in
particular that both (0, 0) and 12 , − 21 = 21 ((1, 0) + (0, −1)) are equidis-
tant from (1, 0) and (0, −1) and hence on this line. The slope of the line
(0−(− 12 ))
is therefore = −1.
(0− 12 )

Exercise 2, §5, p. 14
In each case sketch the set of points determined by the given condition:
(a) ℜ (z − i) = 2; (b) |2z + i| = 4

Solution:
(a) With z = x + iy (x, y ∈ R) we get
ℜ (z − i) = ℜ (x − i (y + 1))
= x
= ℜz.
Thus ℜ (z − i) = 2 is the straight line ℜ (z) = 2.
y

x
O 2

(b) Since 2z − i = 2z + i, we have that |2z − i| = 2z − i = |2z + i|. So

|2z + i| = 4, is the same as |2z − i| = 4. But this holds if and only if
|z − (i/2)| = 2. So this is the circle of radius 2 centred at i/2.
_
5i
y 2

_i
2 x
O

_ 3_i
2
 7 MAT3705/1

Exercise 3, §5, p. 15
Verify properties (3) and (4) of z in Sec. 5.

Solution:
Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 where x1 , x2 , y1 and y2 are real. Then
z 1 = x1 − iy1 and z 2 = x2 − iy2 . Therefore using the elementary properties of
addition and multiplication we see that
z1 − z2 = ((x1 + iy1 ) − (x2 + iy2 ))
= (x1 − x2 ) + i (y1 − y2 )
= (x1 − x2 ) − i (y1 − y2 )
= (x1 − iy1 ) − (x2 − iy2 )
= z1 − z2
and that
z1 z2 = (x1 + iy1 ) (x2 + iy2 )
= (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + i (y1 x2 + x1 y2 )
= (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) − i (y1 x2 + x1 y2 )
= (x1 x2 − (−y1 ) (−y2 )) + i ((−y1 ) x2 + x1 (−y2 ))
= (x1 − iy1 ) (x2 − iy2 )
= z 1 z2 .

Exercise 5, §5, p. 15
Verify property (9) of moduli in Sec. 5.

Solution:
Note that
z1
2   
z1 z1
= z2 z2 by (7) of section 5
z2   
z1 z1
= z2 z2 by (5) of section 5
z1 z 1
= z z
2 2 2
|z1 |
= |z2 | by (7) of section 5.

Now take square roots to see that

z1 |z1 |
= .
z2 |z2 |

Exercise 9, §5, p. 15
By factoring z 4 − 4z 2 + 3 into two quadratic factors and then using inequality
(8), Sec. 4, show that if z lies on the circle |z| = 2, then
1 1
≤ .
z 4 − 4z 2 + 3 3

Solution:
First note that



z 4 − 4z 2 + 3 = z2 − 3 z2 − 1
= z2 − 3 z2 − 1
2 2
≥ |z| − 3 |z| − 1 .
 8

Thus if |z| = 2 then z 4 − 4z 2 + 3 ≥ (4 − 3) (4 − 1) = 3, whence

1 1 1
= 4 ≤ .
z 4 − 4z 2 + 3 |z − 4z 2 + 3| 3

Exercise 11, §5, p. 15

Use mathematical induction to show that when n = 2, 3, . . . .
(a) z1 + z2 + · · · + zn = z 1 + z 2 + · · · + z n ;
(b) z1 z2 · · · zn = z 1 z 2 · · · z n .

Solution:
(a) By (2) in section 5, z1 + z2 = z 1 + z 2 for all z1 , z2 ∈ C. Now suppose
that for some fixed k ≥ 2 we have that
z1 + z2 + z3 + · · · + zk = z 1 + z 2 + · · · + z k
for all z1 , z2 , . . . , zk ∈ C. Then given any z1 , z2 , . . . , zk , zk+1 , it follows
that
z1 + z2 + z3 + · · · + zk + zk+1
= (z1 + z2 + · · · + zk ) + zk+1
= z1 + z2 + · · · + zk + z k+1 by (2) of section 5
= z 1 + z 2 + · · · + z k + z k+1 (by the induction hypothesis).
Thus by induction
z1 + z2 + · · · + zn = z 1 + z 2 + · · · + z n for all n ≥ 2.
(b) This follows by a similar argument using (4) of section 5 instead of (2).

Exercise 14, §5, p. 15

Using expressions (6), Sec. 5, for ℜz and ℑz, show that the hyperbola x2 −y 2 =
1 can be written
z 2 + z 2 = 2.

Solution:
Suppose z = x + iy where x, y ∈ R. Then by (6) of section 5
2 2
x2 − y 2 = 1 ⇔ ℜ (z) − ℑ (z) = 1
 2  2
z+z z−z
⇔ − =1
2 2i
2 2
(z + z) (z − z)
⇔ + =1
4 4



⇔ z 2 + 2zz + z 2 + z 2 − 2zz + z 2 = 4
⇔ z2 + z2 = 2

Exercise 4, §8, p. 22
Solve the equation eiθ − 1 = 2 for θ (0 ≤ θ < 2π) and verify the solution
geometrically.

Solution:
Rewrite eiθ − 1 = 2 as |(cos θ − 1) + i sin θ|2 = 4, which reduces to cos θ = −1.
Since θ is to be in the interval 0 ≤ θ < 2π, it follows that θ = π. This solution of
the equation eiθ − 1 = 2 is geometrically evident if we recall that eiθ lies on the
 9 MAT3705/1

circle |z| = 1 and that eiθ − 1 is the distance between the points eiθ and 1. See
the figure below.
y

iθ
e

O 1 x

Exercise 5, §8, p. 23
By writing the individual factors on the left in exponential form, performing
the needed operations, and finally changing back to rectangular coordinates, show
that √
√
√

(a) i 1 − 3i 3 + i = 2 1 + 3i ; (b) 5i/ (2 + i) = 1 + 2i;

7 √
−10 √

(c) (−1 + i) = −8 (1 + i) ; (d) 1+ 3i = 2−11 −1 + 3i .

Solution:
iπ/2
(a) Clearly i = e√ . √
For
√ 1 − 3i we have r = 1 + 3 = 2. Thus we need √ θ such that
1 − 3i = 2 (cos θ + i sin θ), i.e. cos θ = 12 , sin θ = − 23 . We may let
θ = − π3 . Then
√   π  π 
1− 3i= 2 cos − + i sin −
3 3
= 2e−iπ/3 .
√ √ √
For 3+i, r = 3 + 1 = 2. Select ϕ such that 3+i = 2 (cos ϕ + i sin ϕ),
√ √ π
i.e. cos ϕ = 23 , sin ϕ = 12 . We may let ϕ = π6 whence 3 + i = 2ei 6 .
Thus
 √  √  iπ π π
i 1 − 3i 3+i = e 2 .2e−i 3 .2ei 6

4ei( 3 )
π
=
π π
= 4 cos + i sin
3 3
√ !
1 3
= 4 + i
2 2
 √ 
= 2 1 + 3i .

iπ
√ √
(b) Clearly 2
 = 5e . Now for2 2 + i, r = 21 + 1 = 5. Thus if we select
 π5i
2

θ ∈ 0, 2 so that cos θ = √5 and sin θ = √5 , then we will have

√ √ √
2+i= 5 cos θ + i 5 sin θ = 5eiθ .
 10

r sin θ


(Since here tan θ = r cos θ = 21 , θ = arctan 1
2 will do the trick). Then
iπ
5i 5e 2 1
= √ (where θ = arctan )
2+i 5e iθ 2
√ i(π/2−θ)
= 5e
√  π  π 
= 5 cos − θ + i sin −θ
√ 2 2
= 5 (sin θ + i cos θ) by trigonometric identities
 
√ 1 2
= 5 √ +√ i by the way θ was chosen
5 5
= 1 + 2i.
√
(c) For −1 + i we have |−1 + i| = √ 2. Thus to write −1 + i in polar form
we need to find θ with −1 + i = 2 (cos θ + i sin θ). Then cos θ = − √12 ,
sin θ = √12 . Clearly θ = π − π4 will do the trick, i.e.
√ 3π
(−1 + i) = 2ei 4 .
Then
√ 7  3π 7
7
(−1 + i) = 2 ei 4
7 21π
= 2 2 ei 4

ei(5π+ 4)
1 π
= 23 2 2  
√ π  π 
= 8 2 cos 5π + + i sin 5π +
 4 4
√ 1 i
= 8 2 −√ − √
2 2
= −8 (1 + i) .
(d) We need to select θ so that
√ √
1 + 3i = 1 + 3i (cos θ + i sin θ)
= 2 cos θ + i2 sin θ
√ √
(i.e. cos θ = 12 , sin θ = 23 ). We may therefore set θ = π
3 to get 1 + 3i =
π
2ei 3 . Then
 √ −10 π
−10
1 + 3i = 2−10 ei 3
 
= 2−10 ei(−10 3 )
π

2−10 ei(−3π− 3)
π
=  π  π 
= 2−10 cos −3π − + i sin −3π −
3 3
√ !
1 3i
= 2−10 − +
2 2
 √ 
= 2−11 −1 + 3i .

Exercise 7, §8, p. 23
Let z be a nonzero complex number and n a negative integer (n = −1, −2, . . .).
Also, write z = reiθ and m = −n = 1, 2, . . .. Using m

the expressions z = r e
m imθ
−1 i(−θ) m −1 −1 m
and z = (1/r) e , verify that (z ) = z and hence that the definition

m −1
z n = z −1 in Sec. 7 could have been written alternatively as z n = (z m ) .
 11 MAT3705/1

Solution:
Here z = reiθ is any nonzero complex number and n a negative integer (n = −1,
−2, . . .). Also, m = −n = 1, 2, . . .. By writing

−1 1
(z m )−1 = rm eimθ = m ei(−mθ)
r
and  m  m

m 1 i(−θ) 1 1
z −1 = e = ei(−mθ) = m ei(−mθ) ,
r r r
−1
m
m
we see that (z m ) = z −1 . Thus the definition z n = z −1 can also be written
n m −1
as z = (z ) .

Exercise 8, §8, p. 23
Prove that two nonzero complex numbers z1 and z2 have the same moduli if
and only if there are complex numbers c1 and c2 such that z1 = c1 c2 and z2 = c1 c2 .

Suggestion: Note that

   
θ1 + θ2 θ1 − θ2
exp i exp i = exp (iθ1 )
2 2
and [see Exercise 2(b)]
   
θ1 + θ2 θ1 − θ2
exp i exp i = exp (iθ2 ) .
2 2

Solution:
First of all, given two nonzero complex numbers z1 and z2 , suppose that there
are complex numbers c1 and c2 such that z1 = c1 c2 and z2 = c1 c2 . Since
|z1 | = |c1 | |c2 | and |z2 | = |c1 | |c2 | = |c1 | |c2 | ,
it follows that |z1 | = |z2 | .

Suppose, on the other hand, that we know only that |z1 | = |z2 |. We may write
z1 = r1 exp (iθ1 ) and z2 = r1 exp (iθ2 ) .
If we introduce the numbers
   
θ1 + θ2 θ1 − θ2
c1 = r1 exp i and c2 = exp i ,
2 2
we find that
   
θ1 + θ2 θ1 − θ2
c1 c2 = r1 exp i exp i = r1 exp (iθ1 ) = z1
2 2
and    
θ1 + θ2 θ1 − θ2
c1 c2 = r1 exp i exp −i = r1 exp(iθ2 ) = z2 .
2 2
That is,
z1 = c1 c2 and z2 = c1 c2 .

Exercise 10, §8, p. 23

Use de Moivre’s formula (Sec. 7) to derive the following trigonometric identi-
ties:
(a) cos 3θ = cos3 θ − 3 cos θ sin2 θ (b) sin 3θ = 3 cos2 θ sin θ − sin3 θ.
 12

Solution:
We know from de Moivre’s formula that
3
(cos θ + i sin θ) = cos 3θ + i sin 3θ,
or
2 3
cos3 θ + 3 cos2 θ (i sin θ) + 3 cos θ (i sin θ) + (i sin θ) = cos 3θ + i sin 3θ.
That is,



cos3 θ − 3 cos θ sin2 θ + i 3 cos2 θ sin θ − sin3 θ = cos 3θ + i sin 3θ.
By equating real parts and then imaginary parts here, we arrive at the desired
trigonometric identities:
(a) cos 3θ = cos3 θ − 3 cos θ sin2 θ (b) sin 3θ = 3 cos2 θ sin θ − sin3 θ.

Exercise 11, §8, p. 24

(a) Use the binomial formula (Sec. 3) and de Moivre’s formula (Sec. 7) to
write
n 
X 
n k
cos nθ + i sin nθ = cosn−k θ (i sin θ) (n = 1, 2, . . .) .
k
k=0

Then define the integer m by means of the equations


n/2 if n is even,
m=
(n − 1) /2 if n is odd,
and use the above sum to obtain the expression [compare Exercise 10(a)]
Xm  
n k
cos nθ = (−1) cosn−2k θ sin2k θ (n = 1, 2, . . .) .
2k
k=0

(b) Write x = cos θ and suppose that 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, in which case −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.

Point out how it follows from the final result in part (a) that each of the
functions


Tn (x) = cos n cos−1 x (n = 0, 1, 2, . . .)
is a polynomial of degree n in the variable x.

Solution:
(a) By the Binomial theorem
n 
X 
n n k
(cos θ + i sin θ) = cosn−k θ (i sin θ) (n ∈ N) .
k
k=0

Combining this with de Moivre’s formula it follows that

n 
X 
n
cos nθ + i sin nθ = (cos θ + i sin θ)n = cosn−k θ (i sin θ)k .
k
k=0

4m 4m+1 4m+2 4m+3

Since (i) = 1, (i) = i, (i) = −1 and (i) = −i for each
m ∈ Z, it follows that taking the real part of the above sum is the same
 13 MAT3705/1

as summing over only even values of k. Hence if m denotes the largest

integer less than or equal to n/2, we get that
cos nθ = ℜ (cos nθ + i sin nθ)
n   !
X n k
n−k
= ℜ cos θ (i sin θ)
k
k=0
Xm  
n
= cosn−2p θ.i2p sin2p θ
2p
p=0
Xm  
n
= (−1)p cosn−2p θ sin2p θ.
2p
p=0

(Here we have replaced even values of k by 2p.)

(b) √
Let 0 ≤ θ ≤ √π and let x = cos θ. Then sin θ ≥ 0, and so sin θ =
1 − cos2 θ = 1 − x2 . Hence
Tn (x) = cos (n arccos x)
= cos (nθ)
Xm  
n p
= (−1) cosn−2p θ sin2p θ
2p
p=0
(m as in part (a))
Xm   p 2p
n p
= (−1) xn−2p 1 − x2
2p
p=0
Xm  
n p
p
= (−1) xn−2p 1 − x2 .
2p
p=0

Now for any 1 ≤ p ≤ m

Xp  


2 p p
x n−2p
1−x = x n−2p
(−1)r x2r
r
r=0
Xp  
p r
= (−1) xn−2(p−r)
r
r=0
is a polynomial of degree n. (To see that this really is of degree n and not
something smaller, note that for this polynomial the nth term is the term
corresponding to p = r; that is (−1)p xn .)
If we substitute the above formula into the expression for Tn (x), it
follows that Tn is a polynomial of degree n with nth term
Xm   Xm  
n p n
(−1) [(−1)p xn ] = xn .
2p 2p
p=0 p=0

Exercise 1, §10, p. 29 √
Find the square roots of (a) 2i; (b) 1 − 3i, and express them in rectangular
coordinates.
 14

Solution:
 π


(a) Since 2i = 2 exp i 2 + 2kπ (k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .), the desired roots are
1 √ h π i
(k = 0, 1) (2i) 2 = 2 exp i + kπ
4
That is,
 
√ iπ √  π π √ 1 i
c0 = 2e = 2 cos + i sin
4 = 2 √ +√ =1+i
4 4 2 2
and √ π 
c1 = 2ei 4 eiπ = −c0 = − (1 + i) ,
c0 being the principal root.
√ 

(b) Observe that 1 − 3i = 2 exp i − π3 + 2kπ (k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .). Hence
 √  12 √ h  π i
(k = 0, 1) 1 − 3i = 2 exp i − + kπ .
6
The principal root is
√ ! √
√ −i π √  π π √ 3 i 3−i
c0 = 2e 6 = 2 cos − i sin = 2 − = √ ,
6 6 2 2 2
and the other root is
√  √
π 3−i
c1 = 2e−i 6 eiπ = −c0 = − √ .
2

Exercise 5, §10, p. 30
(a) Let a denote any fixed real number, and show that the two square roots
of a + i are  α
√
± A exp i ,
√ 2
where A = a2 + 1 and α =Arg(a + i).

(b) With the aid of the trigonometric identities

 α  1 + cos α  α  1 − cos α
cos2 = , sin2 = ,
2 2 2 2
show that the square roots obtained in part (a) can be written
1 √ √ 
±√ A+a+i A−a .
2
Solution:
(a) Let a denote any fixed real number. In order to find the two square roots
of a + i in exponential form, we write
p
A = |a + i| = a2 + 1 and α = Arg (a + i) .
Since
(k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .) a + i = A exp [i (α + 2kπ)]
we see that
1 √ h α i
(k = 0, 1) (a + i) 2 = A exp i + kπ .
2
That is, the desired square roots are
√ iα √ i α iπ √
Ae 2 and Ae 2 e = − Aeiα/2 .
 15 MAT3705/1

(b) Since a + i lies above the real axis, we
know that 0 < α < π. Thus
0 < α2 < π2 , and this tells us that cos α2 > 0. Since cos α = A
a
, it follows
that
r r √
α 1 + cos α 1 a A+a
cos = =√ 1+ = √ √
2 2 2 A 2 A
and r r √
α 1 − cos α 1 a A−a
sin = = √ 1− = √ √ .
2 2 2 A 2 A
Consequently,
√ √ 
√ iα √  α α √ A+a A−a
± Ae 2 = ± A cos + i sin =± A √ √ +i √ √
2 2 2 A 2 A
1 √ √ 
= ±√ A+a+i A−a .
2

Exercise 6, §10, p. 30
Find the four roots of the equation z 4 + 4 = 0 and use them to factor z 4 + 4
into quadratic factors with real coefficients.

Solution
The four roots of the equation z 4 +4 = 0 are the four fourth roots of the number
−4. To find those roots, we write −4 = 4 exp [i (π + 2kπ)] (k = 0 ± 1, ±2, . . .).
Then
  
1 √ π kπ √ π π
(k = 0, 1, 2, 3) (−4) 4 = 2 exp i + = 2ei 4 eik 2
4 2
To be specific,
 
√ iπ √  π π √ 1 1
c0 = 2e 4 = 2 cos + i sin = 2 √ +√ = 1 + i,
4 4 2 2
π
c1 = c0 ei 2 = (1 + i) i = −1 + i,
c2 = c0 eiπ = (1 + i) (−1) = −1 − i,
3π
c3 = c0 e i 2 = (1 + i) (−i) = 1 − i.
This enables us to write
z4 + 4 = (z − c0 ) (z − c1 ) (z − c2 ) (z − c3 )
= [(z − c1 ) (z − c2 )] . [(z − c0 ) (z − c3 )]
= [(z + 1) − i] [(z + 1) + i] . [(z − 1) − i] [(z − 1) + i]
h i h i
2 2
= (z + 1) + 1 . (z − 1) + 1



= z 2 + 2z + 2 z 2 − 2z + 2 .
Exercise 7, §10, p. 309
Show that if c is any nth root of unity other than itself, then
1 + c + c2 + · · · + cn+1 = 0.

Solution:
Let c be any nth root of unity other than itself. With the aid of the identity
(Exercise 9, Sec. 8),
1 − zn
(z 6= 1) 1 + z + z 2 + · · · + z n−1 =
1−z
 16

we find that
1 − cn 1−1
1 + c + c2 + · · · + cn−1 = = = 0.
1−c 1−c

Exercise 1–3, §11, p. 33

Sketch the following sets and determine which are domains:
(a) |z − 2 + i| ≤ 1; (b) |2z + 3| > 4;

(c) ℑz > 1; (d) ℑz = 1;

π
(e) 0 ≤ Argz ≤ 4 (z 6= 0) ; (f) |z − 4| ≥ |z| .

Which sets in Exercise 1 are neither open nor closed?

Which sets in Exercise 1 are bounded?

Solution:
(a) Write |z − 2 + i| ≤ 1 as |z − (2 − i)| ≤ 1 to see that this is the set of
points inside and on the circle centred at the point 2 − i with radius 1. It
is closed and bounded. It is not a domain as it is not open.
x

O y

_
2 i

(b) Write |2z + 3| > 4 as z − − 23 > 2 to see that the set in question
consists of all points exterior to the circle with center at − 23 and radius
2. It is open and connected and hence a domain. It is not bounded.
y

_ _3 O x
2

(c) Write ℑz > 1 as y > 1 to see that this is the half plane consisting of all
points lying above the horizontal line y = 1. It is open and connected
and hence a domain. It is not bounded.
y

y =1
O x
 17 MAT3705/1

(d) The set ℑz = 1 is simply the horizontal line y = 1. It is closed, not open
and hence not a domain. It is not bounded.
y

y =1
O x

(e) The set 0 ≤ arg z ≤ π4 (z 6= 0) is indicated below. It is not open and hence
not a domain. It is also not closed since the boundary point 0 does not
belong to the set (see (1) of section 6). It is not bounded.
y

O x

2
(f) The set |z − 4| ≥ |z| can be written in the form (x − 4) + y 2 ≥ x2 + y 2 ,
which reduces to x ≤ 2. The set is also geometrically evident since it
consists of all points z such that the distance between z and 4 is greater
than or equal to the distance between z and the origin. This set is closed
but not open and so not a domain. It is not bounded.
y

_
|z 4|
| z|

O 2 4 x

Exercise 4, §11, p. 33
In each case, sketch the closure of the set:
 
1 1

(a) − π < arg z < π (z 6= 0) ; (b) |ℜz| < |z| ; (c) ℜ ≤ ; (d) ℜ z 2 > 0.
z 2

Solution:
(a) The closure of the set −π < arg z < π (z 6= 0) is the entire plane.
y

O x
 18

p
(b) We first write the set |ℜz| < |z| as |x| < x2 + y 2 , or x2 < x2 + y 2 . But
this last inequality is the same as y 2 > 0, or |y| > 0. Hence the closure of
the set |ℜz| < |z| is the entire plane.
y

O x

(c) Since 1
z = z
zz = = xx−iy
z 1
2 +y 2 , the set ℜ z
|z|2
≤ 21 can be written as
x


x2 +y 2 ≤ 12 , or x2 − 2x + y 2 ≥ 0. Finally, by completing the square,
2
we arrive at the inequality (x − 1) + y 2 ≥ 12 , which describes the circle,
together with its exterior, that is centered at z = 1 with radius 1. The
closure of this set is itself.
y

O z =1 x

2

(d) Since z 2 = (x + iy) = x2 − y 2 + i2xy, the set ℜ z 2 > 0 can be written as
y 2 < x2 , or |y| < |x|. The closure of this set consists of the lines y = ±x
together with the shaded region shown below.
y

x
O

Exercise 5, §11, p. 33
Let S be the open set consisting of all points z such that |z| < 1 or |z − 2| < 1.
State why S is not connected.
 19 MAT3705/1

Solution:
The set S consists of all points z such that |z| < 1 or |z − 2| < 1, as shown
below.
y

z1 z2
O x
1 2

Since the point z = 1 is not in S, every polygonal line joining z1 and z2 must
contain at least one point that is not in S. Thus it is clear that S is not connected.
 CHAPTER 2

Analytic Functions

Study sections 12–27. (Section 26 should only be studied up to and including

the formulation of the theorem on p. 84.) The thrust of sections 15, 16 and 18 is
covered in more detail in MAT2613 and MAT3711. For this reason we will use but
not greatly emphasize the material of these sections. However since this material is
essential background for what follows, the student should still take care to acquaint
himself with the ideas in these sections.

The proofs of the theorems in sections 26 need not be studied, although the
student should nevertheless be familiar with both their formulation and application.

In the following discussion we will assume that z = x + iy where x, y ∈ R.

Any complex function f : C → C may be decomposed into a real and imaginary
part f (z) = u (x, y) + iv (x, y) where u and v are real valued functions on C. In
fact since C is basically just a copy of R2 , we may think of u and v as real–valued
functions of two independent real variables. This simple little device of writing f as
a combination of two such 2–variable real functions allows one to apply the results
and techniques of real analysis to complex analysis. The essential idea behind this
approach is to try and describe the nature and behaviour of the complex function f
in terms of the behaviour of the real functions u and v. A classic example of where
this was done with great success is provided by the Cauchy–Riemann equations
(see sections 21 and 22). The theory surrounding these equations form much of the
heart of the theory of differentiability for complex functions.

On a different note this device of describing f in terms of u and v also allows

one to think of a complex function as a transformation of coordinates from the
z = x + iy = (x, y) coordinate system to the f (z) = u (x, y) + iv (x, y) = (u, v)
coordinate system. So yet another important way in which we can gain some
understanding of the behaviour of a specific complex function f is to study its
behaviour as a transformation of coordinates and to see how it transforms regions
in the (x, y)–plane onto regions in the (u, v)–plane. We will not spend too much
time on this aspect of transformation of regions by complex functions, but it is
nevertheless an aspect of the theory that the student should be aware.

21
 22

Solutions to selected problems

Solutions to some of the exercises in sections 12, 14, 18, 20, 23, 25 and 26
follow.

Exercise 1, §12, p. 37

For each of the functions below, describe the domain of definition that is un-
derstood:
1

(a) f (z) = 2 ; (b) f (z) =Arg z1 ;
z +1
z 1
(c) f (z) = ; (d) f (z) = 2.
z+z 1 − |z|
Solution:
1
(a) f (z) = is defined for all z except where z 2 = −1, i.e. except where
z2 + 1
z = ±i.
1
(b) z → is not defined where z = 0. In addition Arg(w) exists for every
z  
1
w 6= 0. Hence the composition z → Arg is defined whenever z 6= 0.
z
z
(c) f (z) = is not defined where z + z = 0. But z + z = 2ℜ (z). Hence
z+z
f is here defined for all z with ℜ (z) 6= 0.
1 2
(d) f (z) = 2 is defined whenever 1 − |z| 6= 0, i.e. whenever |z| =
6 1.
1 − |z|

Exercise 3, §12, p. 37
Suppose that f (z) = x2 − y 2 − 2y + i (2x − 2xy), where z = x + iy. Use the
fact (Sec. 5) that
z+z z−z
x= and y =
2 2i
to express f (z) in terms of z, and simplify the result.

Solution:
z+z z−z
With z = x + iy we have x = and y = . Thus f (z) = x2 − y 2 −
2 2i
2y + i (2x − 2xy) becomes
 2  2  
1 1 1
f (z) = (z + z) − (z − z) − 2 (z − z)
2 2i 2i
  
1
+i [z + z] − [z + z] (z − z)
2i
1 2
1 2

= z + 2zz + z 2 + z − 2zz + z 2
4 4
1 1 2

− (z − z) + i (z + z) − z − z2
i 2
= z 2 + i (z − z) + i (z + z)
= z 2 + 2iz.
 23 MAT3705/1

Exercise 1, §14, p. 44
By referring to Example 1, Sec. 13, find a domain in the z plane whose image
under the transformation w = z 2 is the square domain in the w plane bounded by
the lines u = 1, u = 2, v = 1 and v = 2. (See Fig. 2, Appendix 2.)

Solution:
By Example 1, Sec. 13, the mapping w = z 2 will map the hyperbolae 1 = 2xy
and 2 = 2xy onto the lines v = 1 and v = 2. In Example 2, Sec. 11, we saw that
u = ℜ (w) = x2 − y 2 . Thus w = z 2 will also map hyperbolae of the form c = x2 − y 2
onto lines of the form c = u. In particular it will map the region bounded by
1 = x2 − y 2 , 2 = x2 − y 2 and 1 = 2xy, 1 = xy onto the square bounded by u = 1,
u = 2, v = 1, v = 2. However the region bounded by 1 = x2 − y 2 , 2 = x2 − y 2
and 1 = 2xy, 1 = xy consists of two separate domains each of which maps onto
the square bounded by u = 1, u = 2 and v = 1, v = 2 (see the sketch). To see
that each maps onto the whole square observe that we can still cover all possible
values of v = 2xy and u = x2 − y 2 in the square if we insist that either x, y > 0 or
x, y < 0.

1 = xy x_ y = 0
1 = 2 xy

2 _ 2
x y =2
x2 _ y2 = 1
x+y =0

Exercise 3, §14, p. 44
π
Sketch the region onto which the sector r ≤ 1, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 4 is mapped by the
transformation (a) w = z 2 ; (b) w = z 3 ; (c) w = z 4 .

Solution:
Let z = reiθ (0 ≤ r, 0 ≤ θ). Since z n = rn einθ and since 0 ≤ r ≤ 1 and
0 ≤ θ ≤ π4 if and only if 0 ≤ rn ≤ 1 and 0≤ nθ ≤ n π4 , it is clear that z → z n maps
the sector 0 ≤ r ≤ 1, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π4 into the sector 0 ≤ ρ ≤ 1, 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ n π4 . To see that
the map is onto note that given any w0 = ρ0 eiϕ0 with 0 ≤ ρ0 ≤ 1, 0 ≤ ϕ0 ≤ n π4 ,
1
ϕ0 π
we may set r0 = (ρ0 ) n and θ0 = n . Then surely 0 ≤ r0 ≤ 1, 0 ≤ θ0 ≤ 4 and
z0n = w0 , where z0 = r0 eiθ0 .

From the above it is clear that

(a) z → z 2 maps the sector 0 ≤ r ≤ 1, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π4 onto the quarter–disc
0 ≤ ρ ≤ 1, 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ π2 ;
(b) z → z 3 maps the sector 0 ≤ r ≤ 1, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π4 onto the sector 0 ≤ ρ ≤
1, 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ 3π
4 ;
(c) z → z 4 maps the sector 0 ≤ r ≤ 1, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π4 onto the region 0 ≤ ρ ≤ 1,
0 ≤ ϕ ≤ π, i.e. onto the upper half of the disc |w| ≤ 1 where w = ρeiϕ .
 24

Exercise 5, §18, p. 55
 z 2
Show that the limit of the function f (z) = as z tends to 0 does not exist.
z
Do this by letting nonzero points z = (x, 0) and z = (x, x) approach the origin.
[Note that it is not sufficient to simply consider points z = (x, 0) and z = (0, y), as
it was in Example 2, Sec. 15.]

Solution:
Let z = x + iy. Then
 z 2  2
x + iy x2 − y 2 + i2xy
= = .
z x − iy x2 − y 2 − i2xy
Now if z = (x, 0) = x + i0, then
x2  z 2
= 1. =
z x2
If on the other hand z = (x, x) = x + ix (y = x), then
 z 2 i2x2
=− = −1.
z i2x2
 z 2
Thus along the line z = (x, 0), tends to 1 as z → 0, whereas along the line
 z 2 z  z 2
z = (x, x), tends to −1 as z → 0. Clearly then lim can not exist.
z z→0 z

Exercise 10, §18, p. 56

Use the theorem in Sec. 17 to show that
4z 2 1 z2 + 1
(a) lim = 4; (b) lim = ∞; (c) lim = ∞.
z→∞ (z − 1)2 z→1 (z − 1)3 z→∞ z − 1

Solution:
(a)


1 2
4z 2 4 z
lim 2 = lim

2 (by (2) of the theorem)
z→∞ (z − 1) z→0 1
z −1
4
= lim
z→0 (1 − z)2
= 4
3 1
(b) Now lim (z − 1) = 0 and hence (by (1) of the theorem) lim (z−1) 3 = ∞.
z→1 z→1
  1

2
z2 + 1 1 +1 1 + z2
(c) Let f (z) = . Then f = z1
= . Since
z−1 z z −1
z − z2
1 1
lim 1

= lim
z→0 f z
x→0 (1 + z 2 ) / (z − z 2 )
z − z2
= lim
z→0 1 + z 2
= 0
it follows from (3) of the theorem that
z2 + 1
lim = ∞.
z→∞ z − 1
 25 MAT3705/1

Exercise 11, §18, p. 56

With the aid of the theorem in Sec. 17 show that when
az + b
T (z) = (ad − bc 6= 0) ,
cz + d
(a) lim T (z) = ∞ if c = 0;
z→∞
a
(b) lim T (z) = and lim T (z) = ∞ if c 6= 0.
z→∞ c z→− dc

Solution:
1
(a) Since here c = 0, we have T (z) = (az + b) . In this case
d
1 1
lim
= lim 1 a

z→0 T 1
d z +b
z→0
z
dz
= lim .
z→0 a + bdz

Note that a 6= 0 since by assumption ad − bc 6= 0 and c = 0. Thus

1 dz
lim 1

= lim = 0.
z→0 T z
z→0 a + bdz
From (3) of the theorem we then have that lim T (z) = ∞.
z→∞
(b) Now let c 6= 0. Then
 
1
lim T (z) = lim T
z→∞ z→0 z


a z1 + b
= lim

z→0 c 1 + d
z
a + bz
= lim
z→0 c + dz
a
= .
c
Moreover since
1 cz + d
lim = lim
d T (z) az + b
z→− c z→− dc

 
c − dc + d d
=
(a − + b 6= 0 since ad − bc 6= 0)
a − dc + b c
= 0,
it follows that
lim T (z) = ∞.
z→− dc

Exercise 13, §18, p. 56

Show that a set S is unbounded (Sec. 11) if and only if every neighbourhood
of the point at infinity contains at least one point in S.

Solution:
A set S is unbounded
⇔ for every R > 0 we can find w ∈ S so that w lies outside the circle |z| = R
⇔ for every R > 0 we can find w ∈ S with |w| > R
⇔ for every ε > 0 we can find w ∈ S with |w| > 1ε (set R = 1ε )
⇔ every neighbourhood of ∞ contains at least one point of S.
 26

Exercise 1, §20, p. 62
Use results in Sec. 20 to find f ′ (z) when

3
(a) f (z) = 3z 2 − 2z + 4; (b) f (z) = 1 − 4z 2 ;
 
4
z−1 1 1 + z2
(c) f (z) = z=
6 − ; (d) f (z) = (z 6= 0) .
2z + 1 2 z2

Solutions:
(a) If f (z) = 3z 2 − 2z + 4 then f ′ (z) = 6z − 2.

3

2 2


2 2
(b) If f (z) = 1 − 4z 2 then
f ′
(z) = 3 1 − 4z . (−8z) = −24z 1 − 4z .
z−1 1
(c) If f (z) = 2z+1 z 6= − 2 ,then by the quotient rule

(2z + 1) .1 − 2. (z − 1)
f ′ (z) = 2
(2z + 1)
 
3 1
= 2 z 6= − .
(2z + 1) 2

4
1 + z2
(d) If f (z) = then by the quotient and chain rules
z2
h
3 i
4
z 2 . 4 1 + z 2 .2z − [2z] . 1 + z 2
f ′ (z) =
z4


2 3



2z 1 + z 4z 2 − 1 + z 2
=
z4

3

2 1 + z2 3z 2 − 1
= (z 6= 0) .
z3

Exercise 8, §20, p. 63
Use the method in Example 2, Sec. 19, to show that f ′ (z) does not exist at
any point z when
(a) f (z) = z; (b) f (z) = ℜz; (c) f (z) = ℑz.

Solution:
(a) Let f (z) = z. Then with w = f (z)
∆w ∆z ∆x − i∆y
= = .
∆z ∆z ∆x + i∆y
∆w ∆x
Now as ∆z = ∆x+i∆y approaches 0 along the line (∆x, 0), = =
∆z ∆x
∆w i∆y
1 approaches 1. On the other hand along the line (0, ∆y), =−
∆z i∆y
approaches −1. Thus for any z
f (z + ∆z) − f (z) ∆w
f ′ (z) = lim = lim
∆z→0 ∆z ∆z→0 ∆z

fails to exist.
(b) Let f (z) = ℜ (z). Then with w = f (z)
∆w ∆ (ℜ (z)) ∆x
= = .
∆z ∆z ∆x + i∆y
 27 MAT3705/1

Along the line (∆x, 0) this tends to 1 as ∆z → 0 whereas along the line
(∆x, ∆x) (i.e. ∆x = ∆y) this tends to
 
∆x 1 1 1
= = −i as ∆z → 0.
∆x + i∆x 1+i 2 2
Thus as before for any z
f (z + ∆z) − f (z) ∆w
f ′ (z) = lim = lim
∆z→0 ∆z ∆z→0 ∆z
fails to exist.
(c) If f (z) = ℑ (z) then with w = f (z)
∆w ∆ (ℑ (z)) ∆y
= = .
∆z ∆z ∆x + i∆y
1
Along the line (0, ∆y) this tends to = −i as ∆z → 0, whereas along the
i
∆x 1 1 1
line ∆x = ∆y this tends to = = − i as ∆z → 0. As
∆x + i∆x 1+i 2 2
before this ensures that for any z
f (z + ∆z) − f (z) ∆w
f ′ (z) = lim = lim
∆z→0 ∆z ∆z→0 ∆z
fails to exist.

Exercise 9, §20, p. 63
Let f denote the function whose values are

 (z)2
f (z) = when z 6= 0,
 z0 when z = 0.
Show that if z = 0, then ∆w/∆z = 1 at each nonzero point on the real and
∆w
imaginary axes in the ∆z, or (∆x, ∆y), plane. Then show that = −1 at each
∆z
nonzero point (∆x, ∆x) on the line ∆y = ∆x in that plane. Conclude from these
observations that f ′ (0) does not exist. (Note that, to obtain this result, it is not
sufficient to consider only horizontal and vertical approaches to the origin in the
∆z plane.)

Solution:
For z = 0 we have
f (0 + ∆z) − f (0) f (∆z) − 0
=
∆z ∆z !
2
1 ∆z
=
∆z ∆z
 2
∆z
=
∆z
 2
∆x − i∆y
=
∆x + i∆y


∆x2 − ∆y 2 − i2∆x∆y
= .
(∆x2 − ∆y 2 ) + i2∆x∆y
On the real and imaginary axes (i.e. either ∆y = 0 or ∆x = 0) we get
f (0 + ∆z) − f (0)
= 1.
∆z
 28

f (∆z) − f (0) ∆x2 f (∆z) − f (0)

(If ∆y = 0, then = = 1 whereas if ∆x = 0, then =
∆z ∆x2 ∆z
−∆y 2
= 1.) However on the line ∆x = ∆y we get
−∆y 2
f (∆z) − f (0) −i2∆x2
= = −1.
∆z i2∆x2
f (∆z) − f (0)
Thus there is no unique value we can ascribe to as ∆z → 0. Hence
∆z
f (0 + ∆z) − f (0)
f ′ (0) = lim
∆z→0 ∆z
fails to exist.

Exercise 1, §23, p. 71
Use the theorem in Sec. 21 to show that f ′ (z) does not exist at any point if
(a) f (z) = z; (b) f (z) = z − z; (c) f (z) = 2x + ixy 2 ; (d) ex e−iy .

Solution:
Let z = x + iy.
(a) For f (z) = z = x − iy we have that u (x, y) = x and v (x, y) = −y.
Thus for all z = (x, y), ux = 1 and vy = −1. Clearly the Cauchy–
Riemann equations then fail to hold for every z. (We always have ux 6=
vy .) Therefore f is nowhere differentiable.
(b) For f (z) = z − z = 2iℑ (z) = 2iy we have u (x, y) = 0 and v (x, y) = 2y.
Therefore ux = 0 and vy = 2. As before the Cauchy–Riemann equations
never hold since we always have ux 6= vy . Thus f ′ (z) never exists.
(c) For f (z) = 2x + ixy 2 we have u = 2x and v = xy 2 . Therefore
ux = 2, uy = 0, vx = y 2 and vy = 2xy.
The equation uy = −vx will therefore hold precisely when 0 = −y 2 , i.e.
when y = 0. However if y = 0 then
2 = ux 6= vy = 2xy = 0.
Therefore the equations uy = −vx and ux = vy can never hold simultane-
ously. Hence f ′ (z) does not exist at any z.
(d) For f (z) = ex e−iy = ex cos y−iex sin y we have u = ex cos y, v = −ex sin y.
Hence ux = ex cos y, uy = −ex sin y, vx = −ex sin y and vy = −ex cos y.
Recall that ex 6= 0 for all x. Thus ex cos y = ux = vy = −ex cos y will hold
precisely when cos y = 0, i.e. when y = (2k + 1) π2 (k ∈ Z). On the other
hand −ex sin y = uy = −vx = ex sin y will hold precisely when sin y = 0,
i.e. when y = kπ (k ∈ Z). Thus as before the equations ux = vy and
uy = −vx can never hold simultaneously. Therefore f ′ (z) fails to exist
for each z.

Exercise 3, §23, p. 71
From results obtained in Secs. 21 and 22, determine where f ′ (z) exists and
find its value when
1
(a) f (z) = ; (b) f (z) = x2 + iy 2 ; (c) f (z) = zℑz.
z
 29 MAT3705/1

Solution:
1
(a) Given f (z) = (z 6= 0) we write
z
1 z x − iy
f (z) = = = 2 .
z zz x + y2
x y
Thus here u = 2 and v = − 2 . Now whenever (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
x + y2 x + y2
we have
y 2 − x2
ux = 2 = vy
(x2 + y 2 )
and
2xy
uy = − 2 = −vx .
(x + y 2 )
2

Moreover ux , vy , uy , vx as given above are defined and continuous on all

of C − {0}. Therefore by the theorem in Sec. 22 of the textbook f ′ (z)
exists whenever z 6= 0. At z = 0 f (z) is not defined and hence f ′ (0) does
1
not exist. Using differentiation rules it is easy to see that f ′ (z) = − 2
z
for all z 6= 0.
(b) Given f (z) = x2 + iy 2 we have u = x2 and v = y 2 . Thus ux = 2x, uy = 0,
vx = 0, vy = 2y. Clearly we always have uy = −vx with ux = vy holding
precisely when x = y. In addition ux , uy , vx and vy are continuous on all
of C and hence f is differentiable at all points z = x + iy with x = y and
not differentiable at all other points. At a point z = x + ix the derivative
is
f ′ (x + ix) = ux + ivx = 2x.
(c) Given f (z) = zℑ (z) we have f (z) = xy + iy 2 and hence u = xy and v =
y 2 . Therefore ux = y, uy = x, vx = 0, vy = 2y. Now y = ux = vy = 2y
will hold precisely when y = 0 with x = uy = −vx = 0 holding precisely
when x = 0. Thus if z 6= 0 f ′ (z) does not exist since then at least one of
ux = vy and uy = −vx must fail. On the other hand if z = 0, we do have
ux = vy and uy = −vx . Since in addition we also have that ux , uy , vx , vy
are continuous in a neighbourhood of z = 0 ((x, y) = (0, 0)), f ′ (0) exists
with
f ′ (0) = ux (0, 0) + ivx (0, 0) = 0.

Exercise 5, §23, p. 72
3
Show that when f (z) = x3 + i (1 − y) , it is legitimate to write
f ′ (z) = ux + ivx = 3x2
only when z = i.

Solution:
For f (z) = x3 + i (1 − y)3 we have u = x3 and v = (1 − y)3 . Therefore
2
ux = 3x2 , uy = 0, vx = 0 and vy = −3 (1 − y) . Clearly uy = −vx is always
2 2
true with ux = vy holding precisely x2 = − (1 − y) , i.e. when x2 + (1 − y) = 0.
2 2
Since x2 ≥ 0 and (1 − y) ≥ 0, x2 + (1 − y) = 0 can only be true if x2 = 0 and
2
(1 − y) = 0, i.e. if x = 0 and y = 1. At all other points the Cauchy–Riemann
equations fail to hold and hence f ′ (z) fails to exist. Now the point (x, y) = (0, 1)
of course corresponds to z = i and since ux , uy , vx , vy as given above satisfy the
 30

Cauchy–Riemann equations at this point and are continuous in any neighbourhood

of z = i, f ′ (z) does exist at z = i with
f ′ (z) = ux (0, 1) + ivx (0, 1) = 0.
Exercise 6, §23, p. 72
Let u and v denote the real and imaginary components of the function f defined
by the equations 
 (z)2
f (z) = when z 6= 0,
 z0 when z = 0.
Verify that the Cauchy–Riemann equations ux = vy and uy = −vx are satisfied at
the origin z = (0, 0). [Compare Exercise 9, Sec. 20, where it is shown that f ′ (0)
nevertheless fails to exist.]

Solution:
Let z = x + iy. Then if z 6= 0,
2



z2 (x − iy) x − iy x x2 − 3y 2 + iy y 2 − 3x2
= . = .
z x + iy x − iy x2 + y 2
Therefore for 
 z2
f (z) = if z 6= 0
 z0 if z = 0
we have 

 x x2 − 3y 2
if (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
u (x, y) = x2 + y 2

0 if (x, y) = (0, 0)
and 

 y y 2 − 3x2
v (x, y) = if (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
 x2 + y 2
0 if (x, y) = (0, 0) .
From first principles
∂u u (∆x, 0) − u (0, 0)
(0, 0) = lim
∂x ∆x→0 ∆x
3 2
(∆x) / (∆x) − 0
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
= 1
and
∂u u (0, ∆y) − u (0, 0)
(0, 0) = lim
∂y ∆y→0 ∆y
0−0
= lim
∆y→0 ∆y
= 0.
Similarly
∂v ∂v
(0, 0) = 0 and (0, 0) = 1.
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
Clearly (0, 0) = (0, 0) and (0, 0) = − (0, 0) . However in spite of
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
this fact we know from exercise 9, Section 20 of the textbook that f ′ (0) does NOT
exist.
 31 MAT3705/1

This example shows that the Cauchy–Riemann equations are on their own not
enough to guarantee differentiability of a function at a given point. We must also
have that the derivatives ux , uy , vx , vy exist and are continuous in a neighbour-
hood of that point. In this present example the partial derivatives ux , uy , vx and
vy are not continuous at (0, 0). For example by means of differentiation rules and
what we’ve already shown it follows that
 4 4 2 2
 x − 3y + 6x y if (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
ux (x, y) = 2
 (x2 + y 2 )
1 if (x, y) = (0, 0) .
On the line x = 0 we have ux (0, y) = −3 if y 6= 0. Thus as (x, y) tends to (0, 0)
along this line we have ux → −3. Since ux (0, 0) = 1 6= −3, the function ux can
not be continuous at (0, 0).

Exercise 7, §23, p. 72
Solve equations (2), Sec. 23, for ux and uy to show that
sin θ cos θ
ux = ur cos θ − uθ , uy = ur sin θ + uθ .
r r
Then use these equations and similar ones for vx and vy to show that, in Sec. 23,
equations (4) are satisfied at a point z0 if equations (6) are satisfied there. Thus
complete the verification that equations (6), Sec. 23, are the Cauchy–Riemann
equations in polar form.

Solution
From (2) in Sec. 23 of the textbook we know that
ur = ux cos θ + uy sin θ (a)
and
uθ = −ux r sin θ + uy r cos θ. (b)
Therefore
sin θ
ur cos θ − uθ = (ux cos θ + uy sin θ) cos θ
r
sin θ
− (−ux r sin θ + uy r cos θ)

r
= ux cos2 θ + sin2 θ
= ux
and
cos θ
ur sin θ + uθ = (ux cos θ + uy sin θ) sin θ
r
cos θ
+ (−uxr sin θ + yy r cos θ)

r
= uy sin2 θ + cos2 θ
= uy .
Similarly
sin θ cos θ
vr cos θ − vθ = vx and vr sin θ + vθ = vy .
r r
Therefore if
1 1
ur = vθ and uθ = −vr
r r
 32

then
sin θ
ux = ur cos θ − uθ
  r
1
= vθ cos θ − (−vr ) sin θ
r
cos θ
= vθ + vr sin θ
r
= vy

and
 
1
uy = ur sin θ + uθ cos θ
r
 
1
= vθ sin θ − vr cos θ
r
 
sin θ
= − vr cos θ − vθ
r
= −vx .

Since we already know from (6) of Sec. 23 of the textbook that

1 1
ur = vθ and uθ = −vr
r r
whenever
ux = vy and uy = −vx ,
it follows that ur = r1 vθ and 1r uθ = −vr if and only if ux = vy and uy = −vx .

Exercise 8, §23, p. 72
Suppose that a function f (z) = u + iv is differentiable at a nonzero point
z0 = r0 exp (iθ0 ). Use the expressions for ux and vx found in Exercise 7, together
with the polar form (6), Sec. 23, of the Cauchy–Riemann equations, to show that
f ′ (z0 ) can be written
f ′ (z0 ) = e−iθ (ur + ivr ) ,
where ur and vr are evaluated at (r0 , θ0 ).

Solution:
We know from section 21 of the textbook that f ′ (z) = ux + ivx where–ever
′
f (z) exists. But since
sin θ sin θ
ux = ur cos θ − uθ and vx = vr cos θ − vθ
r r
(see exercise 7), it follows that
 
′ sin θ sin θ
f (z0 ) = ur cos θ − uθ + i vr cos θ − vθ .
r r
Now since f ′ (z0 ) exists, the Cauchy–Riemann equations hold. By exercise (7)
above this is equivalent to
1 1
ur = vθ and uθ = −vr .
r r
 33 MAT3705/1

Therefore
     
1 1
f ′ (zθ ) = ur cos θ − uθ sin θ + i vr cos θ − vθ sin θ
r r
= ur cos θ + vr sin θ + i (vr cos θ − ur sin θ)
= (cos θ − i sin θ) (ur + ivr )
= e−iθ (ur + ivr ) .

Exercise 9, §23, p. 72
(a) With the aid of the polar form (6), Sec. 23, of the Cauchy–Riemann
equations, derive the alternative form

−i
f ′ (z0 ) = (uθ + ivθ )
z0

of the expression for f ′ (z0 ) found in Exercise 8.

(b) Use the expression for f ′ (z0 ) found in part (a) to show that the derivative
1
of the function f (z) = 1/z (z 6= 0) in Example 1, Sec. 23, is f ′ (z) = − 2 .
z

Solution:
(a) As in exercise (8) above it follows that
 
sin θ sin θ
f ′ (z0 ) = ur cos θ − uθ + i vr cos θ − vθ
r r

and
1 1
ur = vθ and uθ = −vr
r r
where–ever f ′ (z) exists. Hence f ′ (z0 ) may be written as
    
1 sin θ 1 sin θ
f ′ (z0 ) = vθ cos θ − uθ +i − uθ cos θ − vθ
r r r r
1
= (−i) (cos θ − i sin θ) (uθ + ivθ )
r
1
= −i e−iθ (uθ + ivθ )
r
i
= − iθ (uθ + ivθ )
re
i
= − (uθ + ivθ )
z0
where zθ = reiθ .

(b) Let z = reiθ . Then

1 1 1
f (z) = = e−iθ = (cos θ − i sin θ) .
z r r
 34

Therefore u = 1r cos θ, v = − r1 sin θ. Clearly uθ = − 1r sin θ and vθ =

− 1r cos θ, and hence by 9(a)
i
f ′ (z) = − (uθ + ivθ )
z 
i 1 1
= − − sin θ − i cos θ
z r r
11
= − (cos θ − i sin θ)
zr
11
= − e−iθ
zr
1 1
= −
z reiθ
1
= − 2.
z

Exercise 1, §25, p. 77
Apply the theorem in Sec. 22 to verify that each of these functions is entire:
(a) f (z) = 3x + y + i (3y − x) ; (b) f (z) = sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y;


(c) f (z) = e−y sin x − ie−y cos x; (d) f (z) = z 2 − 2 e−x e−iy .

Solution:
(a) For f (z) = 3x + y + i (3y − x) we have u = 3x + y and v = 3y − x. For
all (x, y) we now have that ux = 3 = vy and uy = 1 = −vx . Since in
addition ux , uy , vx , vy are continuous on all of C, f is entire (analytic
on all of C.)
(b) Given f (z) = sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y we have u = sin x cosh y and
v = cos x sinh y. For all (x, y) we now see that
ux = cos x cosh y = vy
and
uy = sin x sinh y = −vx .
In addition each of ux , uy , vx , vy are continuous on all of C and hence f
is entire.
(c) Here f = u + iv where u = e−y sin x and v = −e−y cos x. But then
ux = e−y cos x = vy and uy = −e−y sin x = −vx
for each (x, y) with again each of ux , uy , vx and vy clearly continuous on
all of C. Therefore f is entire.
(d) Here


f (z) = z 2 − 2 e−x eiy



= x2 − y 2 − 2 + i2xy e−x (cos y − i sin y)
 2

= x − y 2 − 2 e−x cos y + 2xye−x sin y


+i 2xye−x cos y − x2 − y 2 − 2 e−x sin y
and hence


u = x2 − y 2 − 2 e−x cos y + 2xye−x sin y
and


v = 2xye−x cos y − x2 − y 2 − 2 e−x sin y.
 35 MAT3705/1

Now


ux = 2xe−x cos y − x2 − y 2 − 2 e−x cos y + 2ye−x sin y − 2xye−x sin y = vy

and


uy = −2ye−x cos y − x2 − y 2 − 2 e−x sin y + 2xe−x sin y + 2xye−x cos y = −vx .

In addition all these first partials are continuous on all of C, whence

f is analytic on all of C.

Exercise 4, §25, p. 77
In each case, determine the singular points of the function and state why the
function is analytic everywhere except at those points:
2z + 1 z3 + i z2 + 1
(a) f (z) = 2
; (b) f (z) = 2 ; (c) f (z) = .
z (z + 1) z − 3z + 2 (z + 2) (z 2 + 2z + 2)

Solution:
Each of the functions is a quotient of two polynomials. Since polynomials are
analytic on all of C, each of these functions will therefore be analytic where–ever
the denominator is non–zero. At the zeros of the denominator the function is not
defined and hence these points are singular points of the function.
2z + 1

(a) f (z) = 2
has singular points where z z 2 + 1 = 0, i.e. where
z (z + 1)
either z = 0 or z = ±i.
z3 + i
(b) f (z) = 2 has singular points where 0 = z 2 −3z+2 = (z − 2) (z − 1),
z − 3z + 2
i.e. where z = 1, 2.
z2 + 1
(c) f (z) = has singular points where either z + 2 = 0 or
(z + 2) (z 2 + 2z + 2) √
2 −2 ± 4 − 8
z + 2z + 2 = 0, i.e. where either z = −2 or z = = −1 ± i.
2

Exercise 6, §25, p. 78
Use results in Sec. 23 to verify that the function

g (z) = ln r + iθ (r > 0, 0 < θ < 2π)

1
is analytic in the indicated domain of definition, with derivative g ′ (z) = . Then

z
show that the composite function g z 2 + 1 is an
analytic function of z in the
quadrant x > 0, y > 0, with derivative 2z/ z 2 + 1 .

Suggestion: Observe that ℑ z 2 + 1 > 0 when x > 0, y > 0.

Solution:
For g (z) = ln r + iθ (r > 0, 2π > θ > 0) where z = reiθ we have that u =
ln r and v = θ. Clearly ur = 1r , vθ = 1 and uθ = vr = 0 on the region
(r > 0, 2π > θ > 0). Thus
1 1 1
ur = = vθ and uθ = 0 = vθ
r r r
 36

with in addition each of ur , uθ , vθ , vr continuous on the entire region. Therefore

by the theorem in section 23 of the textbook g ′ (z) exists in this region with
g ′ (z) = e−iθ (ur + ivr )
1
= e−iθ
r
1
=
reiθ
1
= .
z
Now note that the polynomial z 2 + 1 is analytic everywhere. The composition
g(z 2 + 1) will therefore be analytic at all points z0 for which z02 + 1 lies in the region
(r > 0, 2π > θ > 0). For any z0 = x0 + iy0 we have that z02 + 1 = (x0 + iy0 )2 + 1 =
(x20 − y02 + 1) + i2x0 y0 and hence that ℑ(z02 + 1) = 2x0 y0 . Thus if x0 > 0, y0 > 0
then ℑ(z02 + 1) > 0. Geometrically this means that z02 + 1 then lies above the real
axis, or rather that |z02 + 1| > 0 and 0 < Arg(z02 + 1) < π. From what we noted
earlier g(z02 + 1) will therefore be differentiable at each such point. Thus g(z 2 + 1)
is differentiable, and hence analytic, on all of x > 0, y > 0. It now easily follows
d
from the chain rule that dz g(z 2 + 1) = [1/(z 2 + 1)].2z = 2z/(z 2 + 1) on this region.

Exercise 7, §25, p. 78
Let a function f (z) be analytic in a domain D. Prove that f (z) must be
constant in D if
(a) f (z) is real–valued for all z in D;
(b) |f (z)| is constant in D.
Suggestion: Use the Cauchy–Riemann equations and the theorem in
Sec. 24 to prove part (a). To prove part (b), observe that f (z) = c2 /f (z)
if |f (z)| = c, where c 6= 0; then use the main result in Example 3, Sec.
25.

Solution:
(a) Let f be analytic and real–valued on all of D. Since f is real–valued,
v = 0, and since in addition f is analytic on D,
ux = vy = 0 and uy = −vx = 0.
But then
f ′ (z) = ux + ivx = 0
on all of D. Clearly f is then constant on D by the theorem in Sec. 24
of the textbook.
(b) If |f (z)| = 0 on all of D then surely f (z) = 0 on all of D in which case
we are done. Hence suppose |f (z)| = c where c > 0 on all of D. Then
f (z) has no zeros on D, and hence c2 /f (z) will be analytic on D. But
2
c2 |f (z)| f (z) f (z)
= = = f (z),
f (z) f (z) f (z)
and hence both f and f will then be analytic on D. By Example 3, Sec.
25, f must then be constant.

Exercise 2, §26, p. 81
Show that if v and V are harmonic conjugates of u in a domain D, then v (x, y)
and V (x, y) can differ at most by an additive constant.
 37 MAT3705/1

Solution:
If both v and V are harmonic conjugates of u in the domain D then both u + iv
and u + iV are analytic on D. Thus it then follows from the Cauchy–Riemann
equations that
vx = −uy = Vx and vy = ux = Vy .
Since now
∂
(v − V ) = vx − Vx = 0
∂x
∂
(v − V ) = vy − Vy = 0,
∂y
we may argue as in the proof of the theorem in Sec. 24 of the textbook to show
that v − V is then constant.

Exercise 3, §26, p. 82
Show that if v is a harmonic conjugate of u in a domain D and also u is a
harmonic conjugate of v, then u (x, y) and v (x, y) must be constant throughout D.
Solution:
If u and v are harmonic conjugates of each other then both u + iv and v + iu
are analytic on D. Cauchy–Riemann equations must hold for both these functions
whence
ux = vy , uy = −vx
for u + iv and
vx = uy , vy = −ux
for v + iu on all of D. It is not difficult to conclude from this that ux = uy = vx =
vy = 0. As before by arguing as in the proof of the theorem in Sec.24 of the textbook
we may then conclude from this that both u and v are constant throughout D.

Exercise 7, §26, p. 82
Let the function f (z) = u (x, y) + iv (x, y) be analytic in a domain D, and con-
sider the families of level curves u (x, y) = c1 and v (x, y) = c2 , where c1 and c2 are
arbitrary real constants. Prove that these families are orthogonal. More precisely,
show that if z0 = (x0 , y0 ) is a point in D which is common to two particular curves
u (x, y) = c1 and v (x, y) = c2 and if f ′ (z0 ) 6= 0, then the lines tangent to those
curves at (x0 , y0 ) are perpendicular.

Suggestion: Note how it follows from the equation u (x, y) = c1 and v (x, y) = c2
that
∂u ∂u dy ∂v ∂v dy
+ = 0 and + = 0.
∂x ∂y dx ∂x ∂y dx

Solution:
Observe that the equation u (x, y) = c1 implicitly defines a function y of x. To
dy
compute the derivative of this function we differentiate the equation u (x, y) = c1
dx
implicitly to get
∂u ∂u dy
+ = 0.
∂x ∂y dx
(We could also have used the chain rule for functions of 2 real variables to see that
∂u ∂u dy ∂u dx ∂u dy d
+ = + = c1 = 0.)
∂x ∂y dx ∂x dx ∂y dx dx
In any case at any (x, y) the slope of the line tangent to u (x, y) = c1 is given by
dy ∂u ∂u
m1 = where + m1 = 0. Similarly we can show that at any (x, y) on the
dx ∂x ∂y
 38

curve v (x, y) = c2 the slope of the line tangent to this curve at (x, y) is given by
∂v ∂v
m2 where + m2 = 0.
∂x ∂y
Now let z0 be a point on the intersection of u (x, y) = c1 and v (x, y) = c2 at
which f ′ (z0 ) 6= 0. Then
ux (x0 , y0 ) = vy (x0 , y0 ) , uy (x0 , y0 ) = −vx (x0 , y0 )
at z0 . Since 0 6= f ′ (z0 ) = ux (x0 , y0 ) + ivx (x0 , y0 ) , ux and vx can not both be zero
at z0 = x0 + iy0 . Suppose ux (x0 , y0 ) 6= 0. Then
1 uy (x0 , y0 )
= −
m1 ux (x0 , y0 )
vx (x0 , y0 )
=
vy (x0 , y0 )
= −m2 .
This proves that the tangent lines to u (x, y) = c1 and v (x, y) = c2 at z0 = x0 + iy0
are orthogonal. (To see this recall that two straight lines y = m1 x + c1 and
y = m2 x + c2 are orthogonal precisely when m1 m2 = −1.)
 CHAPTER 3

Elementary Functions

Study only sections 29-35. Complex inverse trigonometric and hyperbolic func-
tions will not be dealt with in this course.
Our primary objective in this chapter is to introduce complex analogs of the
most important elementary functions, to describe the basic properties of these func-
tions, and to gain some experience in working with these functions. The complex
cousins of the well-known elementary real functions, are both more interesting and
more tricky. For example whereas the real-valued version of sin is bounded, the
same is not true of the complex version. Where for each positive real number x
there is a unique real number w = log(x) for which x = ew , for any given non-
zero complex number z, there are infinitely many possible values we can ascribe to
log(z). The complex version of the logarithm is therefore what we may call a multi-
valued function. To produce a complex version of the logarithm which ascribes one
single value to each element of its domain, we need to restrict the possible values of
log(z) in a natural way, by taking a so-called branch cut. These and other aspects
are explained in this chapter.

39
 40

Solutions to selected problems

Solutions to some of the exercises in sections 29, 31–35 follow.

Exercise 1, §29, p. 92
Show that
  r
2 + πi e
(a) exp (2 ± 3πi) = −e2 ; (b) exp = (1 + i) ;
4 2
(c) exp (z + πi) = − exp z.

Solution
(a)
exp (2 ± 3πi) = e2 e±3πi
= e2 (cos (±3πi) + i sin (±3πi))
= e2 (cos 3π ± i sin 3π)
= e2 (−1 ± i0)
= −e2
(b)
   
2 + πi 1 π
exp = exp +i
4 2 4
1
 π π
= e 2 cos + i sin
4 4
 
√ 1 1
= e √ + i√
2 2
r
e
= (1 + i)
2
(c)
exp (z + πi) = exp z · exp πi
= exp z (cos π + i sin π)
= − exp z

Exercise 3, §29, p. 92
Prove that the function exp z̄ is not analytic anywhere.

Solution
Let z = x + iy. Then z̄ = x − iy and
exp (z̄) = ex e−iy
= ex (cos (−y) + i sin (−y))
= ex cos y − iex sin y.
Thus here
u = ℜ (exp (z̄)) = ex cos y
v = ℑ (exp (z̄)) = −ex sin y.
 41 MAT3705/1

Therefore
ux = ex cos y
vx = −ex sin y
uy = −ex sin y
vy = −ex cos y.
Now since ex 6= 0 for all x,
ex cos y = ux = vy = −ex cos y
can only hold when cos y = − cos y, i.e. when cos y = 0. Similarly
−ex sin y = uy = −vx = ex sin y
can only hold when sin y = 0. Since cos y and sin y can never simultaneously be zero,
it follows that the Cauchy–Riemann equations never hold and hence that exp (z̄) is
nowhere differentiable.

Exercise 5, §29, p. 92

Write |exp (2z + i)| and exp iz 2 in terms of x and y. Then show that


exp (2z + i) + exp iz 2 ≤ e2x + e−2xy .

Solution
On setting z = x + iy we see that
|exp (2z + i)| = |exp (2x + i (2y + 1))|
= e2x
and





exp iz 2 = exp i x2 − y 2 + i2xy



= exp −2xy + i x2 − y 2
= e−2xy .
Hence



exp (2z + i) + exp iz 2 ≤ |exp (2z + i)| + exp iz 2
= e2x + e−2xy .

Exercise 8, §29, p. 92
Find all values of z such that
(a) ez = −2; √
(b) ez = 1 + 3i;
(c) exp (2z − 1) = 1.

Solution
(a) In polar form −2 = 2 (cos π + i sin π) = 2eiπ . Therefore if
ex eiy = ez = −2 = 2eiπ
then by the statement at the top of p. 25 of the textbook we must have
ex = 2 and y = π + 2nπ (n ∈ Z) .
z
Therefore e = −2 if and only if z = ln 2 + i (2n + 1) π (n ∈ Z) .
 42

√ iθ
√
√ write 1 + 3i in polar form. Here re = 1 + 3i where r =
(b) We first
1 + 3i = 2 and θ is chosen so that
√
1 √  1 3
cos θ + i sin θ = 1 + 3i = + i ,
r 2 2
√ √
i.e. cos θ = 21 and sin θ = 23 . Clearly θ = π3 will suffice. Hence 1 + 3i =
2eiπ/3 . Again by the statement at the top of p. 25 of the textbook
√
ex eiy = ez = 1 + 3i = 2eiπ/3
if and only if ex = 2 (i.e. x = ln 2) and y = π3 + 2nπ (n ∈ Z) . Thus
√

ez = 1 + 3i precisely when z = ln 2 + i π3 + 2nπ , n ∈ Z.
(c) With z = x + iy, exp (2z − 1) = exp ((2x − 1) + i2y) . Thus as before
e2x−1 ei2y = exp (2z − 1) = 1 = 1ei0
if and only if
e2x−1 = 1 and 2y = 2nπ, n ∈ Z.
Consequently exp (2z − 1) = 1 if and only if x = 12 (or equivalently 2x −
1 = ln 1 = 0) and y = nπ (n ∈ Z) , that is z = 12 + inπ (n ∈ Z) .

Exercise 9, §29, p. 92
Show that exp (iz) = exp (iz̄) if and only if z = nπ (n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .) . (Com-
pare Exercise 4, Sec. 28.)

Solution
Observe that
exp (iz) = exp (i (x + iy))
= exp (−y + ix)
= e−y (cos x + i sin x) .
Thus
exp (iz) = e−y (cos x + i sin x)
= e−y (cos x − i sin x)
= e−y (cos (−x) + i sin (−x))
= e−y e−ix .
On the other hand
exp (iz̄) = exp (i (x − iy))
= exp (y + ix)
= ey eix .
Again by the statement at the top of p. 25 of the textbook
exp (iz) = exp (iz̄) ⇔ e−y e−ix = ey eix
⇔ e−y = ey and − x = x + 2nπ (n ∈ Z)
⇔ y = 0 and x = nπ (n ∈ Z)
⇔ z = nπ (n ∈ Z) .

Exercise 10, §29, p. 92

(a) Show that if ez is real, then ℑz = nπ (n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .) .
(b) If ez is pure imaginary, what restriction is placed on z?
 43 MAT3705/1

Solution
(a) ez = ex eiy = ex (cos y + i sin y) is real if and only if sin y = 0 if and only
if y = ℑz = nπ (n ∈ Z) .
(b) Similarly ez = ex (cos y + i sin y) is pure imaginary if and only if cos y = 0
if and only if y = ℑz = (2n + 1) π2 (n ∈ Z) .

Exercise 11, §29, p. 92

Describe the behaviour of exp (x + iy) as
(a) x tends to −∞;
(b) y tends to ∞.

Solution
(a) By (7) of Section 29 of the textbook
|exp (x + iy)| = ex .
As x → −∞ it therefore follows that |exp (x + iy)| = ex → 0 and hence
that
exp (x + iy) → 0.
(b) For any fixed x and w = exp (x + iy) it follows from (7) of Section 29 of
the textbook that
y ∈ arg (w) with |w| = ex
Thus as y increases, exp (x + iy) rotates anticlockwise around the circle
centred at the origin with radius ex .

Exercise 13, §29, p. 92

Let the function f (z) = u (x, y) + iv (x, y) be analytic in some domain D. State
why the functions
U (x, y) = eu(x,y) cos v (x, y)
V (x, y) = eu(x,y) sin v (x, y)
are harmonic in D and why V (x, y) is, in fact, a harmonic conjugate of U (x, y) .

Solution
Since f (z) = u (x, y) + iv (x, y) is analytic in a domain D and exp (z) = ez
analytic on all of C, the composition
exp ◦f (z) = ef (z)
= eu(x,y) eiv(x,y)
= eu(x,y) (cos (v (x, y)) + i sin (v (x, y)))
is analytic in D. Thus by Theorems 1 and 2 of Section 26 of the textbook it follows
that
U (x, y) = ℜ (exp ◦f (z)) = eu(x,y) cos (v (x, y))
and
V (x, y) = ℑ (exp ◦f (z)) = eu(x,y) sin (v (x, y))
are both harmonic in D and that V (x, y) is a harmonic conjugate of U (x, y) .

Exercise 1, §31, p. 97
Show that
(a) Log(−ei) = 1 − π2 i;
(b) Log(1 − i) = 12 ln 2 − π4 i.
 44

Solution
(a) For −ei we clearly have Arg(−ei) = − π2 . Hence
Log (−ei) = ln |−ei| + iArg (−ei)
π
= ln e − i
2
π
= 1−i .
2
(b) To find Arg(1 − i) we need to select θ in the fourth quadrant with −π <
θ ≤ π so that tan θ = −1. Clearly Arg(1 − i) = − π4 whence
Log (1 − i) = ln |1 − i| + iArg (1 − i)
1 π
= ln 2 2 − i
4
1 π
= ln 2 − i .
2 4

Exercise 3, §31, p. 97
Show that
2
(a) Log(1 + i) = 2Log(1 + i) ;
(b) Log(−1 + i)2 6= 2Log(−1 + i) .

Solution
√
(a) In polar form (1 + i) = 2eiπ/4 . Therefore
1 π
Log (1 + i) = ln 2 2 + i
4
1 π
= ln 2 + i .
2 4
2 iπ/2
Moreover (1 + i) = 2i = 2e whence
2 π
Log (1 + i) = ln 2 + i
 2 
1 π
= 2 ln 2 + i
2 4
= 2Log (1 + i) .
√
(b) In polar form −1 + i = 2eiθ where θ is selected in the second quadrant
so that tan θ = −1, i.e. θ = 3π
4 . Therefore
13π
Log (−1 + i) = ln 2 2 + i
4
1 3π
= ln 2 + i .
2 4
Furthermore (−1 + i) = −2i = 2e−iπ/2 . Therefore
2 π
Log (−1 + i) = ln 2 − i
2
whereas
3π
2Log (−1 + i) = ln 2 + i .
2
 45 MAT3705/1

Exercise 5 §31, p. 97
Show that



(a) the set of values of log i1/2 is n + 41 πi (n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .) and that
the same is true of 12 log i;

(b) the set of values of log i2 is not the same as the set of values of 2 log i.

Solution
(a) In polar form i = eiπ/2 whence
i 2 = ei( 4 +kπ)
1 π
(∗) k = 0, 1
and
π 
log (i) = ln 1 + i + 2nπ
π 2
= i + 2nπ
2
(n ∈ Z) . Moreover by (*)
 1 π 
log i 2 = ln 1 + i + nπ
π 4
= i + nπ (n ∈ Z) .
4
 1
Clearly 21 log (i) = log i 2 .
(b) From (a) above we know that
π 
log i = i + 2nπ (n ∈ Z)
2
and hence that
2 log i = i (π + 4nπ) (n ∈ Z) .
In polar form i = −1 = 1eiπ whence
2

log i2 = ln 1 + i (π + 2nπ)
= i (π + 2nπ) (n ∈ Z) .
2


Clearly log i 6= 2 log i.

Exercise 7, §31, p. 97
Find all roots of the equation log z = (π/2) i.

Solution
π 
log (z) = (π/2) i ⇔ ln |z| + iθ = i (where z = |z| eiθ )
2
π
⇔ ln |z| = 0, ∈ arg (z)
2
π
⇔ |z| = 1, Arg (z) =
2
⇔ z = eiπ/2 = i
 46

Exercise 9, §31, p. 97
Show that
(a) the function Log(z − i) is analytic everywhere except on the half line y = 1
(x ≤ 0) ;
(b) the function
Log (z + 4)
z2 + i
is analytic everywhere √
except on the portion x ≤ −4 of the real axis and
at the points ± (1 − i) 2.

Solution
(a) By (5) of Sec. 31 of the textbook Logz is analytic everywhere except
where either z = 0 or Arg(z) = π. In terms of Cartesian coordinates
this means that Logz is analytic everywhere except on the non–positive
real axis. By contrast z → z − i is a 1 − 1 analytic map from C onto
C. Hence the composition Log(z − i) is analytic on all of C except where
z − i = x + i (y − 1) lies on the non–positive real–axis, i.e. except where
x ≤ 0 and y = 1.
(b) By a similar argument to that in (a) above we can show that Log(z + 4) is
analytic on all of C except where z +4 = (x + 4)+iy is on the non–positive
real axis, i.e. except where x ≤ −4 and y = 0. Therefore
Log (z + 4)
z2 + i
will fail to be analytic on this portion and also where z 2 + i = 0. Now
since z 2 = −i = e−iπ/2 if and only if z 2 + i = 0, the roots of this equation
will be
(
√1 − i √1 (k = 0)
z = ei(− 4 +kπ) =
π
2 2
− √12 + i √12 (k = 1) .


Thus Log(z + 4) / z 2 + i is analytic everywhere except on the portion
x ≤ −4 of the real axis, and where z = ± √12 (1 − i).

Exercise 11, §31, p. 98

Show that
1 h 2
i
ℜ [log (z − 1)] =ln (x − 1) + y 2 (z 6= 1) .
2
Why must this function satisfy Laplace’s equation when z 6= 1?

Solution
Since
log (z − 1) = ln |z − 1| + i arg (z − 1)
we surely have
ℜ [log (z − 1)] = ln |z − 1|
  21
2
= ln (x − 1) + y 2
1  2

= ln (x − 1) + y 2 .
2
Now for any z with z − 1 6= 0 (i.e. z 6= 1) we can find a branch of log (z − 1) such
that the branch cut is analytic at z (see (4) of Sec. 31 of the textbook). By Theorem
 47 MAT3705/1

 
1 2
1 of Section 26, the real part, that is 2 ln (x − 1) + y 2 , must be harmonic at
each such z.

Exercise 1, §32, p. 100

Show that if ℜz1 > 0 and ℜz2 > 0, then
Log (z1 z2 ) = Logz1 + Logz2 .

Solution
Since ℜ (z1 ) > 0 and ℜ (z2 ) > 0, both z1 and z2 are in either the first or fourth
quadrant. Consequently
π π
(∗) − < Arg (z1 ) < ,
2 2
π π
− < Arg (z2 ) < .
2 2
With θ1 = Arg(z1 ) , θ2 = Arg(z2 )



z1 z2 = |z1 | eiθ1 |z2 | eiθ2
= |z1 z2 | ei(θ1 +θ2 ) ,
where −π < θ1 + θ2 < π from (*) above. Thus here
Arg (z1 z2 ) = θ1 + θ2 = Arg (z1 ) + Arg (z2 )
whence
Log (z1 z2 ) = ln |z1 z2 | + iArg (z1 z2 )
= ln |z1 | |z2 | + i (Arg (z1 ) + Arg (z2 ))
= (ln |z1 | + ln |z2 |) + i (Arg (z1 ) + Arg (z2 ))
= (ln |z1 | + iArg (z1 )) + (ln |z2 | + iArg (z2 ))
= Log (z1 ) + Log (z1 ) .

Exercise 2, §32, p. 100

Show that, for any two nonzero complex numbers z1 and z2 ,
Log (z1 z2 ) = Logz1 + Logz2 + 2N πi
where N has one of the values 0, ±1. (Compare Exercise 1.)

Solution
For general nonzero complex numbers z1 , z2 we have −π < Arg(z1 ) ≤ π and
−π < Arg(z2 ) ≤ π whence
(∗∗) − 2π < Arg (z1 ) + Arg (z2 ) ≤ 2π.
Now as before
z1 z2 = |z1 | |z2 | exp (i (Arg (z1 ) + Arg (z2 )))
and hence
Arg (z1 z2 ) = Arg (z1 ) + Arg (z2 ) + 2N π
where N ∈ Z is chosen so that
−π < Arg (z1 ) + Arg (z2 ) + 2N π ≤ π.
 48

By (**) above we need either N = 0, 1 or −1. For such an N

Log (z1 z2 ) = ln |z1 z2 | + iArg (z1 z2 )
= (ln |z1 | + ln |z2 |) + i (Arg (z1 ) + Arg (z2 )) + i2N π
= (ln |z1 | + iArg (z1 )) + (ln |z2 | + iArg (z2 )) + i2N π
= Log (z1 ) + Log (z2 ) + i2N π.

Exercise 1, §33, p. 104

Show that when n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . ,



(a) (1 + i)i = exp − π4 + 2nπ exp i
2 ln 2 ;
1/π
(b) (−1) = e(2n+1)i .

Solution
√
(a) In polar form 1 + i = 2eiπ/4 . Hence
1
π 
log (1 + i) = ln 2 2 + i + 2nπ
4
1 π 
= ln 2 + i + 2nπ (n ∈ Z) .
2 4
Therefore
i
(1 + i) = exp (i log (1 + i))
   
π ln 2
= exp − + 2nπ + i
4 2
 π   
ln 2
= exp − + 2nπ exp i (n ∈ Z) .
4 2
(b) In polar form −1 = 1eiπ , whence
1 1
log (−1) = (ln 1 + i (π + 2nπ))
π π
= 0 + i (1 + 2n) (n ∈ Z) .
Therefore
 
1 1
(−1) = exp
π
log (−1) = exp (i (2n + 1)) (n ∈ Z) .
π

Exercise 2, §33, p. 104

Find the principal value of
(a) ii ;
 √
3πi
(b) 2e −1 − 3i ;
4i
(c) (1 − i) .

Solution
(a) In polar form i = 1eiπ/2 . Therefore
π π
Log (i) = ln 1 + i =i .
2 2
The principal value of ii is then given by
 π  π
ii = exp (iLog (i)) = exp i2 = exp − .
2 2
 49 MAT3705/1

√
√
√

(b) In polar form 2e −1 − 3i is of the form 2e −1 − 3i = 2e −1 − 3i eiθ
√
= eeiθ where θ is an angle in the third quadrant with tan θ = xy = 3.
For our purposes we also need −π < θ ≤ π. Then θ = − 2π 3 and hence
he  i  
√ 2π
Log −1 − 3i = ln e + i −
2 3
2π
= 1−i .
3
e √
3πi
The principal value of 2 −1 − 3i is therefore given by
he  √ i 3πi  he  √ i
−1 − 3i = exp 3πiLog −1 − 3i
2   2 
2π
= exp 3πi 1 − i
3
2


= exp 2π + i3π


= exp 2π 2 (cos 3π + i sin 3π)


= − exp 2π 2
√ π
(c) In polar form (1 − i) = 2e−i 4 . Thus
1
 π
Log (1 − i) = ln 2 2 + i −
4
1 π
= ln 2 − i .
2 4
4i
The principal value of (1 − i) is therefore given by
4i
(1 − i) = exp (4iLog (1 − i))
= exp (π + i2 ln 2)
= eπ (cos (2 ln 2) + i sin (2 ln 2)) .

Exercise 6, §33, p. 104

a
Show that if z 6= 0 and a is a real number, then |z a | = exp (a ln |z|) = |z| ,
a
where the principal value of |z| is to be taken.

Solution:
a a
For any z 6= 0 the principal value of |z| is given by |z| = exp (aLog |z|) =
exp (a ln |z|). Moreover
z a = exp (a log z) = exp (a (ln |z| + i arg (z))) .
If in addition a is real, then
ℜ (a (ln |z| + i arg (z))) = a ln |z| .
It then follows from (7) of Sec. 29 of the textbook that
|z a | = |exp (a ln |z| + ia arg (z))|
= exp (a ln |z|)
a
= |z|
in this case.

Exercise 7, §33, p. 104

Let c = a + bi be a fixed complex number, where c 6= 0, ±1, ±2, . . ., and note
that ic is multiple–valued. What restriction must be placed on the constant c so
that the values of |ic | are all the same?
 50

Solution:
π
In polar form i = [Link] 2 and hence
π  π 
log (i) = ln 1 + i + 2nπ = i + 2nπ (n ∈ Z) .
2 2

Therefore
ic =exp (c log (i))
 π 
= exp (a + ib) i + 2nπ
 π 2  π 
= exp −b + 2nπ + ia + 2nπ .
2 2
From (7) of Sec. 29 of the textbook it follows that
e−b( 2 +2nπ)
π
|ic | =
e−b( 2 ) e−2nπb
π
= (n ∈ Z) .
Now the only way these values can be the same for all n ∈ Z is if the 2nπb’s are
the same for all n ∈ Z, i.e. if ℑ (c) = b = 0. Thus |ic | has only one possible value
whenever c is real (that is ℑ (c) = 0).

Exercise 9, §33, p. 104  

Assuming that f ′ (z) exists, state the differentiation formula for d cf (z) /dz.

Solution:
We may mimic the proof of (11) at the end of Section 33 in the textbook to get
d f (z) d f (z) log c d
c = e = ef (z) log c (f (z) log c)
dz dz dz
= cf (z) .f ′ (z) log c.

Exercise 7, §34, p. 108

In Sec. 34, use expressions (13) and (14) to derive expressions (15) and (16)
2 2
for |sin z| and |cos z| .

Solution
Given that
sin z = sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y
cos z = cos x cosh y − i sin x sinh y
it follows that
2
|sin z| = sin2 x cosh2 y + cos2 x sinh2 y


= sin2 x 1 + sinh2 y + cos2 x sinh2 y


= sin2 x + sin2 x + cos2 x sinh2 y
= sin2 x + sinh2 y
and
2
|cos z| = cos2 x cosh2 y + sin2 x sinh2 y


= cos2 x 1 + sinh2 y + sin2 x sinh2 y


= cos2 x + cos2 x + sin2 x sinh2 y
= cos2 x + sinh2 y.
 51 MAT3705/1

Exercise 8 §34, p. 108

Point out how it follows from expressions (15) and (16) in Sec. 34 for |sin z|2
2
and |cos z| that
(a) |sin z| ≥ |sin x| ;
(b) |cos z| ≥ |cos x| .

Solution
It follows directly from what we proved in exercise (7) above that
q p
|sin z| = sin2 x + sinh2 y ≥ sin2 x = |sin x|
and similarly that |cos z| ≥ |cos x| .

Exercise 9, §34, p. 109

2 2
With the aid of expressions (15) and (16) in Sec. 34 for |sin z| and |cos z| ,
show that
(a) |sinh y| ≤ |sin z| ≤ cosh y;
(b) |sinh y| ≤ |cos z| ≤ cosh y.

Solution
Again using what we showed in exercise (7) above it follows that
q
|sinh y| = sinh2 y
q
≤ sin2 x + sinh2 y = |sin z|
q
≤ cos2 x + sin2 x + sinh2 y
q
= 1 + sinh2 y
q
= cosh2 y

= cosh y.
(The last equality follows from the fact that cosh y ≥ 0 for all y.) By a similar
argument to the above we can also show that
|sinh y| ≤ |cos z| ≤ cosh y.

Exercise 11, §34, p. 109

Show that neither sin z̄ nor cos z̄ is an analytic function of z anywhere.

Solution
If z = x + iy, then z̄ = x − iy. From equation (13) of Section 34 of the textbook
it follows that
sin z̄ = sin x cosh (−y) + i cos x sinh (−y)
= sin x cosh y − i cos x sinh y.
 52

Thus for sin z̄, u = ℜ (sin z̄) = sin x cosh y and v = ℑ (sin z̄) = − cos x sinh y.
Therefore
ux = cos x cosh y
vx = sin x sinh y
uy = sin x sinh y
vy = − cos x cosh y.
Clearly cos x cosh y = ux = vy = − cos x cosh y can only hold if cos x cosh y = 0.
Since cosh y 6= 0 this means that cos x = 0, i.e. that x = (2n + 1) π2 (n ∈ Z) .
Similarly sin x sinh y = uy = −vx = − sin x sinh y can only hold if sin x sinh y = 0.
Since sin x 6= 0 when x = (2n + 1) π2 (n ∈ Z) , we must then have that sinh y = 0,
i.e. that y = 0. Thus by the Cauchy–Riemann equations the only points where sin z̄
may be differentiable are the isolated points zn = (2n + 1) π2 (n ∈ Z) . For any z ∈ C
the function sin z̄ can therefore never be differentiable in an entire neighbourhood
of z, that is sin z̄ is never analytic.

For cos z̄ we follow a similar argument. Here

cos z̄ = u
e + ie
v
where
u
e = cos x cosh y,
v = sin x sinh y.
e
The equation − sin x cosh y = uex = vey = sin x cosh y only holds if sin x = 0, i.e. if
x = nπ (n ∈ Z) . For these values of x, cos x sinh y = u
ey = −evx = − cos x sinh y can
only hold if y = 0. Thus the only points where cos z̄ may be differentiable are the
isolated points z = nπ (n ∈ Z) . As before it follows from this that cos z̄ is nowhere
analytic.

Exercise 13, §34, p. 109

With the aid of expressions (13) and (14) in Sec. 34, give direct verifications
of the relations obtained in Exercise 12.

Solutions
From the equations we verified in exercise (11), it follows that
sin z̄ = sin x cosh y − i cos x sinh y = sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y
and
cos z̄ = cos x cosh y + i sin x sinh y = cos x cosh y − i sin x sinh y.
On applying (13) and (14) of Section 34 of the textbook, it now follows that sin z̄ =
sin z and cos z̄ = cos z.

Exercise 14, §34, p. 109

Show that
(a) cos (iz) = cos (iz̄) for all z;
(b) sin (iz) = sin (iz̄) if and only if z = nπi (n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .) .

Solution
We use what we proved in exercise (13) above.
(a) Note that


cos (iz) = cos iz = cos ((−i) z̄) = cos (iz̄)
for all z since cos (−w) = cos w for all w.
 53 MAT3705/1

(b) Here


sin (iz) = sin iz = sin ((−i) z̄) = − sin (iz̄) .
Thus − sin (iz̄) = sin (iz) = sin (iz̄) can only hold if sin (iz̄) = 0, i.e. if
iz̄ = nπ (n ∈ Z) . But iz̄ = nπ if and only if z = imπ (m ∈ Z) (set
m = −n), and hence we are done.

Exercise 15, §34, p. 109

Find all roots of the equation sin z = cosh 4 by equating the real parts and the
imaginary parts of sin z and cosh 4.

Solution
By (13) of Section 34 we will have sin z = cosh 4 whenever sin x cosh y = cosh 4
and cos x sinh y = 0. To find all z for which sin z = cosh 4, we therefore need to
solve the simultaneous equations
sin x cosh y = cosh 4 and cos x sinh y = 0.
Now cos x sinh y = 0 ⇔ either y = 0 or x = (2k + 1) π/2 (k ∈ Z) . However if y = 0
then cosh y = 1 in which case
sin x cosh y = sin x ≤ 1 < cosh 4.
Thus y = 0 does not yield a solution and so we must have x = (2k + 1) π/2 (k ∈ Z) .
We now substitute these values into sin x cosh y to get the required solution. Now
if x = (2k + 1) (π/2) then

1 if k is even
sin x =
−1 if k is odd.
However since cosh y = 21 (ey + e−y ) > 0, the case sin x = −1 must be excluded in
the light of the fact that we will then have that
sin x cosh y = − cosh y < 0 < cosh 4.
Hence we must have that x = (4n + 1) π/2 (n ∈ Z) . (Here we have set k = 2n.)
For such an x we get
sin x cosh y = cosh y.
Now since cosh y = cosh (−y) , it follows that either y = 4 or y = −4 will be enough
to ensure that cosh y = cosh 4. Thus we finally conclude that sin z = cosh 4 ⇔ z =
(4n + 1) π/2 ± i4 (n ∈ Z) .

Exercise 16, §34, p. 109

Find all roots of the equation cos z = 2.

Solution
By (14) of Section 34 of the textbook cos z = 2 yields
cos x cosh y − i sin x sinh y = 2.
Comparing real and imaginary parts we get
cos x cosh y = 2 and sin x sinh y = 0.
Now if sin x sinh y = 0 then either x = kπ (k ∈ Z) or y = 0. However if y = 0, then
cos x cosh 0 = cos x ≤ 1 < 2, and hence this does not yield a solution. Clearly we
must have
x = kπ (k ∈ Z) .
k
Substituting this into cos x cosh y yields cos (kπ) cosh y = (−1) cosh y. If k is odd
we get no solution since then cos (kπ) cosh y = − cosh y < 0 < 2. If k = 2n is even,
 54

then cos (kπ) cosh y = cosh y = 2 will hold whenever y = ± arccosh (2) . Therefore
cos z = 2 precisely when
z = 2nπ ± i arc cosh (2) (n ∈ Z) .

Alternative
1 iz

cos z = z⇔ e + e−iz = 2
2

2
⇔ eiz − 4eiz + 1 = 0
√
iz 4 ± 16 − 4 √
⇔ e = =2± 3
2 
√ 
⇔ e e = e = 2 ± 3 ei0
−y ix iz

 √ 
⇔ e−y = 2 ± 3 and x = 2nπ (n ∈ Z)
(By the remark at the top of p. 25 of the textbook.)
 √ 
⇔ y = − ln 2 ± 3 and x = 2nπ (n ∈ Z)
 √ 
⇔ z = 2nπ ± i ln 2 + 3
In the last equality we used the fact that
√
1 2+ 3 √
√ = √
√
=2+ 3
2− 3 2− 3 2+ 3
and hence that
  
√  1  √ 
− ln 2 − 3 = ln √ = ln 2 + 3 .
2− 3

Exercise 4, §35, p. 111

Write sinh z = sinh (x + iy) and cosh z = cosh (x + iy) , and show how expres-
sions (9) and (10) in Sec. 35 follow from identities (7) and (8), respectively, in that
section.

Solution
sinh z = sinh (x + iy)
= sinh x cosh (iy) + cosh x sinh (iy) ((7) of Sec. 35)
= sinh x cos y + i cosh x sin y ((3) of Sec. 35)

cosh z = cosh (x + iy)

= cosh x cosh (iy) + sinh x sinh (iy) ((8) of Sec. 35)
= cosh x cos y + i sinh x sin y ((3) of Sec. 35)

Exercise 5, §35, p. 111

2
Verify expression (12), Sec. 35, for |cosh z| .
 55 MAT3705/1

Solution
Using the expressions obtained in exercise (4) above we get
|cosh z|2 = cosh2 x cos2 y + sinh2 x sin2 y


= 1 + sinh2 x cos2 y + sinh2 x sin2 y


= sinh2 x cos2 y + sin2 y + cos2 y
= sinh2 x + cos2 y.

Exercise 6, §35, p. 111

Show that |sinh x| ≤ |cosh z| ≤ cosh x by using
(a) identity (12), Sec. 35;
(b) the inequalities obtained in Exercise 9(b), Sec. 34.

Solution
(a) Using the identity obtained above we see that
2
sinh2 x ≤ |cosh z| = sinh2 x + cos2 y
≤ sinh2 x + cos2 y + sin2 y
= sinh2 x + 1
= cosh2 x.
Taking square roots and keeping in mind that cosh x < 0, it follows that
|sinh x| ≤ |cosh z| ≤ cosh x.
(b) Recall that cosh z = cos (iz) = cos (−y + ix) . Thus on applying the results
of exercise (9) of Sec. 34 of the textbook, it surely follows that
|sinh x| ≤ |cos (iz)| = |cosh z| ≤ cosh x.

Exercise 8, §35, p. 112

Give details showing that the zeros of sinh z and cosh z are as in statements
(14) and (15) in Sec. 35.

Solution
1 z

e − e−z = sin z = 0 ⇔ ez = e−z (×ez )
2
⇔ e2x ei2y = e2z = 1
⇔ 2x = 0, 2y = 2nπ (n ∈ Z)
(see the top of p. 25 of the textbook)
⇔ z = inπ (n ∈ Z)

1 z

e + e−z = cosh z = 0 ⇔ ez = −e−z (×ex )
2
⇔ e2z = −1
⇔ 2z = (2n + 1) πi (n ∈ Z)
(see the example in Section 29 of the textbook)
π 
⇔ z= + nπ i (n ∈ Z)
2
 56

Exercise 9, §35, p. 112

Using the results proved in Exercise 8, locate all zeros and singularities of the
hyperbolic tangent function.

Solution
We recall that both cosh z and sinh z are analytic on all of C. In addition, from
what we showed in exercise (8) above, it is clear that cosh z and sinh z are never
simultaneously zero. Therefore
sinh z
tanh z =
cosh z
is analytic at all points z where cosh z 6= 0, and zero where sinh z
= 0. Therefore
tanh z has singularities where cosh z = 0 (i.e. where z = π2 + nπ i (n ∈ Z)) and
zeros where z = nπi (n ∈ Z) .

Exercise 14, §35, p. 112

Why is the function sinh (ez ) entire? Write its real part as a function of x and
y, and state why that function must be harmonic everywhere.

Solution
Both the functions z → ez and z → sinh z are analytic on all of C and hence so is
their composition sinh (ez ) . By Theorem 1 of Section 26 the textbook, ℜ (sinh (ez ))
must therefore be harmonic on all of C. Now for any w ∈ C it follows from exercise
(4) above that
ℜ (sinh w) = sinh (ℜ (w)) cos (ℑ (w)) .
In particular for w = ez we have
w = ez = ex cos y + iex sin y
and hence
ℜ (sinh (ez )) = sinh (ex cos y) cos (ex sin y) .

Exercise 15, §35, p. 112

Find all roots of the equation
(a) sinh z = i;
(b) cosh z = 21 ;

Solution
(a)
1 z

sinh z = i ⇔ e − e−z = i (×ez )
2
2
⇔ (ez ) − 2iez − 1 = 0
√
z 2i ± −4 + 4
⇔ e = =i
2
π
⇔ ez = ei 2 
π
⇔ z=i + 2nπ (n ∈ Z) .
2
(b)
1 z
1
e + e−z = cosh z = ⇔ ez + e−z = 1 (×ez )
2 2
2
⇔ (ez ) − ez + 1 = 0
√ √
1± 1−4 1 3
⇔ ez = = ±i
2 2 2
 57 MAT3705/1

In polar form
√ π  π 
1 3 π
+i = cos + i sin = ei 3
2 2 3 3
and √
1 3  π  π π
−i = cos − + i sin − = e−i 3 .
2 2 3 3
By the remark at the top of p. 25 of the textbook
√
x −iy z 1 3 π
e e =e = +i = ei 3
2 2
if and only if
π 
z =0+i + 2nπ (n ∈ Z) .
3
Similarly √
z 1 3 iπ
e = −i = e− 3
2 2
if and only if
 π 
z = 0 + i − + 2nπ (n ∈ Z) .
3
Therefore
1  π
cosh z = ⇔ z = i 2nπ ± (n ∈ Z) .
2 3

Exercise 16, §35, p. 112

Find all roots of the equation cosh z = −2.
Suggestion: Compare this with Exercise 16, Sec. 34.

Solution
Since cosh z = cos (iz) = − cos (iz + π) by (4) of Sec. 35 and (11) of Sec. 34 of
the textbook, it follows that
cosh z = −2 ⇔ cos (iz + π) = 2.
Comparing this with what we showed in exercise (18) of Section 34 in the textbook,
it follows that
 √ 
cosh z = −2 ⇔ iz + π = 2kπ ± i ln 2 + 3
 √ 
⇔ z = ± ln 2 + 3 + i (2n + 1) π (n = −k ∈ Z) .
 CHAPTER 4

Integrals

Study all sections. Note that much of sections 37 – 39 amount to a revision

of material covered more extensively in MAT2615. We will therefore freely use
the concepts and results contained in these sections, but will not emphasize them
greatly.
In this chapter we start our investigation of the theory of integrating complex
functions along some given contour. Such integrals are easy enough to define, but
finding elegant ways to compute them is another matter. Once again the concept
of analyticity ends up playing a crucial role. The Cauchy-Goursat theorem tells
us that if a function
R is analytic on some domain, then for any closed contour C in
that domain, C f (z) dz = 0. By the Anti-derivative Theorem, this is equivalent
to saying that such a function has an antiderivative on that domain. Once we are
assured of the existence of an anti-derivative for a certain class of functions, then
for that class we can try to mimic the theory of integration as done in elemen-
tary calculus. However the ramifications of the Cauchy-Goursat theorem go far
beyond the existence anti-derivatives. The consequences of this theorem include
the very elegant Cauchy Integration Formulas (a very powerful integration tool),
the Maximum Modulus Principle (which tells us where to look for the maximum
of |f (z)| on some bounded closed region), Liouville’s theorem (which basically tells
us how difficult it is for an analytic function to be bounded), and even the Funda-
mental Theorem of Algebra (which guarantees that every polynomial equation of
degree one or higher has a solution). But let’s get down to practicalities, and close
this overview chapter 4 with some hints on using this powerful theory to compute
integrals.
As alluded to above, the elegance with which we are able to integrate a complex
function on some given contour, depends entirely on the extent to which that func-
tion is analytic. If the function is very bad and not at all analytic on or near the
contour, then our only real option is to parametrise the contour and try to compute
the integral from “first principles”. If however the integrand, say f , does behave
well in the sense of being analytic everywhere except for some isolated points, we
have many more options available to us.
If the contour C is not closed and f isRanalytic on some domain containing C, we
may then use antiderivatives to compute C f (z) dz. If C is closed andR f is analytic
on and inside C, then the Cauchy-Goursat theorem tells us that C f (z) dz = 0.
(Note that to be able to apply the Cauchy-Gourat theorem to some function f ,
it is not necessary for f to have no singularities. All we need is for f to have no
singularities on or inside C. For example although f (z) = z1 has a singularity at
z = 0, this point is outside |z − 2| = 1 and so we still have
Z
1
dz = 0
|z−2|=1 z

by this theorem.)
g(z)
If now f is of the form f (z) = p(z) where g is analytic inside and on C and p is
a polynomial, we can use the Cauchy Integration Formulas to compute the integral
59
 60

R
C f (z) dz. The idea is as follows: If g(z)
p(z) is a rational function we can use partial
fractions to decompose it into a sum of simpler terms to which we may apply the
integration formulae. However even if g is not a polynomial, we can still use partial
1 K
fractions to decompose p(z) into a sum of terms of the form (z−a) n . On multiplying

throughout by g, we end up with a formula expressing f as a sum of terms of the

Kg(z)
form (z−a) n . Once this is done, we can then use the Cauchy Integration Formulas

Kg(z) R
to compute the integral of each (z−a) n , and add the results to get
C f (z) dz. For
sin z
example if f (z) = z(z−2) and C is the positively oriented curve |z| = 3, we may
use partial fractions to conclude that
1 1 1
= −
z (z − 2) 2 (z − 2) 2z
and then multiply throughout by sin z, to get
sin z sin z
sin z
= 2 − 2 .
z (z − 2) z−2 z
It now follows from the integration formulas that
Z Z sin z Z sin z
sin z 2 2
dz = − dz
C z (z − 2) C z − 2 C z
   
sin z sin z
= 2πi − 2πi
2 z=2 2 z=0
= πi sin 2.
(If of course we were integrating over the positively oriented circle |z| = 1
instead of |z| = 3, we would not have needed partial fractions since in this case
only the singularity z = 0 lies inside |z| = 1. In particular this means that sin z
z−2 ,
although not differentiable at z = 2, is nevertheless analytic inside and on |z| = 1.
We can then directly see that
Z Z sin z
sin z (z−2) sin z
dz = dz = 2πi = 0.)
|z|=1 z (z − 2) |z|=1 z (z − 2) z=0
g(z)
But what if f is of the form f (z) = h(z) with both g and h analytic, but with h
sin(z)
not a polynomial. (For example something like tan(z) = cos(z) is such a function.)
R
If in this case we want to compute the integral C f (z) dz for some closed contour C,
there is no easy way to reduce it to an application of the Cauchy Integral Formulas
like we did above. So although such functions are very nice, the technology we
develop in this chapter, cannot adequately deal with this class of functions. Our
theory of integration therefore clearly needs a bit more development. However
before we can further refine the theory of integration, we need the background of
the theory of power series expansions. This we investigate in the next chapter,
before returning to the theory of integration.
 61 MAT3705/1

Solutions to selected problems

Solutions to selected problems in sections 38, 39, 42, 43, 45, 49, 52 and 54
follow.

Exercise 2, §38, p. 121

Evaluate the following integrals:

R2
2 R −π/6 i2t R∞
(a) 1 1t − i dt; (b) 0 e dt; (c) 0 e−zt dt (ℜz > 0).

Solution:
(a)
Z 2  2 Z 2 
 
1 1 2
−i dt = − 1 − i dt
1 t 1 t2 t
 
1
= − − t − i2 ln t|21
t
1
= − − i.2 ln 2
2
(b)
Z π π
6 1 i2t 6
ei2t dt = e
0 i2 0
1  π π 
= cos + i sin −1
i2 3 3
√ !
1 1 3
= − +i
i2 2 2
√
3 1
= +i
4 4
(c)
Z ∞ Z b
e−zt dt = lim e−zt dt
0 b→∞ 0
b
1 −zt
= lim − e
b→∞ z 0
1

= lim 1 − e−zb
b→∞ z

Note that e−zb = e−ℜ(z)b → 0 as b → ∞ since by hypothesis ℜ (z) > 0.

R∞ 1 1
Hence 0 e−zt dt = lim (1 − e−zt ) = .
b→∞ z z

Exercise 4, §38, p. 121

According to definition (2), Sec. 38 of integrals of complex–valued functions of
a real variable,
Z π Z π Z π
e(1+i)x dx = ex cos xdx + i ex sin xdx.
0 0 0

Evaluate the two integrals on the right here by evaluating the single integral on the
left and then identifying the real and imaginary parts of the value found.
 62

Solution:
Z π Z π Z π
x x
e cos xdx + i e sin xdx = e(1+i)x dx
0 0 0
π
1 (1+i)x
= e
1+i 0
1

= eπ eiπ − 1
1+i
 
1 1
= −i (−eπ − 1)
2 2
Hence
Z π   
1 1
ex cos xdx = ℜ −i (−eπ − 1)
0 2 2
1
= − (eπ + 1)
Z 2
  
π
1 1
ex sin xdx = ℑ −i π
(−e − 1)
0 2 2
1 π
= (e + 1) .
2

Exercise 2, §39, p. 125

Let C denote the right–hand half of the circle |z| = 2, in the counterclockwise
direction, and note that two parametric representations for C are
 π π
z = z (θ) = 2eiθ − ≤θ≤
2 2
and
p
z = Z (y) = 4 − y 2 + iy (−2 ≤ y ≤ 2) .
Verify that Z (y) = z [φ (y)], where
y  π π
φ (y) = arctan p − < arctan t < .
4 − y2 2 2
Also, show that this function φ has a positive derivative, as required in the condi-
tions following equation (9), Sec. 39.

Solution:
With z and Z defined as before
!!
y
z arctan p
4 − y2
!!
y
= 2 exp i arctan p
4 − y2
!! !!!
y y
= 2 cos arctan p + i sin arctan p
4 − y2 4 − y2
p !
4 − y2 y
= 2 +i
2 2
p
= 4 − y 2 + iy (−2 ≤ y ≤ 2) .
 63 MAT3705/1

 
Note that if α = arctan √ y 2
, i.e. tan α = √ y , then
4−y 4−y 2

2
y
α
_ 2
4 y
Finally note that with f (y) = √ y , it follows from the chain rule for real func-
4−y 2
tions that
d 1
φ′ (y) = arctan (f (y)) = ′
2 f (y) .
dy 1 + f (y)
Now by elementary differentiation rules we can show that
4
f ′ (y) = 3 .
(4 − y 2 ) 2
Substituting into φ′ (y) we get
1 4 1
φ′ (y) =  · 3 =p .
y2 4 − y2
1+ 4−y 2
(4 − y 2 ) 2

Clearly φ′ (y) > 0 on −2 < y < 2. (Strictly speaking φ′ (y) doesn’t actually exist
at y = ±2.)

Exercise 6, §39, p. 126

Let y (x) be a real–valued function defined on the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 by means
of the equations
 3

x sin πx when 0 < x ≤ 1,
y (x) =
0 when x = 0.
(a) Show that the equation
z = x + iy (x) (0 ≤ x ≤ 1)
represents an arc C1 that intersects the real axis at the points z =
1/n (n = 1, 2, . . .) and z = 0.
(b) Verify that the arc C1 in part (a) is, in fact, a smooth arc. Suggestion: To
establish the continuity of y (x) at x = 0, observe that
π
0 ≤ x3 sin ≤ x3
x
when x > 0. A similar remark applies in finding y ′ (0) and showing that
y ′ (x) is continuous at x = 0.
 64

Solution:
1
(a) For x = n we have
   
1 1 1
z = + iy
n n n
 3 !
1 1 π
= +i sin 1


n n n
 3
1 1
= +i sin (nπ)
n n
1
= .
n


For x 6= n1 (n ∈ Z), πx 6= nπ and hence sin πx 6= 0 (that is ℑ (z (x)) 6=
0). Thus for any x with x 6= n1 (n ∈ Z) z (x), is not on the real axis.
Clearly z intersects the real axis at precisely the points 0 and n1 (n ∈ Z).
(b) Since x3 , x1 , and sin
x are all continuously differentiable for x 6= 0, it
follows that x3 sin πx is continuously differentiable when x 6= 0. Clearly
the same is then true of z (x). It remains to
show that z ′ exists and is
continuous at 0. Now since −h
2 ≤ h2 sin πh ≤ h2 it is clear from the
sandwich theorem that h2 sin πh → 0 as h → 0 and hence that
z (h) − z (0)
z ′ (0) = lim
h→0 h
π 
= lim 1 + ih2 sin
h→0 h
= 1.
 π   π 
For x 6= 0 we have z ′ (x) = 1 + i 3x2 sin − πx cos . Since
π xπ  x
−3x2 ≤ 3x2 sin ≤ 3x2 , −π|x| ≤ −πx cos ≤ π|x| it follows from
x  x    π 
π
the sandwich theorem that z ′ (x) = 1 + i 3x2 sin − πx cos →
x x
1 + i0 = z ′ (0). Thus z ′ is continuous at 0.

Exercise 1, 3 and 4, §42, p. 135

For the functions f and contours C in Exercises 1 through 7, use parametric
representations for C, or legs of C, to evaluate
Z
f (z) dz.
C
1. f (z) = (z + 2) /z and C is
(a) the semicircle z = 2eiθ (0 ≤ θ ≤ π);
(b) the semicircle z = 2eiθ (π ≤ θ ≤ 2π) ;
(c) the circle z = 2eiθ (0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π) .

3. f (z) = π exp (πz) and C is the boundary of the square with vertices at the
points 0, 1, 1+i, and i, the orientation of C being in the counterclockwise
direction.

4. f (z) is defined by the equation


1 when y < 0,
f (z) =
4y when y > 0,
and C is the arc from z = −1 − i to z = 1 + i along the curve y = x3 .
 65 MAT3705/1

Solution of exercise 1:

(a) Observe that dz = z ′ (θ) dθ = 2ieiθ dθ and hence here

Z Z π
z+2 2eiθ + 2 iθ
dz = 2ie dθ
C z 0 2eiθ
Z π


= 2i eiθ + 1 dθ
0 π
1 iθ
= 2i e +θ
i 0
 
1
= 2i (−1 − 1) + π
i
= −4 + i2π.

(b) By a similar argument to that in (a) it follows that in this case

Z Z 2π
z+2

dz = 2i eiθ + 1 dθ
C z π
  2π
1 iθ
= 2i e +θ
i π
= 4 + i2π.

(c) Here the contour is just the join of the two contours considered in (a) and
(b). Thus the integral turns out to be the sum of the integrals in (a) and
(b). Hence
Z
z+2
dz = (−4 + i2π) + (4 + i2π) = i4π.
C z

Solution of Exercise 3:

C3
i 1 +i

C4 C2

0 C1 1

Here C = C1 ∪ C2 ∪ C3 ∪ C4 where C1 , C2 , C3 and C4 are as shown. These line

segments may be parametrised as follows:

C1 : z1 (t) = t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1 C2 : z2 (t) = 1 + it, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1

C3 : z3 (t) = (1 − t) + i, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1 C4 : z4 (t) = i (1 − t) , 0 ≤ t ≤ 1
 66

Now
Z Z 1
πz 1
πe dz = πeπt dt = eπt 0
= eπ − 1,
C1 0
Z Z 1
πeπz dz = πeπ(1−it) idt
C2 0
Z 1
= πeπ e−iπt idt
0
1
= −eπ e−iπt 0


= −e e−iπ − 1
= 2eπ ,

Z Z 1
πeπz dz = πeπ((1−t)−i) (−1) dt
C3 0
Z 1
π −iπ
= −πe e e−πt dt
0
 
1
= −eπ e−πt 0
= eπ − 1,

and
Z Z 1
πz
πe dz = πe−πi(1−t) (−i) dt
C4 0
Z 1
= −iπe−iπ eiπt dt
0
1
= eiπt 0
= −2.

Therefore
Z 4 Z
X
πeπz dz = πeπz dz
C n=1 Cn

= (e − 1) + 2eπ + (eπ − 1) + (−2)

π

= 4 (eπ − 1) .

Solution of Exercise 4:
Here
C : z = x + ix3 where − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
Hence
Z Z 1


f (z) dz = f x + ix3 1 + i3x2 dx.
C −1

Now on C, y = x > 0 when x > 0 and y = x3 < 0 when x < 0. Thus if z ∈ C

3

then

1 if x < 0
f (z) =
4x3 if x > 0.
 67 MAT3705/1

Therefore
Z Z 0


f (z) dz = f x + ix3 1 + i3x2 dx
C −1
Z 1


+ f x + ix3 1 + i3x2 dx
0
Z 0 Z 1



= 1 + i3x2 dx + 4x3 1 + i3x2 dx
−1 0
3

0
1
= x + ix −1
+ x + i2x6
4
0
= (1 + i) + 1 + i2
= 2 + i3.

Exercise 8, §42, p. 136

With the aid of the result in Exercise 3, Sec. 38, evaluate the integral
Z
z m z n dz,
C
where m and n are integers and C is the unit circle |z| = 1, taken counterclockwise.

Solution:
The circle |z| = 1 may be parametrised by z (θ) = eiθ , 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π. By exercise
2(b) of section 8 we have z (θ) = eiθ = e−iθ . (To see this note that
eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ
= cos θ − i sin θ
= cos (−θ) + i sin (−θ)
= e−iθ .)
Hence
Z Z 2π
z m (z)n dz = eimθ e−inθ ieiθ dθ
C 0
Z 2π
= i ei(m−n+1)θ dθ
0

 2πi if m = n − 1
= 1 2π
 ei(m−n+1)θ 0
if m 6= n − 1
(m − n + 1)

2πi if m = n − 1
=
0 if m 6= n − 1.

Exercise 10(b), §42, p. 136

Let C0 denote the circle |z − z0 | = R, taken counterclockwise. Use the para-
metric representation z = z0 + R eiθ (−π ≤ θ ≤ π) for C0 to derive the following
integration formulas:
Z
dz
(i) = 2πi;
Z o
C z − z0
(ii) (z − z0 )n−1 dz = 0 (n = ±1, ±2, . . .).
C0
 68

Solution:
(i)
Z Z π
dz 1

= iθ
iR eiθ dθ
C0 z − z0 −π (z0 + R e ) − z0
Z π
= i dθ = i2π
−π

(ii)
Z Z π
n−1

n−1

(z − z0 ) dz = z0 + R eiθ − z0 iR eiθ dθ
C0 −π
Z π
= i Rn einθ dθ
−π
1 n inθ π
= R e −π
n
1 n  iπ
n
n 
= R e − e−iπ
n
1 n n n
= R ((−1) − (−1) )
n
= 0

Exercise 1, §43, p. 140

Let C be the arc of the circle |z| = 2 from z = 2 to z = 2i that lies in the first
quadrant. Without evaluating the integral, show that
Z
dz π
2
≤ .
C z −1 3

Solution:
1
The length of the arc
of the circle |z| = 2 in the first quadrant is 4 of the
circumference, i.e. 41 π22 = π. In addition whenever |z| = 2, we have
2 1 1
z 2 − 1 ≥ |z| − 1 = 3, i.e. ≤ .
|z 2 − 1| 3
Therefore by (1) in section 43 of the textbook
Z
1 1 π
2−1
dz ≤ π = .
C z 3 3

Exercise 3, §43, p. 140

Show that if C is the boundary of the triangle with vertices at the points 0, 3i,
and −4, oriented in the counterclockwise direction, then
Z
(ez − z) dz ≤ 60.
C

Solution:
Here the length of C is the sum of the distances from 0 to 3i, 3i to −4 and −4
to 0, that is
|0 − 3i| + |3i − (−4)| + |−4 − 0| = 12.
 69 MAT3705/1

y
3i

x
_
4 O

Now for any z on C we see from the sketch that ℜ (z) ≤ 0 and hence that |ez | =
eℜ(z) ≤ e0 = 1. Also on C the point furthest away from the origin (i.e. the point
where |z − 0| is a maximum) is −4. Therefore on C |z| = |z| = |z − 0| ≤ |−4 − 0| =
4, whence |ez − z| ≤ |ez | + |z| ≤ 5. Consequently
Z
(ez − z) dz ≤ 5 × 12 = 60.
C

Exercise 5, §43, p. 141

Let CR be the circle |z| = R (R > 1) , described in the counterclockwise direc-
tion. Show that Z  
Logz π + ln R
2
dz < 2π .
CR z R

Solution:
The circumference of the circle CR :|z| = R is 2πR. Recall that −π < Arg(z) ≤
π. In addition since, R > 1, ln R > 0. Therefore for any z with |z| = R we have
|Log (z)| = |ln R + iArg (z)|
≤ |ln R| + |Arg (z)|
≤ ln R + π.
Consequently
Z  
Log (z) ln R + π 2π (ln R + π)
dz ≤ 2πR = .
CR z2 R2 R

Exercise 8, §43, p. 141

Let CN denote the boundary of the square formed by the lines
   
1 1
x=± N+ π and y = ± N + π
2 2
where N is a positive integer, and let the orientation of CN be counterclockwise.
(a) With the aid of the inequalities
|sin z| ≥ |sin x| and |sin z| ≥ |sinh y| ,
obtained in Exercises 8(a) and 9(a) of Sec. 34, show that |sin z| ≥ 1 on the
vertical sides of the square and that |sin z| > sinh (π/2) on the horizontal
sides. Thus show that there is a positive constant A, independent of N ,
such that |sin z| ≥ A for all points z lying on the contour CN .
(b) Using the final result in part (a), show that
Z
dz 16
2 sin z
≤
CN z (2N + 1) πA
and hence that the value of this integral tends to zero as N tends to
infinity.
 70

Solution:
(a) By means of
the inequality |sin z| ≥ |sin x| it follows that on the lines
z = ± N + 12 π + iy we have
   
1
|sin z| ≥ sin ± N + π
2
  
1
= ± sin N+ π
2
N
= (−1)
= 1.
1


Now note that |sin z| ≥ |sinh y|. Therefore on the lines z = x±i N + 2 π
we have
   
1
|sin z| ≥ sinh ± N + π
2
  
1
= ± sinh N+ π
2
π 
≥ sinh ( sinh is increasing on [0, ∞))
2
> 1.
Therefore |sin z| ≥ 1 on CN , the perimeter of the square bounded by the
lines    
1 1
x=± N+ π and y = ± N + π.
2 2
(b) Now for any z on CN we surely have
p  
2 2
1
|z| = x + y ≥ max {|x| , |y|} = N + π
2
and hence
1 1 4
≤
2 = .
2
z sin z N+ 2
1
π2 (2N + 1)2 π 2
In addition the length of CN is
  
1
4×2 N + π = 4 (2N + 1) π.
2
Therefore
Z
dz 4 16
2
≤ 2 × 4 (2N + 1) π = .
CN z sin z (2N + 1) π 2 (2N + 1) π
→0 as N → ∞.
R dz
It follows that CN 2 → 0 as N → ∞.
z sin z
Exercise 2, §45, p. 149
By finding an antiderivative, evaluate each of these integrals, where the path
is an arbitrary contour between the indicated limits of integration:
Z 2i Z π+2i z  Z 3
(a) eπz dz; (b) cos dz; (c) (z − 2)3 dz.
i 0 2 1
 71 MAT3705/1

Solution:
(a)
Z
1  iπ  1
i i
2 1 πz 2
eπz dz = e = e 2 − eiπ = (1 + i)
i π i π π
(b)
Z π+2i z z  π+2i
cos dz = 2 sin
0 2 2 0
 π
= 2 sin +i −0
 2 π  π  
= 2 sin cosh 1 + i cos sinh 1
2 2
= 2 cosh 1
1
= e+
e
(c)
Z
1 4 
3 3
3 1 4 4
(z − 2) dz = (z − 2) = 1 − (−1) = 0
1 4 1 4

Exercise 5, §45, p. 149

Show that Z 1
1 + e−π
z i dz = (1 − i) ,
−1 2
where z i denotes the principal branch
z i = exp (iLogz) (|z| > 0, −π < Arg z < π)
and where the path of integration is any contour from z = −1 to z = 1 that, except
for its end points, lies above the real axis.
Suggestion: Use an antiderivative of the branch
 
π 3π
z i = exp (i log z) |z| > 0, − < arg z <
2 2
of the same power function.

Solution:
Except for the endpoints the entire contour lies in the region 0 < θ < π, |z| > 0.
This region lies in both (|z| > 0, −π < Arg (z) < π) and (|z| > 0, − π2 < arg(z) <
3π π 3π
2 ). Hence if log z is the branch (|z| > 0, − 2 < arg(z) < 2 ), then for any z on
the given contour (except the endpoints ±1) we will have that Log(z) = log (z) and
hence that
exp (iLogz) = exp (i log z) .
Therefore replacing the one branch of z i by the other in the integral will not change
the value of the integral. We may therefore use the branch
 
i π 3π
z = exp (i log z) |z| > 0, − < arg (z) < .
2 2
For the same branch of log z the branch
 
π 3π
z (1+i) = exp ((1 + i) log z) |z| > 0, − < arg (z) <
2 2
has the derivative
d  (1+i) 
z = (1 + i) z i
dz
 72

on the region (|z| > 0, − π2 < arg(z) < 3π 1
2 ). Therefore 1+i z
(1+i)
= 12 − i 21 z (1+i)
(with z (1+i) ) as above) is an antiderivative of z i on a domain containing the entire
contour from −1 to 1. In polar form 1 = ei2nπ , −1 = ei(π+2mπ) . Selecting n and
π 3π π
m so that − < 2nπ < and − < π + 2mπ < 3π 2 , it follows that
2 2 2
log (1) = ln 1 + i0 = 0, log (−1) = ln 1 + iπ = iπ
and hence that
Z 1   1
i 1 1
z dz = −i z (1+i)
−1 2 2 −1
1
1
= (1 − i) exp ((1 + i) log (z))
2 −1
1
= (1 − i) (exp (0) − exp (−π + iπ))
2
1

= (1 − i) 1 − e−π eiπ
2
 
1 + e−π
= (1 − i) .
2

Exercise 1, §49, p. 160

Apply the Cauchy–Goursat theorem to show that
Z
f (z) dz = 0
C

when the contour C is the circle |z| = 1, in either direction, and when
z2 1
(a) f (z) = ; (b) f (z) = ze−z ; (c) f (z) = 2 ;
z−3 z + 2z + 2

(d) f (z) = sechz; (e) f (z) = tan z; (f) f (z) = Log(z + 2) .

Solution:
Since Z Z
− f (z) dz = f (z) dz
C −C
it is clear that Z Z
f (z) dz = 0 ⇔ f (z) dz = 0.
C −C
We may therefore assume that C is positively oriented in each of (a) – (f).

z2
(a) The only point where f (z) = is not differentiable is z = 3. There-
z−3
fore f is analytic inside and on |z| = 1, and so by Cauchy’s theorem
Z
z2
dz = 0.
C z−3

(b) z → ze−z is an entire function and so

Z
ze−z dz = 0
C

by Cauchy’s theorem.
 73 MAT3705/1

1
(c) f (z) = fails to be differentiable where z 2 + 2z + 2 = 0, i.e.
z2
+ 2z + 2√
√
where z = 21 −2 ± 4 − 8 = −1 ± i. However since |−1 ± i| = 2 > 1,
both these points lie outside C and so by Cauchy’s theorem
Z
1
2
dz = 0.
C z + 2z + 2
1
(d) f (z) = sechz = fails to be differentiable where cosh z = 0, i.e.
 cosh
z  
1 1 π π
where z = i n + π (n ∈ Z). However i n + ≥ > 1 for
2 2 2 2
each n ∈ Z. That is all these points lie outside the circle C and so
Z
sechzdz = 0
C
by Cauchy’s theorem.
sin z
(e) f (z) = tan z = fails to be differentiable where cos z = 0, that is
 cosz  
1 1
where z = n + π (n ∈ Z). Since n+ π ≥ π2 > 1, all these
2 2
points are outside the circle |z| = 1 and hence
Z
tan zdz = 0.
C

(f) z → Logz fails to be differentiable on the line segment y = 0, x ≤ 0.

(See (5) in section 31 of the textbook.) Hence z → Log(z + 2) fails to
be differentiable precisely where y = 0 and x + 2 ≤ 0, i.e. where y = 0,
x ≤ −2. Since all these points lie outside the circle C, it follows that
Z
Log (z + 2) dz = 0.
C

Exercise 2, §49, p. 161

Let C1 denote the positively oriented circle |z| = 4 and C2 the positively ori-
ented boundary of the square whose sides lie along the lines x = ±1, y = ±1 (Fig.
63). With the aid of the corollary in Sec. 49, point out why
Z Z
f (z) dz = f (z) dz
C1 C2
1 z+2 z
when (a) f (z) = 2 ; (b) f (z) = ; (c) f (z) = .
3z + 1 sin (z/2) 1 − ez

Solution:
By the corollary in section 49 of the textbook we will have that
Z Z
f (z) dz = f (z) dz
C1 C2

whenever f is analytic on the closed region consisting of the contours C1 and C2 ,

and all the points between them. For each of the functions in (a), (b) and (c)
we therefore only need to show that all the points where these functions fail to be
differentiable lie either inside C2 or outside C1 .
1
(a) f (z) = fails to be differentiable where 3z 2 + 1 = 0, i.e. where
3z 2 + 1
z = ±i √13 . Both these points clearly lie inside C2 , that is in the region
−1 < x < 1, −1 < y < 1.
 74

z+2

(b) f (z) = z

fails to be differentiable where sin z2 = 0, that is where
sin 2
zn = 2nπ (n ∈ Z). Now for n = 0, z0 = 0 lies inside C2 . For n 6= 0 we
have
|zn | = |2nπ| ≥ 2π > 4,
that is zn lies outside C1 when n 6= 0.
z
(c) f (z) = fails to be differentiable where ez = 1, that is where
1 − ez
zn = i2nπ (n ∈ Z). A similar argument to that used in (b) now reveals
that z0 = 0 lies inside C2 , whereas all the other points lie outside C1 .

Exercise 6, §49, p. 163

Let C denote the entire positively oriented boundary of the half disk 0 ≤ r ≤
1, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, and let f (z) be a continuous function defined on that half disk by
writing f (0) = 0 and using the branch
 
√ iθ/2 π 3π
f (z) = re r > 0, − < θ <
2 2
1
of the multiple–valued function z 2 . Show that
Z
f (z) dz = 0
C

by evaluating separately the integrals of f (z) over the semicircle and the two radii
which constitute C. Why does the Cauchy–Goursat theorem not apply here?

Solution:
The half–circle C1 from 1 to −1 (with |z| = 1) which lies in the upper half–
π 3π
plane, lies entirely in the region |z| > 0, − < θ < . By (4) of section 32 in
2 2
the textbook the branch
   
2 3 2 3 π 3π
z 2 = exp log z |z| > 0, − < arg (z) <
3 3 2 2 2
1 3
is then an antiderivative of z 2 on this region. Therefore using this branch of 32 z 2 ,
we conclude from the theorem in section 42 that
Z −1
1 2 3
z 2 dz = z2
C1 3
 1    
2 3 3
= exp log (−1) − exp log (1)
3 2 2
   
2 3
= exp (iπ) − exp (0)
3 2
 
2 2
= − −i .
3 3

(The values of log (−1) and log (1) were computed in the solution to exercise 5 of
section 43.) For any z on the line segment (|z| > 0, arg (z) = π) we have

log (z) = ln |z| + iπ.

 75 MAT3705/1

Therefore for any z on the real axis between −1 and 0 we have

 
1 1
z 2 = exp log z
2
 
1 π
= exp ln |z| + i
2 2
 p   π
= exp ln |z| exp i
p 2
= i |z|.
If we parametrise this segment by C2 : z (t) = (t − 1) , 0 ≤ t ≤ 1, then
Z Z p Z 1 1
1 √ 2 3 2
z 2 dz = i |z|dz = i 1 − tdt = −i (1 − t) 2 = i .
C2 C2 0 3 0 3
1 √
Similarly for any z on the non–negative real axis we have z 2 = z, and hence if
C3 is the line segment C3 : z = t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1, from 0 to 1 we have
Z Z 1√ 1
1 2 3 2
z 2 dz = tdt = t 2 = .
C3 0 3 0 3
Therefore
Z 3 Z
X
1 1
z 2 dz = z 2 dz = 0.
C n=1 Cn
1
Finally note that we may not use Cauchy’s theorem since z 2 fails to be differentiable
at the point 0 on the contour.

Exercise 7, §49, p. 163

Show that if C is a positively oriented simple closed contour, then the area of
the region enclosed by C can be written
Z
1
zdz.
2i C
Suggestion: Note that expression (4), Sec. 46, can be used here even though
the function f (z) = z is not analytic anywhere (see Example 2, Sec. 19).

Solution:
Let R denote the interior of the contour C. Then with u = x and v = −y, it
follows from (4) in section 46 of the textbook that
Z Z
1 1
zdz = (x − iy) dz
2i C 2i C
Z
1
= (u + iv) dz
2i C
 
ZZ ZZ
1 
= (−vx − uy ) dA + i (ux − vy ) dA
2i R
R
Z Z ZZ 
1
= (−0 − 0) dA + i (1 − (−1)) dA
2i R R
ZZ
= dA
R
as required.
 76

Exercise 1, §52, p. 170

Let C denote the positively oriented boundary of the square whose sides lie
along the
Z lines x = ±2 and y = ±2. EvaluateZeach of these integrals:Z
e−z dz cos z zdz
(a) ; (b) 2 + 8)
dz (c) ;
C z − (πi/2) C z (z C 2z +1
Z Z
tan (z/2) cosh z
(d) 2 dz (−2 < x0 < 2) ; (e) 4
dz.
C (z − x0 ) C z

Solution:
π
(a) Since e−z is an entire function and i is inside C, we have that
2
Z
e−z −(iπ/2)
π dz = 2πie = 2πi (−i) = 2π
C z −i2
by the Cauchy integral formulae.
1
(b) Here cos z is entire with 2 failing to be differentiable where z =
(z + 8)
√ cos z
±i2 2. However both these points clearly lie outside C and so 2 is
z +8
analytic inside and on C. Therefore
Z Z

cos z cos z/ z 2 + 8
2
dz = dz
C z (z + 8) C z
 
cos z
= 2πi
z 2 + 8 z=0
π 
= i .
4
(c) Since − 12 lies inside C we have
Z Z z 
z z/2 π
dz = 1


dz = 2πi = −i .
C 2z + 1 C z − −2 2 z=− 21 2
z


sin 2
(d) tan (z/2) =
fails to be differentiable where cos (z/2) = 0, that
cos z2
is where z = (2n + 1) π (n ∈ Z). However for any n, |(2n + 1) π| ≥ π >
2. Therefore all these points lie outside C and so tan (z/2) is analytic
(differentiable) inside and on C. By contrast x0 lies inside C. Thus
Z  
tan (z/2) 2πi d
2 dz = 1! tan (z/2) = iπ sec2 (x0 /2) .
C (z − x0 ) dz z=x0
(e) The function cosh z is entire and so
Z  3 
cosh z 2πi d πi
dz = cosh z = sinh 0 = 0.
C z4 3! dz 3 z=0 3

Exercise 3, §52, p. 171

Let C be the circle |z| = 3, described in the positive sense. Show that if
Z
2z 2 − z − 2
g (w) = dz (|w| =
6 3) ,
C z−w
then g (2) = 8πi. What is the value of g (w) when |w| > 3?
 77 MAT3705/1

Solution:
The point z = 2 clearly lies inside the circle C : |z| = 3. Therefore
Z
2z 2 − z − 2

g (2) = dz = 2πi 2z 2 − z − 2 = 8πi.
C z−2 z=2

Now for any fixed w the function

2z 2 − z − 2
z→
(z − w)
fails to be analytic where z = w. Now if |w| > 3, this point clearly lies outside C.
The above function is then analytic inside and on C, whence by Cauchy’s theorem
Z
2z 2 − z − 2
g (w) = dz = 0
C (z − w)
for all such w.

Exercise 5, §52, p. 171

Show that if f is analytic within and on a simple closed contour C and z0 is
not on C, then
Z Z
f ′ (z) dz f (z) dz
= .
C z − z 0 C (z − z0 ) 2

Solution:
If f is analytic inside and on a simple closed contour then so is f ′ by theorem
1 of section 52 in the textbook. Therefore on applying (6) in section 51 first to f
with n = 1 and then to f ′ with n = 0, it follows that
Z Z
f (z) ′ f ′ (z)
2 dz = 2πif (z 0 ) = dz
C (z − z0 ) C (z − z0 )

for every z0 inside C. If now z0 is outside C, both f (z) /(z−z0 )2 and f ′ (z) / (z − z0 )
are analytic inside and on C. For such z0 we then have by Cauchy’s theorem that
Z Z
f (z) f ′ (z)
2 dz = 0 = dz.
C (z − z0 ) C (z − z0 )

The claim follows.

Exercise 7, §52, p. 171

Let C be the unit circle z = eiθ (−π ≤ θ ≤ π). First show that, for any real
constant a,
Z az
e
dz = 2πi.
C z
Then write the integral in terms of θ to derive the integration formula
Z π
ea cos θ cos (a sin θ) dθ = π.
0

Solution:
Let C be the unit circle z = eiθ (−π < θ ≤ π) centred at 0. Since eaz is an
entire function, it follows that
Z
eaz
dz = 2πieaz = 2πi.
C z z=0
 78

In terms of the parametrisation z = eiθ (−π < θ ≤ π) the integral becomes

Z Z π
eaz ea exp(iθ) iθ
2πi = dz = ie dθ
C z −π eiθ
Z π
= i ea exp(iθ) dθ
−π
Z π
= i ea cos θ+ia sin θ dθ
−π
Z π
= i ea cos θ (cos (a sin θ) + i sin (a sin θ)) dθ
−π
Z π Z π
a cos θ
= − e sin (a sin θ) dθ + i ea cos θ cos θ (a sin θ) dθ.
−π −π

Comparing imaginary parts we conclude that

Z π
ea cos θ cos (a sin θ) dθ = 2π.
−π

Since

ea cos(−θ) cos (a sin (−θ)) = ea cos θ cos (−a sin θ)

= ea cos θ cos (a sin θ) ,

the integrand is an even function and so

Z π Z π
1
ea cos θ cos (a sin θ) dθ = ea cos θ cos (a sin θ) dθ
0 2 −π
= π.

Exercise 9, §52, p. 172

Verify the expression

Z
1 f (s)
f ′′ (z) = 3 ds.
πi C (s − z)

Solution:
We show how one may use the binomial formula and mathematical induction
to prove (6) of Section 51. The specific case n = 2 then corresponds to the solution
of the above problem.
Let C be a simple closed contour and z0 a point inside C. Then by the theorem
in section 50
Z
1 f (z)
f (z0 ) = dz.
2πi C z − z0
Now suppose that for some integer k ≥ 0 we have
Z
k! f (z)
f (k) (z0 ) = dz.
2πi C (z − z0 )k+1
 79 MAT3705/1

Now for n = k + 1 if follows from this that



 f (k) (z0 + ∆z) − f (k) (z0 )



 ∆z



 !

 Z

 k! 1 1 f (z)

 = − dz

 2πi C (z − z0 − ∆z) k+1
(z − z0 )k+1 ∆z





 Z

 k+1 k+1

 k! (z − z0 ) − ((z − z0 ) − ∆z) f (z)

 = k+1 k+1
dz

 2πi C (z − z0 − ∆z) (z − z0 ) ∆z

(α) Z P

 (z − z0 )k+1 − k+1 k+1 k+1−m
(∆z)k+1−m (z − z0 )m f (z)



k! m=0 m (−1)

 = k+1 k+1
dz

 2πi C (z − z 0 − ∆z) (z − z 0 ) ∆z





 Z Pk
k−m


 k!
k+1
m=0 m (−1) (∆z)k−m (z − z0 )m

 = k+1 k+1
f (z) dz

 2πi C (z − z0 − ∆z) (z − z0 )





 Z

 k
k! X k+1
f (z) dz

 k−m k−m

 = m (−1) (∆z) k+1 k+1−m
2πi m=0 C (z − z0 − ∆z) (z − z0 )
where ∆z is small enough so that z0 + ∆z is inside C. Let M be the maximum of
|f (z)| on C, L the length of C and d the shortest distance from z0 to the points z
of C. For any z ∈ C and 0 < |∆z| < d we then have
|z − z0 | ≥ d |z − z0 − ∆z| ≥ |z − z0 | − |∆z| ≥ d − |∆z| .
Given any m with 0 ≤ m < k we then have
Z
f (z) dz
(∆z)k−m k+1 k+1−m
C (z − z0 − ∆z) (z − z0 )
k−m
|∆z| ML
≤ k+1
→ 0 as ∆z → 0.
(d − |∆z|) dk+1−m
Therefore in the above sum all the terms except the one with m = k tend to 0 as
∆z → 0. To conclude the proof we show that for the integral in the m = k term
we have Z Z
f (z) dz f (z)
k+1
→ k+2
dz
C (z − z0 − ∆z) (z − z0 ) C (z − z0 )
as ∆z → 0. To see this note that
 !

 R 1 1

 C k+1
− k+2
f (z) dz

 (z − z0 − ∆z) (z − z0 ) (z − z0 )







 R (z − z0 )k+1 − ((z − z0 ) − ∆z)k+1



 = C k+1 k+2
f (z) dz

 (z − z0 − ∆z) (z − z0 )

(β)

 k+1 P k+1

k+1
k+1−r r

 (z − z0 ) − (−∆z) (z − z0 )

 R r

 = C r=0
f (z) dz



 (z − z 0 − ∆z)k+1 (z − z0 )k+2






k+1−r R
 Pk f (z) dz

 =− k+1
(−∆z) .
r C k+1 k+2−r
r=0 (z − z0 − ∆z) (z − z0 )
 80

Now for any 0 ≤ r ≤ k we see that

Z
k+1−r f (z) dz
(−∆z) k+1 k+2−r
C (z − z0 − ∆z) (z − z0 )
k+1−r
|∆z| ML
≤ k+1
→0
(d − |∆z|) dk+2−r
as ∆z → 0. Therefore the term in (β) above tends to zero. Applying this to (α)
it follows that
f (k) (z0 + ∆z) − f (k) (z0 )
 ∆z Z
k! k+1 f (z)
→ dz
2πi k C (z − z0 )
k+2
Z
(k + 1)! f (z)
= k+2
dz
2πi C (z − z0 )

(k + 1)! R f (z)
as ∆z → 0. Therefore f (k+1) (z0 ) exists and equals C k+2
dz.
2πi (z − z0 )
Thus by induction
Z
n! f (z)
f (n) (z0 ) = n+1 dz
2πi C (z − z0 )
for all n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .

Exercise 10, §52, p. 172

Let f be an entire function such that |f (z)| ≤ A |z| for all z, where A is a fixed
positive number. Show that f (z) = a1 z, where a1 is a complex constant.

Suggestion: Use Cauchy’s inequality (Sec. 52) to show that the second deriva-
tive f ′′ (z) is zero everywhere in the plane. Note that the constant MR in Cauchy’s
inequality is less than or equal to A (|z0 | + R).

Solution:
Let f be given such that |f (z)| ≤ A |z| for all z. Then for any z on the positively
oriented circle CR : |z − z0 | = R we have |f (z)| ≤ A |z| = A |z + (z − z0 )| ≤
A (|z0 | + |z − z0 |) = A (|z0 | + R). If in addition f is entire, Cauchy’s integration
formulae ensure that for each z0
Z
2! f (z)
f (2) (z0 ) = dz.
2πi CR (z − z0 )3
Since the circumference of CR is 2πR, estimating the integral yields
 
1 A |z0 | + R
f (2) (z0 ) ≤ 2πR.
π R3
As R → ∞, the right–hand side tends to 0 thereby proving that f (2) (z0 ) = 0. Since
z0 was arbitrary this shows that f (2) = 0, and hence that f (z) = a1 z + a0 . Finally
note that since |f (z)| ≤ A |z| for all z, f (0) must be 0, that is a0 = 0. Therefore
f (z) = a1 z.

Exercise 1, §54, p. 178

Suppose that f (z) is entire and that the harmonic function u (x, y) = ℜ [f (z)]
has an upper bound; that is, u (x, y) ≤ u0 for all points (x, y) in the xy plane. Show
that u (x, y) must be constant throughout the plane.
 81 MAT3705/1

Suggestion: Apply Liouville’s theorem (Sec. 53) to the function g (z) =

exp [f (z)].

Solution:
Let f (z) = u (x, y) + iv (x, y) be entire. Since ez is also entire, so is ef (z) . Now
note that
ef (z) = eu(x,y)
by (7) in section 29. If therefore u (x, y) ≤ u0 for some u0 and all z, ef (z) is a
bounded entire function since then
ef (z) = eu(x,y) ≤ eu0

for all z. By Liouville’s theorem ef (z) , and therefore also ef (z) = eu(x,y) , must


then be constant. Thus u (x, y) = ln eu(x,y) is constant.

Exercise 3, §54, p. 179

Let a function f be continuous in a closed bounded region R, and let it be
analytic and not constant throughout the interior of R. Assuming that f (z) 6= 0
anywhere in R, prove that |f (z)| has a minimum value m in R which occurs on the
boundary of R and never in the interior. Do this by applying the corresponding
result for maximum values (Sec. 54) to the function g (z) = 1/f (z).

Solution:
If f (z0 ) = 0 for some z0 on the perimeter of R, then |f (z0 )| = 0 is surely the
minimum of |f | in which case we are done as |f (z)| > 0 for all z in the interior of
R.
1
If f (z) 6= 0 on the perimeter of R as well, then f is continuous on R and analytic
1
on its interior since the same is true of f . By the maximum modulus principle f
then assumes its maximum on the perimeter of R and not the interior. Since
 
1 1
max = ,
|f (z)| (min |f (z)|)
this proves that |f | assumes its minimum on the perimeter of R and not the interior.

Exercise 6, §54, p. 179

Let f (z) = u (x, y) + iv (x, y) be a function that is continuous in a closed
bounded region R and analytic and not constant throughout the interior of R.
Prove that the component function u (x, y) has a minimum value in R which occurs
on the boundary of R and never in the interior. (See Exercise 3.)

Solution:
Since f (z) = u (x, y) + iv (x, y) is continuous on the closed bounded region R
and analytic on its interior, the same is true of ef (z) . By (6) of section 29, ef (z) 6= 0
on R. Therefore by what we showed in exercise 1 above ef (z) = eu(x,y) assumes
its minimum on the perimeter of R and not the interior. Since
ln is increasing on
(0, ∞) and eu(x,y) > 0, the same must then be true of ln eu(x,y) = u (x, y).

Exercise 7, §54, p. 179

Let f be the function f (z) = ez and R the rectangular region 0 ≤ x ≤ 1,
0 ≤ y ≤ π. Illustrate results in Sec. 54 and Exercise 6 by finding points in R where
the component function u (x, y) = ℜ [f (z)] reaches its maximum and minimum
values.
 82

Solution:
For f (z) = ez we clearly have ℜ [f (z)] = ex cos y. Now in the rectangular
region 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ y ≤ π ex increases from 1 to e as x varies from 0 to 1, and
cos y decreases from 1 to −1 as y varies from 0 to π. Therefore ex cos y assumes
a maximum of e at the point z = 1 + i0 = 1 and a minimum of −e at the point
z = 1 + iπ on the perimeter of this rectangle.
 CHAPTER 5

Series

Study all sections. Of this material sections 55, 56 and 63 are largely revision
of material dealt with in MAT2613 and will therefore not be tested directly. The
student should nevertheless be conversant with the concepts and results contained
in these sections. In addition since Theorems 1 and 2 of section 66 follow fairly
directly from Theorem 1 of section 65, the proofs of these two theorems need not
be studied.

The basic goal of this chapter is to investigate the extent to which complex
functions can be written as power series. The two theorems which form the cor-
nerstones of this chapter are Taylor’s theorem, and Laurent’s theorem. Taylor’s
theorem establishes yet another very important fact regarding analytic functions.
If a function is analytic in some region of the form |z − a| < R, then in that region
the function can be written as a power series centred at a. But by the corollary to
Theorem 1 in section 65, the converse is also true! Together these two results es-
tablish the fact that a function is analytic at a point if and only if it can be written
as a power series in some neighbourhood of that point. The analytic functions are
therefore precisely the class of functions which allow for power series expansions.

But what if we are interested in the behaviour of a function f at a given point a,

and f is analytic all around this point, but not at the actual point we are interested
in? Is there anything that can be said about such functions as far as power series
expansions are concerned? Because f is not analytic at a itself, Taylor’s theorem
is no longer valid. However all is not lost. In the absence of Taylor’s theorem,
Laurent’s theorem comes to our rescue. What this theorem tells us is that if f is
analytic on a region of the form r < |z − a| < R (which excludes the troublesome
point a) then provided we allow negative powers of z − a, we can in that region still
write f as a series of powers of z − a. Such an expansion in powers of z − a we will
then call a Laurent series for f in the region r < |z − a| < R.

When studying the behaviour of functions around isolated singular points it

is this theory of Laurent series that proves to be especially helpful. So if we want
to be able to study the behaviour of complex functions at such points, we clearly
need a bit of practice in dealing with Laurent series. In this regard we suggest
that example 3 of section 62 and the material in section 67 be studied with care as
they demonstrate a wide range of techniques which prove to be very useful in the
computation of Laurent series.

We close our overview of this chapter by presenting some hints on computing

Laurent series of rational functions. If approached correctly then at least for ra-
tional functions, this should be a reasonably straightforward process. In short the
q(z)
idea runs as follows: If f (z) = p(z) , where p and q are polynomials, needs to be ex-
panded as a Laurent series centred at a (i.e. in powers of z − a) we can use Taylor’s
theorem to rewrite q (z) in powers of (z − a). Next we can use partial fractions
1 K
to decompose p(z) into a sum of terms of the form (z−b) n. Each of these terms
83
 84

are then separately written in Laurent form and finally all the various expansions
K
for q (z) and the (z−b) n ’s combined algebraically to get the Laurent expansion for

q(z) 1
f (z) = p(z) . So all that remains is to explain how to write terms like (z−b) n in

Laurent–form.
However before doing so we note that a function f may have several Laurent
expansions centred at z = a depending on the number of singularities it has. A
careful look Laurent’s theorem reveals that if a particular form of the Laurent
expansion in powers of (z − a) holds at a point (say w0 ) then this form will converge
on the largest annulus of the form S < |z − a| < R (where 0 ≤ S < R) which
contains w0 and on which f is still analytic! As soon as we leave the annulus
and move beyond a point where f is NOT analytic, the expansion changes. For
example if f has say two singularities at say z0 and z1 with say
0 < R0 = |z0 − a| < R1 = |z1 − a|
then f will be analytic on the annuli
|z − a| < R0 , R0 < |z − a| < R1 and R1 < |z − a| < ∞,
but not on the circles |z − a| = R0 and |z − a| = R1 as such, since these contain
z0 and z1 . So by Laurent’s Theorem on each of the annuli |z − a| < R0 , R0 <
|z − a| < R1 and R1 < |z − a| < ∞, f will have some Laurent expansion, however
the expansion may be different on each of these sets!
1
We finally indicate how a term like z−b (where b 6= a) may be written as
1 1
a Laurent series centred at z = a. The expansions for (z−b) 2,
(z−b)3
, . . . may
1
then be obtained from this one by differentiating the expansion for z−b . (Note for
3
1
example that (z−b)4
d
= − 61 dz 1
3 (z−b) .) Now we know that

X∞
1 2
= 1 + w + w + ... = wn (|w| < 1) .
1−w n=0

z−a
If therefore b−a < 1 (i.e. |z − a| < |b − a|) we may write
1 −1 1
=  
z−b (b − a) 1 − z−a
b−a
 
z−a
and set w = b−a to get
∞ ∞
1 −1 X (z − a)n X −1 n
= n = n+1 (z − a) .
z−b b − a n=0 (b − a) n=0 (b − a)
 
b−a b−a
If on the other hand z−a < 1 (i.e. |z − a| > |b − a|) we set w = z−a to get
 
1 1  1
=  
z−b z − a 1 − b−a
z−a
∞ 
X n
1 b−a
=
z − a n=0 z−a
∞
X 1
= (b − a)m−1 m.
m=1
(z − a)
2
z −8z
Suppose for example that we are asked to compute the Laurent series of (z−2) 2 (z+1)

in each of the following regions: (i) |z − 1| < 1, and (ii) 1 < |z − 1| < 2. So for each
 85 MAT3705/1

of these regions we must find an expansion in powers of (z − 1) that converges on

the given region.
First of all note that by means of partial fractions we can see that

z 2 − 8z 1 4
= − .
(z − 2)2 (z + 1) z + 1 (z − 2)2
1
We first consider the term z+1 . If |z − 1| < 2 (equivalently | z−1
−2 | < 1), then

!
1 1 1
=
z+1 2 1 − ( z−1
−2 )
∞  n
1 X z−1
=
2 n=0 −2
∞
X (z − 1)n
= (−1)n
n=0
2n+1
1 (z − 1) (z − 1)2
= − + ...
2 22 23
−2
If however |z − 1| > 2 (equivalently | z−1 | < 1), then
!
1 1 1
= −2
z+1 z−1 1 − ( z−1 )
∞  n
1 X −2
=
z − 1 n=0 z − 1
∞
X 2n
= (−1)n
n=0
(z − 1)n+1
1 2 22
= − 2
+ ...
(z − 1) (z − 1) (z − 1)3
1
Now consider the term z−2 . If |z − 1| < 1, then
 
1 1
= (−1)
z−2 1 − (z − 1)
∞
X
= (−1) (z − 1)n
n=0
= −1 − (z − 1) − (z − 1)2 . . .
1
and if |z − 1| > 1 (equivalently | z−1 | < 1), then
!
1 1 1
= 1
z−2 z−1 1 − ( z−1 )
∞  n
1 X 1
=
z − 1 n=0 z − 1
1 1 1
= + 2
+ ...
(z − 1) (z − 1) (z − 1)3
 86

On differentiating these two expressions and changing the sign we get

 
1 d 1
= −
(z − 2)2 dz z − 2
= 1 + 2(z − 1) + 3(z − 1)2 . . .
X∞
= (n + 1)(z − 1)n whenever |z − 1| < 1,
n=0
and
 
1 d 1
= −
(z − 2)2 dz z − 2
1 2 3
= + + ...
(z − 1)2 (z − 1)3 (z − 1)4
X∞
n+1
= whenever |z − 1| > 1.
n=0
(z − 1)n+2
In the region |z − 1| < 1 it will of course also hold that |z − 1| < 2. So in this
region
z 2 − 8z 1 4
= −
(z − 2)2 (z + 1) z + 1 (z − 2)2
∞
! ∞
!
X (z − 1)n X
= (−1)n n+1 −4 (n + 1)(z − 1)n
n=0
2 n=0
1 −1 1
= ( − 4) + ( − 8)(z − 1) + ( − 12)(z − 1)2 . . .
2 4 8
= −3.5 − 8.25(z − 1) − 11.875(z − 1)2 . . .
In the region 1 < |z − 1| < 2 we have 1 < |z − 1| AND |z − 1| < 2. So in this
region
z 2 − 8z 1 4
= −
(z − 2)2 (z + 1) z + 1 (z − 2)2
∞
! ∞
!
X n X
n (z − 1) n+1
= (−1) −4
n=0
2n+1 n=0
(z − 1)n+2
8 4 1 (z − 1) (z − 1)2
= ···− − + − + ...
(z − 1)3 (z − 1)2 2 22 23
 87 MAT3705/1

Solutions to selected problems

Exercise 1, §56, p. 188

Use definition (2), Sec. 55, of limits to verify the limit of the sequence
n
(−1)
zn = −2 + i (n = 1, 2, . . .)
n2
found in Example 2, Sec. 55.

Solution: n
(−1)
For zn = −2 + i we have
n2
n
(−1) 1
|zn − (−2)| = i = .
n2 n2
Given any ε > 0 we may select Nε ∈ N so that Nε > √1 . Then
ε
1 1 1
n ≥ Nε ⇒ ε > 2
≥ 2 ⇒ |zn − (−2)| = 2 < ε.
Nε n n
Hence zn → −2.

Exercise 2, §56, p. 188

Let θn denote the principal values of the arguments of the complex numbers
n
(−1)
zn = 2 + i (n = 1, 2, . . .) .
n2
Point out why θn → 0, and compare this with Example 2, Sec. 55.

Solution:
1
For n = 2k even, we have z2k = 2 + i 2 . This is a point in the first quadrant
4k
1
for which tan (θ2k ) = 2 (where θ2k = Arg(z2k )). Hence
8k
 
1
θ2k = arctan → 0.
8k 2
1
Similarly for n = 2k − 1 odd, z2k−1 = 2 − i 2 is a point in the fourth
(2k − 1)
quadrant and hence here
! !
−1 −1
θ2k−1 = arctan 2 = arctan 2 →0
2 (2k − 1) 2 (2k − 1)
where θ2k−1 = Arg(z2k−1 ). Clearly (θn ) then converges to 0.

Exercise 3, §56, p. 188

Use the inequality (see Sec. 4) ||zn | − |z|| ≤ |zn − z| to show that
if lim zn = z, then lim |zn | = |z| .
n→∞ n→∞
Solution:
Let (zn ) and z be given. By (5) in section 4 of the textbook
||zn | − |z|| ≤ |zn − z| for all n ∈ N.
Now if lim zn = z, then given ε > 0 we can find Nε so that |zn − z| < ε whenever
n ≥ Nε . But by the above inequality we then have that
||z|n − |z|| < ε whenever n ≥ Nε .
 88

Clearly this means that lim |zn | = |z|.

n

Exercise 4, §56, p. 188

Write z = reiθ , where 0 < r < 1, in the summation formula (10), Sec. 56.
Then, with the aid of the theorem in Sec. 56, show that
∞
X ∞
X
r cos θ − r2 r sin θ
rn cos nθ = and rn sin nθ =
n=1
1 − 2r cos θ + r2 n=1
1 − 2r cos θ + r2
when 0 < r < 1. (Note that these formulas are also valid when r = 0.)

Solution:
For z = reiθ (with 0 < r < 1) we have |z| = r < 1. Hence by the formula in
Section 56,
X∞ X∞
1 1
rn einθ = zn = = .
n=0 n=0
1−z 1 − reiθ


We proceed to compute the real and imaginary parts of the term 1/ 1 − reiθ .
1 1 (1 − r cos θ) + ir sin θ
= ×
1 − reiθ (1 − r cos θ) − ir sin θ (1 − r cos θ) + ir sin θ
(1 − r cos θ) + ir sin θ
= 2
(1 − r cos θ) + r2 sin2 θ
(1 − r cos θ) + ir sin θ
=

1 − 2r cos θ + r2 cos2 θ + sin2 θ
(1 − r cos θ) r sin θ
= +i .
1 − 2r cos θ + r2 1 − 2r cos θ + r2
P
∞ P
∞ P∞ P
∞
Now since rn einθ = rn (cos nθ + i sin nθ) = rn cos nθ + i rn sin nθ, it
n=0 n=0 n=0 n=0
easily follows that
∞ ∞
!
X X
n n inθ
r cos nθ = ℜ r e
n=0 n=0
 
1
= ℜ
1 − reiθ
1 − r cos θ
= .
1 − 2r cos θ + r2
Finally subtract the n = 0 term (ie. 1) from both sides to get the answer. Similarly
∞
X r sin θ
rn sin nθ = .
n=1
1 − 2r cos θ + r2

Exercise 1, §59, p. 195

Obtain the Maclaurin series representation
∞

X z 4n+1
z cosh z 2 = ( |z| < ∞).
n=0
(2n)!
Solution:
From example 3 of section 59 in the textbook we know that
X∞
z 2n
cosh z = .
n=0
(2n)!
 89 MAT3705/1

Therefore
∞
2n ! ∞

X z2 X z 4n+1
2
z cosh z =z = .
n=0
(2n)! n=0
(2n)!

Exercise 3, §59, p. 196

Find the Maclaurin series expansion of the function
z z 1
f (z) = = · .
z4 +9 9 1 + (z 4 /9)

Solution:
From the example in section 56 of the textbook we know that
∞
X
1
= wn if |w| < 1.
1 − w n=0
Therefore
∞
X X∞
1 1 n
= = (−w) = (−1) wn if |w| < 1.
1+w 1 − (−w) n=0 n=0

Consequently
!
z z 1
f (z) = = 4
z4 + 9 9 1 + z9
∞
zX n z
4n
= (−1)
9 n=0 9n
∞
X n z 4n+1
= (−1)
n=0
9n+1

z4 1 √
where the series converges whenever < 1, i.e. when |z| < 9 4 = 3.
9

Exercise 6, §59, p. 196

Use representation
(2), Sec. 59, for sin (z) to write the Maclaurin series for the
function f (z) = sin z 2 , and point out how it follows that
f (4n) (0) = 0 and f (2n+1) (0) = 0 (n = 0, 1, 2, . . .) .

Solution:
From example 2 in section 59 of the textbook we know that
∞
X z 2n+1
sin z = (−1)n (|z| < ∞) .
n=0
(2n + 1)!
Therefore
∞

2 2n+1 ∞

X n z
X n z
4n+2
sin z 2 = (−1) = (−1) .
n=0
(2n + 1)! n=0 (2n + 1)!
Now by Taylor’s theorem the coefficients of the z 4n and z 2n+1 terms in the Maclau-
rin series are exactly
f (4n) (0) f (2n+1) (0)
and n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
(4n)! (2n + 1)!
 90

But from the series expansion we just obtained it is clear that these coefficients
must all be zero. This can only be the case if
f (4n) (0) = 0 and f (2n+1) (0) = 0
for all n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .

Exercise 7, §59, p. 196

Derive the Taylor series representation
1 X∞
(z − i)n  √ 
= |z − i| < 2 .
1 − z n=0 (1 − i)n+1
Suggestion: Start by writing
1 1 1 1
= = · .
1−z (1 − i) − (z − i) 1 − i 1 − (z − i) / (1 − i)

Solution:
1
We compute the Taylor series expansion of at z = i. Notice that
1−z
 
1 1 1 1
= = .
1−z (1 − i) − (z − i) 1 − i 1 − (z − i) / (1 − i)
1 P∞
Recall that = wn (|w| < 1). Therefore on setting w = (z − i) / (1 − i) it
1 − w n=0
follows that
  ∞ n ∞ n
1 1 1 1 X (z − i) X (z − i)
= = n = n+1
1−z (1 − i) 1 − (z − 1) / (1 − i) (1 − i) n=0 (1 − i) n=0 (1 − i)

z−i √
whenever < 1, i.e. whenever |z − i| < |1 − i| = 2.
1−i
Exercise 9, §59, p. 197
Use the identity sinh(z + πi) = sinh z, verified in Exercise 7(a), Sec 35., and
the fact that sinh z is periodic with a period of 2πi, to find the Taylor series for
sinh z about the point z = πi.

Solution:
If we set w = z − πi, we have that
sinh z = sinh(w + πi) = − sinh w
On applying (4) of Example 3 in Sec. 59 to sinh w, it now follows that
X∞ X∞
w2n+1 −1 2n+1
sinh z = − sinh w = − = (z − πi) .
n=0
(2n + 1)! n=0
(2n + 1)!

Exercise 10, §59, p. 197

What is the largest circle within which the Maclaurin series for the function
tanh z converges to tanh z? Write the first two nonzero terms of that series.

Solution:
By Taylor’s theorem the Taylor series centred at 0 (the Maclaurin series) for
tanh z will exist on the largest disc of the form |z| < R0 on which tanh z is still
analytic. Therefore the largest circle within which the Maclaurin series will converge
is the circle |z| = R0 where R0 is the distance from 0 to the nearest point where
sinh z
tanh z fails to be analytic. Now tanh z = cosh z fails to be analytic where cosh z = 0,
i.e. where z = (2k + 1) πi (k ∈ Z). The singularities closest to 0 are ±πi and so
 91 MAT3705/1

the Maclaurin series converges inside the circle |z| = |±πi| = π. The first three
derivatives of f (z) = tanh z are

f (1) (z) = sech2 z, f (2) (z) = 2sech2 z tanh z

f (3) (z) = 4sech2 z tanh2 z + 2sech4 z.
Therefore the coefficients of the first four terms of the Maclaurin series will be
f (1) (0) 1
f (0) = tanh 0 = 0, = sech2 0 = 1
1! 1!
f (2) (0) 1 f (3) (0) 1 1
= 0 = 0; = (4 × 0 + 2) = .
2! 2! 3! 3! 3
with the first two nonzero terms in the series being z + 13 z 3 + . . ..

Exercise 11, §59, p. 197

Show that when z 6= 0,

ez 1 1 1 z sin z 2 1 z2 z 6 z 10
(a) 2 = 2 + + + + · · · ; (b) = − + − + ··· .
z z z 2! 3! z4 z2 3! 5! 7!

Solution:
P∞ 1 1
(a) From example 1 of section 59 we have that ez = zn = 1 + z + z2 +
n=0 n! 2!
1 3 1
z + z 4 + · · · . Therefore
3! 4!
 
ez 1 1 2 1 3 1 4
= 1 + z + z + z + z + · · ·
z2 z2 2! 3! 4!
1 1 1 1 1 2
= + + + z + z + ···
z2 z 2! 3! 4!
P∞ n z 2n+1
(b) From example 2 of section 59, sin z = n=0 (−1) (2n+1)! . Therefore


!
∞ 2 2n+1
sin z 2 1 2


1 X n z
= sin z = 4 (−1)
z4 z4 z n=0
(2n + 1)!
∞
X n z 4n−2
= (−1)
n=0
(2n + 1)!
1 z2 z6 z 10
= − + − + ···
z2 3! 5! 7!

Exercise 12, §59, p. 197

Derive the expansions
∞   ∞
sinh z 1 X z 2n+1 3 1 z X 1 1
(a) = + ; (b) z cosh = +z 3 + · 2n−1
z2 z n=0 (2n + 3)! z 2 n=1
(2n + 2)! z

where 0 < |z| < ∞.

Solution:
(a) From example 3 of section 59
1 3 1 1
sinh z = z + z + z5 + z7 + · · ·
3! 5! 7!
 92

and hence
sinh z 1 1 1 1
= + z + z3 + z5 + · · ·
z2 z 3! 5! z!
∞
1 X 1
= + z 2n+1 .
z n=0 (2n + 3)!
(b) From example 3 of section 59
X∞
1 2n 1 1 1
cosh z = z = 1 + z2 + z4 + z6 + · · · .
n=0
(2n)! 2! 4! 6!
Therefore
   2  4  6 !
3 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1
z cosh = z 1+ + + + ···
z 2! z 4! z 6! z
1 11 1 1 1 1
= z3 + z + + + + ···
2 4! z 6! z 3 8! z 5
∞
z X 1 1
= z3 + + .
2 n=1 (2n + 2)! z 2n−1

Exercise 1, §62, p. 205

Find the Laurent series that represents the function
 
2 1
f (z) = z sin
z2
in the domain 0 < |z| < ∞ .

Solution: n
∞
P (−1)
From example 2 of section 59 sin w = w2n+1 (|w| < ∞). Therefore
n=0 (2n + 1)!
1
on setting w = we get
z2
  X∞ n  2n+1
1 (−1) 1
z 2 sin = z2
z2 n=0
(2n + 1)! z 2
∞
X (−1)n 1
= . (0 < |z| < ∞)
n=0
(2n + 1)! z 4n

Exercise 2, §62, p. 205

Derive the Laurent series representation
"∞ #
ez 1 X (z + 1)n 1 1
2 = e (n + 2)!
+ +
z + 1 (z + 1)2
(0 < |z + 1| < ∞) .
(z + 1) n=0
 93 MAT3705/1

Solution: ∞
P 1 n
For any w ∈ C we have ew = n! w . Therefore eez = ez+1 =
P∞ n=0
1
n=0 n! (z + 1)n , whence
" ∞
#
ez 1 1X 1 n
2 = 2 (z + 1)
(z + 1) (z + 1) e n=0 n!
" #
2
1 1 1 1 (z + 1) (z + 1)
= + + + + + ···
e (z + 1)2 (z + 1) 2! 3! 4!
" ∞
#
1 1 1 X 1 n
= + + (z + 1) .
e (z + 1)2 (z + 1) n=0 (n + 2)!

Exercise 4, §62, p. 206

Give two Laurent series expansions in powers of z for the function
1
f (z) = 2 ,
z (1 − z)
and specify the regions in which those expansions are valid.

Solution:
We know from the example in section 56 that
1
= 1 + z + z2 + z3 + · · · (|z| < 1)
1−z
Therefore for 0 < |z| < 1 we surely have
1 1

2
= 2
1 + z + z2 + z3 + · · ·
z (1 − z) z
1 1
= 2
+ + 1 + z + z2 + · · ·
z z
∞
1 1 X n
= + + z .
z2 z n=0
1
Now when < 1 (i.e. when 1 < |z| < ∞), it follows that
z
  !  2  3 !
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= −
=− 1+ + + + ···
1−z z 1 − 1z z z z z
1 1 1
= − − 2 − 3 − ··· .
z z z
Therefore
X∞
1 1 1 1 1
= − − − − · · · = − .
z 2 (1 − z) z3 z4 z5 n=3
z n
 94

Exercise 6, §62, p. 206

Show that when 0 < |z − 1| < 2,
X∞ n
z (z − 1) 1
= −3 n+2
− .
(z − 1) (z − 3) n=0
2 2 (z − 1)

Solution:
z
To expand in powers of (z − 1) we may write
(z − 1) (z − 3)
  !
1 1 1 1
= = −

z−3 (z − 1) − 2 2 1 − z−1
2
∞ n
1 X (z − 1)
= − .
2 n=0 2n
z−1
whenever < 1 (i.e. |z − 1| < 2). Therefore for 0 < |z − 1| < 2 we get
2
∞
!
z z 1 X (z − 1)n
= −
(z − 1) (z − 3) z−1 2 n=0 2n
  ∞
!
X n
1 (z − 1)
= 1+ −
z−1 n=0
2n+1
X∞  
1 1 1 1 n
= − − + n+2 (z − 1)
2 (z − 1) n=0 2n+1 2
∞
X 3
1
= − − (z − 1)n .
2 (z − 1) n=0 2n+2

Exercise 7, §62, p. 206

Write the two Laurent series in powers of z that represent the function
1
f (z) =
z (1 + z 2 )
in certain domains, and specify those domains.

Solution:
2
For −z 2 = |z| < 1 (i.e. |z| < 1) we have that
1 1

2
3
2
= 2
= 1 + −z 2 + −z 2 + −z 2 + · · ·
1+z 1 − (−z )
= 1 − z2 + z4 − z6 + z8 − · · · .
Therefore
1 1
= − z + z3 − z5 + z7 − · · ·
z(1 + z 2 ) z
∞
1 X n+1 2n+1
= + (−1) z . (0 < |z| < 1)
z n=0

If on the other hand − z12 < 1 (i.e. 1 < |z| < ∞ ), then
∞  n X ∞
1 1 1 X 1 (−1)n
=

= − = .
1 + z2 z 2 1 − − z12 z 2 n=0 z2 n=0
z 2n+2
 95 MAT3705/1

Thus
∞ n ∞ n ∞ n+1
1 1 X (−1) X (−1) X (−1)
= = =
z (1 + z 2 ) z n=0 z 2n+2 n=0
z 2n+3 n=1
z 2n+1
whenever 1 < |z| < ∞.

Exercise 10, §62, p. 207

(a) Let z be any complex number, and let C denote the unit circle
w = eiφ ( − π ≤ φ ≤ π)
in the w plane. Then use that contour in expression (5), Sec. 60, for the
coefficients in a Laurent series, adapted to such series about the origin in
the w plane, to show that
   X∞
z 1
exp w− = Jn (z) wn (0 < |w| < ∞),
2 w n=−∞

where
Z π
1
Jn (z) = exp [−i (nφ − z sin φ)] dφ (n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . ).
2π −π

(b) With the aid of Exercise 5, Sec. 38, regarding certain definite integrals of
even and odd complex–valued functions of a real variable, show that the
coefficients in part (a) can be written
Z
1 π
Jn (z) = cos (nφ − z sin φ) dφ (n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . ).
π 0

Solution:
(a) Let C be the positively oriented unit circle |w| = 1 parametrised by
w = eiθ − π < θ ≤ π.
For any fixed z ∈ C it then follows from the Theorem in section 60 that
we can write the function
  
z 1
fz (w) = exp w−
2 w
as a Laurent series (in powers of w) at w = 0
∞
X
fz (w) = Jn (z) wn
n=−∞

where the coefficients Jn (z) are given by

Z
1 fz (w)
Jn (z) = dw
2πi C wn+1
Z 

1 exp z2 w − 1
w
= dw.
2πi C wn+1
However for w = eiθ we have
 
1 iθ −iθ 1 iθ −iθ


w− =e −e = 2i e −e = 2i sin θ
w 2i
 96

and so in terms of the given parametrisation we get

Z 

1 exp z2 w − w1
Jn (z) = dw
2πi C wn+1
Z π  
1 exp z2 (2i sin θ) iθ
= n+1 ie dθ
2πi −π (eiθ )
Z π
1
= eiz sin θ e−inθ dθ
2π −π
Z π
1
= e−i[nθ−z sin θ] dθ.
2π −π
(b) Let Jn (z) be as in part (a). Notice that then
Z π
1
Jn (z) = e−i[nθ−z sin θ] dθ
2π −π
Z π
1
= (cos (nθ − z sin θ) − i sin (nθ − z sin θ)) dθ
2π −π
Z π Z π 
1
= cos (nθ − z sin θ) dθ − i sin (nθ − z sin θ) dθ .
2π −π −π
Next observe that since
cos (n (−θ) − z sin (−θ)) = cos (− [nθ − z sin θ])
= cos (nθ − z sin θ)
and
sin (n (−θ) − z sin (−θ)) = sin (− [nθ − z sin θ])
= − sin (nθ − z sin θ)
the function θ → cos (nθ − z sin θ) is even whereas θ → sin (nθ − z sin θ)
is odd. Therefore by exercise 5 of section 38
Z π Z
1 1 π
cos (nθ − z sin θ) dθ = cos (nθ − z sin θ) dθ
2π −π π 0
and Z π
1
sin (nθ − z sin θ) dθ = 0.
2π −π
Consequently
Z π
1
Jn (z) = cos (nθ − z sin θ) dθ.
π 0

Exercise 2, §66, p. 219

By substituting 1/ (1 − z) for z in the expansion
X∞
1
= (n + 1) z n (|z| < 1) ,
(1 − z 2 ) n=0
found in Exercise 1, derive the Laurent series representation
X∞ n
1 (−1) (n − 1)
= (1 < |z − 1| < ∞) .
z 2 n=2 (z − 1)n
(Compare Example 2, Sec. 65.)
 97 MAT3705/1

Solution:
We know that
∞
X
1
= wn |w| < 1.
1 − w n=2
If now we differentiate term–wise then by Theorem 2 in section 65 we have
  X ∞ X∞
1 d 1 n−1
2 = = nw = (n + 1) wn
(1 − w) dw 1 − w n=0 n=0
1
whenever |w| < 1. If next we set w = , it follows that
1−z
 2 X∞ X∞ n
z−1 1 1 (−1) (n + 1)
=   2 = (n + 1) n = n
z 1 (1 − z) (z − 1)
1− 1−z
n=0 n=0

1 2
whenever < 1, i.e. when 1 < |z − 1|. On dividing through by (z − 1) we
1−z
see that
∞
X n ∞ n
1 (−1) (n + 1) X (−1) (n − 1)
= n+2 = n
z 2 n=0 (z − 1) n=2
(z − 1)
(In the last equality we again used the fact that (−1)n = (−1)n+2 .

Exercise 3, §66, p. 220

Find the Taylor series for the function
1 1 1 1
= = ·
z 2 + (z − 2) 2 1 + (z − 2) /2
about the point z0 = 2. Then, by differentiating that series term by term, show
that ∞  n
1 1X n z−2
= (−1) (n + 1) ( |z − 2| < 2).
z2 4 n=0 2

Solution:
z−2
Whenever < 1 (i.e. when |z − 2| < 2), it follows that
2
!  
1 1 1 1 1
=
=  
z 2 1 + z−2 2
2 1 − −(z−2)
2

X∞  n X ∞ n
1 − (z − 2) (−1) n
= = n+1
(z − 2) .
n=0
2 2 n=0
2
From Theorem 2 in section 65 we now conclude that for all |z − 2| < 2 we have
  ∞
!
n
1 d 1 d X (−1) n
= − =− (z − 2)
z2 dz z dz n=0 2n+1
X∞ n+1 X∞ n
(−1) n−1 (−1)
= n+1
n (z − 2) = n+2
(n + 1) (z − 2)n .
n=1
2 n=0
2
n n+2
(In the last sum we made use of the fact that (−1) = (−1) .)
 98

Exercise 5, §66, p. 220

Prove that if
 cos z

 2 when z 6= ±π/2
2
f (z) = z − (π/2)

 1
− when z = ±π/2,
π
then f is an entire function.

Solution:
cos z
Since cos z is entire it is easy to see that 
2  is analytic (differentiable)
z 2 − π2

2
whenever z 2 − π2 6= 0. To see that
 cos z

 2 if z 6= ± π2
2
f (z) = z − (π/2)

 1
− if z = ± π2
π
is in fact analytic on all of C, we therefore only need to check that it is differentiable
at z = ± π
2 . To do this we expand cos z as a power series at z = π2 (i.e. in powers
of z − π2 ). Recall from example 2 of section 59 that
∞
X n w2n+1
sin w = (−1)
n=0
(2n + 1)!

and from the top of p. 107 of section 34 that

 π
cos z = − sin z − .
2


It therefore we set w = z − π2 it follows that
∞
2n+1
X z − π2
n
cos z = − (−1)
n=0
(2n + 1)!
 π  1  π 3 1  π 5
= − z− + z− − z− + ··· .
2 3! 2 5! 2
But then
π

 !
f (z) − f 2 1 cos z −1
=


−
z − π2 z − π2
z + π2 z − π2 π
  
1 1 1 π 1  π 3
=
+
z − − z − + · · ·
π z + π2 z + π2 3! 2 5! 2
1
→
π2
π π 1 π
as z → . Thus f ′ exists and equals 2 . To check differentiability at z = −
2 2 π 2
note that
 π 1  π 3 1  π 5
cos z = cos (−z) = − −z − + −z − − −z − + ···
2 3! 2 5! 2
 π 1  π 3 1  π 5
= z+ − z+ + z+ − ··· .
2 3! 2 5! 2
 99 MAT3705/1

Arguing as before it then follows that

 !
f (z) − f − π2 1 cos z −1
=

−
z + π2 z + π2 z − π2 z + π2 π
  
1 1 1 π 1  π 3
=
−
z + − z + + · · ·
π z − π2 z − π2 3! 2 5! 2
1 π
→ − 2 as z → − .
π 2
 π 1
Thus f ′ − exists and equals − 2 .
2 π
Exercise 6, §66, p. 220
In the w plane, integrate the Taylor series expansion (see Example 4, Sec. 59)
X∞
1 n n
= (−1) (w − 1) (|w − 1| < 1)
w n=0
along a contour interior to the circle of convergence from w = 1 to w = z to obtain
the representation
X∞ n+1
(−1)
Logz = (z − 1)n (|z − 1| < 1) .
n=1
n
Solution:
From example 4 in section 59 we know that
∞
X
1
= (−1)n (w − 1)n (|w − 1| < 1) .
w n=0
Now by (5) in section 31, Log(z) is an anti–derivative of z1 on the region (|z| >
0, −π < Arg(z) < π). In particular the disc |w − 1| < 1 is entirely contained in this
region. If therefore z is in this disc and we integrate from 1 to z along a contour
inside this disc, it follows from (1) of section 45 and Theorem 1 of section 65 that
Z z
1
Logz = Logw|z1 = dw
1 w
Z zX∞
n n
= (−1) (w − 1) dw
1 n=0
∞ z
X (w − 1)n+1
= (−1)n
n=0
n+1
1
X∞ n+1
(z − 1)
n
= (−1)
n=0
n+1
X∞ n+1
(−1)
= (z − 1)n (|z − 1| < 1) .
n=1
n
Exercise 7, §66, p. 220
Use the result in Exercise 6 to show that if
( Logz
when z 6= 1
f (z) = z−1
1 when z = 1,
then f is analytic throughout the domain 0 < |z| < ∞, −π < Arg z < π.
 100

Solution:
Since Logz is analytic on all of (0 < |z| < ∞, −π < Arg(z) < π), it easily
follows that Log(z) / (z − 1) is analytic on this entire region except where z − 1 = 0,
i.e. where z = 1. To see that
( Logz
when z 6= 1
f (z) = z−1
1 when z = 1,
is analytic on this entire region, we therefore only need to check that it is differ-
entiable at z = 1. Now by exercise 6 above we may write f (z) as a power series
whenever 0 < |z − 1| < 1. We get
∞
! ∞
X n+1 X n
1 n (z − 1) n (z − 1)
f (z) = (−1) = (−1) .
z − 1 n=0 n+1 n=0
n+1
Therefore for any such z we have that
" ∞ ! #
X n
f (z) − f (1) 1 n (z − 1)
= (−1) −1
z−1 z−1 n=0
n+1
1 1 1 1
= − + (z − 1) − (z − 1)2 + (z − 1)3 − · · ·
2 3 4 5
1
→ − as z → 1.
2
1
Therefore f ′ (1) exists and equals − .
2
Exercise 8, §66, p. 220
Prove that if f is analytic at z0 and f (z0 ) = f ′ (z0 ) = · · · = f (m) (z0 ) = 0, then
the function g defined by the equations

 f (z)

 m+1 when z 6= z0 ,
g (x) = (z − z0 )

 f (m+1) (z0 )
 when z = z0
(m + 1)!
is analytic at z0 .

Solution:
Since f is analytic at z0 we can find some R > 0 so that f is analytic for all z
with |z − z0 | < R. We show that g is differentiable throughout |z − z0 | < R.
f (z)
For any z 6= z0 with |z − z0 | < R, g (z) is of the form g (z) = where
(z − z0 )m+1
f is analytic at each such z. Clearly g (z) is then also analytic (differentiable) at
each such z.

To show that g is also differentiable at z0 we first look at the Taylor series of f

at z0 . By Taylor’s theorem
∞
X n
f (z) = cn (z − z0 )
n=0
where
f (n) (z0 )
cn = .
n!
Since by assumption f (z0 ) = f ′ (z0 ) = · · · = f (m) (z0 ) = 0, we therefore get
m+1 m+2 m+3
f (z) = cm+1 (z − z0 ) + cm+2 (z − z0 ) + cm+3 (z − z0 ) + ···
 101 MAT3705/1

where the cn ’s are as before. Then

f (z0 + h) = cm+1 hm+1 + cm+2 hm+2 + · · ·
and hence
" #
g (z0 + h) − g (z0 ) 1 f (z0 + h) f m+1 (z0 )
= −
h h (z0 + h − z0 )m+1 (m + 1)!
1
= [(cm+1 + cm+2 h + · · · ) − cm+1 ]
h
= cm+2 + cm+3 h + cm+4 h2 + · · ·
→ cm+2 as h → 0.
Thus g ′ (z0 ) exists and equals
f (m+2) (z0 )
cm+2 = .
(m + 2)!

Exercise 9, §66, p. 221

Suppose that a function f (z) has a power series representation
∞
X n
f (z) = an (z − z0 )
n=0

inside some circle |z − z0 | = R. Use Theorem 2 in Sec. 65, regarding term by term
differentiation of such a series, and mathematical induction to show that
∞
X (n + k)! k
f (n) (z) = an+k (z − z0 ) (n = 0, 1, 2, . . .)
k!
k=0

when |z − z0 | < R. Then, by setting z = z0 , show that the coefficients an (n =

0, 1, 2, . . .) are the coefficients in the Taylor series for f about z0 . Thus give an
alternative proof of Theorem 1 in Sec. 66.

Solution:
Suppose that for some R > 0,
∞
X k
f (z) = ak (z − z0 ) |z − z0 | < R.
k=0

It then follows from Theorem 2 of section 65 that

∞
X k
f ′ (z) = (k + 1) ak+1 (z − z0 ) |z − z0 | < R.
k=0

(k + 1!)
Since k + 1 = , this can also be written as
k!
∞
X
′ (k + 1)! k
f (z) = ak+1 (z − z0 ) |z − z0 | < R.
k!
k=0

Now suppose that for some m ∈ N we have that

∞
X (k + m)! k
f (m) (z) = ak+m (z − z0 )
k!
k=0
 102

for all |z − z0 | < R. On applying Theorem 2 of section 65 to f (m) above it then

follows that
∞
d X (k + m)! k
f (m+1) (z) = ak+m (z − z0 )
dz k!
k=0
∞
X (k + m)! k−1
= kak+m (z − z0 )
k!
k=1
∞
X (k + m)! k−1
= ak+m (z − z0 )
(k − 1)!
k=1
X∞
(k + (1 + m)!) k
= ak+(1+m) (z − z0 )
k!
k=0

for all |z − z0 | < R. By induction it therefore follows that

∞
X (k + n)! k
f (n) (z) = ak+n (z − z0 ) |z − z0 | < R
k!
k=0

for any n ∈ N. If now we evaluate these series at z0 , only the k = 0 term remains,
whence
n!
f (n) (z0 ) = an = n!an n ∈ N.
0!

f (n) (z0 )
(By convention 0! = 1.) Therefore an = for each n ∈ N, that is the
n!
∞
P k
coefficients in the series expansion f (z) = ak (z − z0 ) are precisely the Taylor–
k=0
coefficients of f at z0 .

Exercise 2, §67, p. 225

1
By writing csc(z) = sin(z) and then using division, show that
" #
1 1 1 1 3
csc z = + z + 2 − 5! z + (0 < |z| < π) .
z 3! (3!)

Solution:
1
Observe that csc z = with
sin z

X∞ n
(−1) 1 1
sin z = z 2n+1 = z − z 3 + z 5 − · · · .
n=0
(2n + 1)! 3! 5!

Now if 0 < |z| < π, then sin z is non–zero and so in this case we may write

1 1
csc z = = 1 3 1 5 1 7 .
sin z z− 3! z + 5! z − 7! z + ···
 103 MAT3705/1

By means of long–division
 
1 1 1 1
z + 3! z + (3!)2
− 5! z3 + · · ·
1 3 1 5
z− 3! z + 5! z − ··· 1
1 2 1 4
1− 3! z + 5! z − · · ·
1 2 1 4
3! z − 5! z
+ · · ·
1 2 1 2 4 1
z − 3! z + 3!5! z6 − ···
h 3!
i
1 2 1
3! − 5! z4 + · · ·
h
i
1 2 1
3! − 5! z4 + · · ·
...
!
1 1 1 1
Therefore csc z = + z+ 2 − z 3 + · · · if 0 < |z| < π.
z 3! (3!) 5!

Exercise 3, §67, p. 225

Use division to obtain the Laurent series representation
1 1 1 1 1 3
= − + z− z + ··· (0 < |z| < 2π) .
ez − 1 z 2 12 720

Solution:
P
∞ 1 P∞
1 n
Recall that ez − 1 = zn − 1 = z
n! z . The zeros of e − 1 are at all
n=0 n! n=1
points z where ez = 1, i.e. z = i2nπ (n ∈ Z). Thus if 0 < |z| < 2π, then ez − 1 is
non–zero and so in this case we may write
1 1 1
= P∞ 1 n = 1 2 1 3 1 4 .
ez − 1 n=1 n! z z + 2! z + 3! z + 4! z + ···
By means of longdivision
1 1 1 1 3
z − 2 + 12 z − 720 z + ···
1 2 1 3 1 4
z+ 2! z + 3! z + 4! z + ··· 1
1 1 2 1 3 1 4
1 + 2! z + 3! z + 4! z + 5! z + ···
1 1 2 1 3 1 4
− 2 z − 6 z − 24 z − 120 z − · · ·
− 21 z − 14 z 2 − 12
1 3
z − 481 4
z −···
1 2 1 3 1 4
12 z + 24 z + 80 z + · · ·
1 2 1 3 1 4
12 z + 24 z + 72 z + · · ·
1 4
− 720 z − · · ·
1 1 1 1 1 3
Thus = − + z− z + · · · if 0 < |z| < 2π.
ez−1 z 2 12 720
Exercise 4, §67, p. 225
Use the expansion
1 1 1 1 7
= 3− · + z + ··· (0 < |z| < π)
z 2 sinh z z 6 z 360
in Example 2, Sec. 67, and the method illustrated in Example 1, Sec. 62, to show
that Z
dz πi
2
=−
C z sinh z 3
where C is the positively oriented unit circle |z| = 1.
 104

Solution:
Observe that
1 1 11 7
= 3− + z + ···
z 2 sinh z z 6z 360
for all 0 < |z| < π. Since the positively oriented circle C : |z| = 1 falls within this
region, it follows from Theorem 1 of section 65 that
Z Z Z Z
1 1 1 1 7
2
dz = 3
dz − dz + zdz + · · · .
C z sinh z C z 6 Cz 360 C
It then follows from exercise 10(b) of Sec. 42 of the textbook that
Z
1 1
2 sinh z
dz = 0 − 2πi + 0 + 0 + · · ·
C z 6
πi
= − .
3

Exercise 8, §67, p. 227

The Euler numbers are the numbers En (n = 0, 1, 2, . . .) in the Maclaurin series
representation
∞
X
1 En n
= z (|z| < π/2) .
cosh z n=0 n!
Point out why this representation is valid in the indicated disk and why E2n+1 =
0 (n = 0, 1, 2, . . .). Then show that
E0 = 1, E2 = −1, E4 = 5, and E6 = −61.

Solution:
1
Observe that the singularities

of sechz = cosh z are at all points z where cosh =
π
0, i.e. where z = 2 + nπ i (n ∈ Z)
(see (15) in section 35). However none of these points are contained in the disk
1
|z| < π2 and hence cosh z is therefore analytic on this disk. By Taylor’s theorem the
Maclaurin series expansion must then exist in this disk. Now from Example 3 of
section 59 we know that
X∞
1 2n 1 1
cosh z = z = 1 + z2 + z4 + · · · (|z| < ∞) .
n=0
(2n)! 2! 4!
This series has only even powers of z. Performing longdivision to extract the
1
Maclaurin series of cosh z from this one will therefore also yield a series with only
even powers, that is the coefficients (and hence also E2n+1 ) of all the odd powers in
1
the Maclaurin expansion of cosh z must be zero. We proceed to compute the first
four non–zero terms in this expansion by means of long division.
5 4
1 − 21 z 2 + 24 z − 72061 6
z + ···
1 2 1 4 1 6
1+ 2! z + 4! z + 6! z + ··· 1
1 2 1 4 1 6
1 + 2! z + 24 z + 720 z + ···
1 2 1 4 1 6
− 2 z − 24 z − 720 z − · · ·
− 21 z 2 − 41 z 4 − 48
1 6
z − ···
5 4 7 6
24 z + 360 z · · ·
5 4 5 6
24 z + 48 z · · ·
61 6
− 720 z − ···
61 6
− 720 z − ···
...
 105 MAT3705/1

1 1 2 5 4 61 6 π


Clearly cosh z = 1 − 2 z + 24 z − 720 z + · · · |z| < 2 . The first four non–zero
coefficients are therefore E0 = 1, E2!2 = − 21 , E4!4 = 24
5
, E6
6! = −61
720 . This implies that
E0 = 1, E2 = −1, E4 = 5, E6 = −61.
 CHAPTER 6

Residues and Poles

Study sections 68 – 70, and sections 72–77. Exercises in section 71 that pertain
to earlier sections, should nevertheless be done (That is we will cover all material
in chapter 6, except the theory and techniques of section 71.)
In this chapter we meet the final ingredient in our theory of integration (as
promised in the overview of chapter 4), namely Cauchy’s Residue Theorem. This
theorem builds on the theory of Laurent series, and presents us with a powerful
technique for computing integrals. The idea behind the theorem is easy enough
to explain. Suppose we are given a function f which is analytic throughout a
domain of the form 0 < |z − a| < r, but not at a itself. Next suppose we want to
integrate this function along a simply closed positively oriented contour C which
lies completely inside this region and also encloses the troublesome point a. We
saw from Laurent’s theorem that f may be written as a series of the form
X∞ X∞
bn
f (z) = an (z − a)n + ,
n=0 n=1
(z − a)n
in this region. To integrate f along C, we can now try to integrate term by term,
and apply Cauchy’s Integral Formulas to each of these termwise integrals to get
Z X∞ Z X∞ Z
1
f (z)dz = an (z − a)n dz + bn dz
C n=0 C n=1 C (z − a)n
= 2πib1
R R 1
(Here we used the fact that C (z −a)n dz = 0 when n 6= −1, with C (z−a) dz = 2πi.)
1
So computing the integral, boils down to computing the coefficient b1 of the (z−a)
term in the Laurent expansion of f . We call this coefficient b1 the residue of f at
a. Taking this argument to its logical conclusion presents us with Cauchy’s residue
theorem, which in its simplest form boils down to the statement that
Z
f (z)dz = 2πi{sum of the residues inside C}.
C
It is very important to note that ONLYR the residues of singularities inside C con-
tribute to the value of the integral C f (z)dz. Thus although f may have many
other singularities besides those inside
R C, those other singularities make no contri-
bution whatsoever to the value of C f (z)dz. Now of course for us to be able to
make good use of this theorem, we need to be skilled at computing these residues.
For this reason a large part of chapter 6 is devoted to classifying singularities of
complex functions, and developing techniques for computing the residues at these
singularities.

107
 108

Solutions to selected problems

Exercise 1, §71, p. 239

Find the residue at z = 0 of the function
 
1 1 z − sin z
(a) ; (b) z cos ; (c) ;
z + z2 z z
cot z sinh z
(d) ; (e) 4 .
z4 z (1 − z 2 )

Solution:
1
(a) The point z = 0 is the only singularity of f (z) = inside C where
z + z2
1
C is the positively oriented circle |z| = . By (2) of section 69 the residue
2
is
Z
1 1
Res (f ) = dz
z=0 2πi C z + z 2
Z
1 1/ (1 + z)
= dz
2πi C z
1
= (Cauchy Integration Formulae)
1+z z=0

= 1.
P∞ (−1)n 1
(b) Since cos w = w2n for all |w| < ∞, we may set w = to get
n=0 2n! z
∞
!
X n
1 (−1) 1
z cos = z
z n=0
(2n)! z 2n

11 1 1 1 1
= z− + 3
− + ···
2! z 4! z 6! z 5
Clearly
  
1 1
Res z cos =− .
z=0 z 2
P
∞ (−1)n 2n+1
(c) Since sin z = z (see section 59) it follows that
n=0 (2n + 1)!

∞
!
X n
1 1 (−1)
(z − sin z) = z− z 2n+1
z z n=0
(2n + 1)!

1 2 1 1
= z − z4 + z6 − . . .
3! 5! 7!
1
Therefore the residue (coefficient of the term) is
z
 
1
Res (z − sin z) = 0.
z=0 z
 109 MAT3705/1

(d) We use long division to compute the first few terms of the Laurent series
cos z
of cot z = . Since
sin z
X∞ n  
(−1) 2n 1 1
cos z = z = 1 − z2 + z4 − . . .
n=0
(2n)! 2 24
and
X∞ n  
(−1) 1 1 5
sin z = z 2n+1 = z − z 3 + z − ... ,
n=0
(2n + 1)! 6 120
it follows that
1
− 13 z − 45
z
1 3
z − ...
1 3 1 5 1 2 1 4
z− 6z + 120 z − . . . 1 − 2 z + 24 z − ...
1 − 61 z 2 + 120
1 4
z − ...
1 4
− 13 z 2 + 30 z − ...
− 13 z 2 + 18
1 4
z − ...
1 4
− 45 z + . . .
1 4
− 45 z + ...
............
Therefore
cos z 1 1 1
cot z = = − z − z3 − . . .
sin z z 3 45
in which case
cot z 1 1 1 1 1
4
= 5− 3
− ...
z z 3z 45 z
But then  
cot z 1
Res =− .
z=0 z4 45
(e) From section 59 we know that
∞
X 1
sinh z = z 2n+1 .
n=0
(2n + 1)!

∞
P
n
In addition if |z| < 1 then 1/ 1 − z 2 = z 2 . Therefore if 0 < |z| <
n=0
1, then
 
sinh z 1 2 4

1 3 1 5
= 1 + z + z + . . . z + z + z + . . .
z (1 − z 2 )
4 z4 3! 5!
   
1 1 1 1 1
= + 1+ + 1+ + z + ...
z3 3! z 3! 5!
Consequently
 
sinh z 1 7
Res = 1+ = .
z=0 z 4 (1 − z 2 ) 3! 6

Exercise 2, §71, p. 239

Use Cauchy’s Residue Theorem (Section 70) to evaluate the integral of each of
these functions around the circle |z| = 3 in the positive sense:
 
exp (−z) exp (−z) 1 z+1
(a) ; (b) 2 ; (c) z 2 exp ; (d) .
z2 (z − 1) z z 2 − 2z
 110

Solution:
In each case let C be the positively oriented circle |z| = 3.
(a) The only singularity of exp(−z)
z2 is at z = 0. Therefore
Z  
exp (−z) exp (−z)
dz = 2πi Res .
C z2 z=0 z2
∞ 
P 1 n
Since exp(−z)
z2 = 1
z2 n! (−z) = z12 − z1 + 2!
1 1
− 3! z + · · · it follows that
  n=0
Res exp(−z)
z2 = −1, and hence that
z=0
Z
exp (−z)
dz = −2πi.
C z2
(b) The only singularity of exp(−z)
(z−1)2
is at z = 1. To find the residue we compute
the Laurent series at z = 1. Since
∞
!
−z 1 −(z−1) 1 X 1 n
e = e = (− (z − 1))
e e n=0 n!
it follows that
 
exp (−z) 1 1 1 2
2 = 2 · 1 − (z − 1) + (z − 1) − . . .
(z − 1) (z − 1) e 2!
1 1 1 1 1
= − + − ...
e (z − 1)2 e (z − 1) 2e
and hence that
  1
2
Res exp (−z) / (z − 1) = − .
z=1 e
Therefore Z  
exp (−z) 1
2 dz = 2πi − e .
C (z − 1)
(c) In Laurent form
  ∞  n !
1 X 1 1
z 2 exp = z2
z n=0
n! z

1 11 1 1
= z2 + z + + + + ...
2! 3! z 4! z 2
Therefore   
1 1 1
Res z 2 exp = = .
z=0 z 3! 6
 
1 2
Since in addition 0 is the only singularity of z exp , it follows that
z
Z    
1 1 πi
z 2 exp dz = 2πi = .
C z 6 3
z+1
(d) has singularities at both 0 and 2 both of which lie inside the circle
z 2 − 2z
C. Therefore
Z h i
z+1
2
dz = 2πi Res (f ) + Res (f ) .
C z − 2z z=0 z=2
 111 MAT3705/1

We compute the Laurent expansions at 0 and 2. At z = 0 we get

  
z+1 1 1 1
= − −
z 2 − 2z 2z 2 1 − z2
   z   z 2  z 3 
1 1
= − − 1+ + + + ...
2z 2 2 2 3
1 3 3
= − − − z − ...
2z 4 8
whenever 0 < |z| < 2. Therefore
 
z+1 1
Res 2
=− .
z=0 z − 2z 2
At z = 2 we get
z+1 (z − 2) + 3 1
=

z (z − 2) 2 (z − 2) 1 + z−2
2
     2  3 !
1 3 z−2 z−2 z−2
= + 1− + − + ...
2 2 (z − 2) 2 2 2
3 1 1 1
= − + (z − 2) − . . .
2 (z − 2) 4 8
whenever 0 < |z − 2| < 2, whence
 
z+1 3
Res = .
z=2 z 2 − 2z 2
Therefore
Z  
z+1 1 3
dz = 2πi − + = 2πi.
C z 2 − 2z 2 2

Exercise 4, §71, p. 239

Let C denote the circle |z| = 1, taken counterclockwise, and follow the steps
below to show that
Z   X∞
1 1
exp z + dz = 2πi .
C z n=0
n! (n + 1)!

(a) By using the Maclaurin series for ez and referring to Theorem 1 in section
65, which justifies the term by term integration that is to be used, write
the above integral as
X∞ Z  
1 1
z n exp dz.
n=0
n! C z

(b) Apply the theorem in section 70 to evaluate the integrals appearing in

part (a) to arrive at the desired result.

Solution:
Let C be the positively oriented circle |z| = 1. By example 1 of section 59
X∞
1 n
ez = z |z| < ∞.
n=0
n!
 112

Therefore on applying Theorem 1 of section 65 it follows that

Z Z
1 1
ez+ z dz = e z ez dz
C C
Z X∞
1 1 n
= ez z dz
C n=0
n!

X∞ Z
1 1
= z n e z dz.
n=0
n! C
Next notice that by example 1 of section 59
X∞  k
1 1 1
ez = (0 < |z| < ∞) .
n=0
k! z
Therefore
1 1 n−2 1 1 1 1 1
z n e z = z n + z n−1 + z + ...+ + + + ...
2! n! (n + 1)! z (n + 2)! z 2
Clearly
 1
 1
Res z n e z = .
z=0 (n + 1)!
1
Therefore since z = 0 is the only singular point of z n e z , it follows from the theorem
in section 70 that
Z  
1 1 2πi
z n e z dz = 2πi Res z n e z = .
C z=0 (n + 1)!
Consequently
Z X∞ Z X∞
z+ z1 1 1 1
e dz = z n e z dz = 2πi .
C n=0
n! C n=0
n! (n + 1)!

Exercise 1, §72, p. 243

In each case, write the principal part of the function at its isolated singular
point and determine whether that point is a pole, a removable singular point, or
an essential singular point:
 
1 z2 sin z cos z 1
(a) z exp ; (b) ; (c) ; (d) ; (e) 3.
z 1+z z z (2 − z)

Solution:


(a) The only singularity of z exp z1 is z = 0. For z = 0 we have
X∞  n X ∞
1 1 1 1 1−n
ze = z
z = z |z| > 0.
n=0
n! z n=0
n!
1
Therefore the principal part of z e z is
X∞ ∞
1 1−n X 1
z = z −k |z| > 0
n=2
n! (k + 1)!
k=1

and the singularity is an essential singularity.

 113 MAT3705/1

z2
(b) has a singularity at z = −1. At this point the Laurent expansion is
1+z
z2 1 2 1
= ((z + 1) − 1) = − 2 + (z + 1)
1+z (z + 1) (z + 1)
1
and the principal part of the function is . Therefore z = −1 is a
z+1
simple pole.
sin z
(c) has a singular point at z = 0. At this point
z
∞
!
sin z 1 X 1 1 1
= (−1)n z 2n+1 = 1 − z 2 + z 4 − . . .
z z n=0 (2n + 1)! 3! 5!

Therefore z = 0 is a removable singular point and the principal part of

sin z
is 0.
z
cos z
(d) has a singular point at z = 0. At this point
z
∞ 2n
cos z 1 X (−1) 1 1 1
= z 2n = − z + z 3 − . . .
z z n=0 (2n)! z 2! 4!

cos z 1
Therefore the principal part of is and hence z = 0 is a simple
z z
pole.
1 1
(e) 3 =− 3 has a singular point at z = 2. The principal part
(2 − z) (z − 2)
1
of the function at 2 is − and z = 2 is therefore a pole of order 3.
(z − 2)3

Exercise 3, §72, p. 243

Suppose that a function f is analytic at z0 , and consider the quotient
f (z)
g (z) = .
z − z0
Show that
(a) if f (z0 ) 6= 0, then z0 is a simple pole of g, with residue f (z0 ) ;
(b) if f (z0 ) = 0, then z0 is a removable singular point of g.
Suggestion: As pointed out in section 57, there is a Taylor series for f (z) about
z0 since f is analytic there. Start each part of this exercise by writing out a few
terms of that series.

Solution:
Since f is analytic at z0 , Taylor’s Theorem assures us that for some R > 0
∞
X n
f (z) = an (z − z0 ) |z − z0 | < R
n=0

where
f (n) (z0 )
an = n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
n!
 114

(a) If therefore f (z0 ) 6= 0, then a0 = 6 0 in which case the Laurent series

expansion of f (z) / (z − z0 ) at z0 is of the form
f (z) a0
= + a1 + a2 (z − z0 ) + . . .
z − z0 z − z0
Thus f (z) / (z − z0 ) then has a simple pole at z0 with residue a0 = f (z0 ).
(b) If on the other hand f (z0 ) = 0, then a0 = 0 whence
2
f (z) = a1 (z − z0 ) + a2 (z − z0 ) + . . . |z − z0 | < R.
In this case
f (z) 2
= a1 + a2 (z − z0 ) + a3 (z − z0 ) + . . . 0 < |z − z0 | < R.
(z − z0 )
Clearly f (z) / (z − z0 ) then has a removable singularity at z0 .

Exercise 1, §74, p. 248

In each case, show that the singular points of the function are poles. Determine
the order m of each pole, and find the corresponding residue B.
z2 + 2
(a) ;
z−1
 3
z
(b) ;
2z + 1
exp z
(c) 2 .
z + π2

Solution:
(a) z 2 + 2 is non–zero
at z = 1 whereas z − 1 has a zero of order 1 at z = 1.
Therefore z 2 + 2 / (z − 1) has a simple pole at z = 1. The residue is
 2 
z +2 z2 + 2
Res = d = 3.
z=1 z−1 dz (z − 1) z=1
 3
3 1 3 1
(b) z is nonzero at z = − whereas 2 z + has a zero of order 3 there.
2 2
 3
1 z
Therefore z = − is a pole of order 3 of . Since
2 2z + 1
 3

z 3
z 2
=
3
2z + 1 z + 12
 z 3 1
with analytic at z = − , the residue is given by
2 2
 3
z 1 d2  z 3
Res1 =
z=− 2 2z + 1 2! dz 2 2 z=− 1 2

1 6z
=
2! 8 z=− 21

3
= − .
16
 115 MAT3705/1

(c) exp (z) is never zero whereas z 2 + π 2 = (z − iπ) (z + iπ) has simple zeros
exp (z)
at ±iπ. Thus 2 has simple poles at ±iπ. The residues at these
(z + π 2 )
points are:

exp z exp z
Res = d
z=iπ z 2 + π2 dz (z 2 + π 2 )
z=iπ

exp (iπ)
=
2 (iπ)
i
=
2π
and
exp z exp (−iπ)
Res =
z=−iπ z 2 + π2 2 (−iπ)
i
= − .
2π

Exercise 2 (a) & (b), §74, p. 248

Show that
1
z4 1+i
(a) Res = √ (|z| > 0, 0 < arg z < 2π) ;
z=−iπ z + 1 2
Log z π + 2i
(b) Res 2 = .
z=i (z 2 + 1) 8

Solution:
1
(a) Here z 4 is defined by
 
1 1
z 4 = exp log z
4
where
log z = ln |z| + i arg (z)
for any z with |z| > 0, 0 < arg (z) < 2π. In particular this branch of
1 1
z 4 exists and is analytic at z = −1. With log z and z 4 as above we have
log (−1) = ln 1 + iπ = iπ
and hence that
 
1 1
(−1) 4
= exp log (−1)
4
 π
= exp i
4
 π π
= cos + i sin
4 4
1 1
= √ + i√ .
2 2
 116

1
By contrast z + 1 has a simple zero at z = −1 and hence z 4 / (z + 1) must
have a simple pole there. Thus
1 1
z4 z4 1 1 i
Res = d
= (−1) 4 = √ + i √ .
z=−1 z+1 dz (z + 1) 2 2
z=−1

(b) Recall that

Log z = ln |z| + i Arg (z)
for any z with |z| > 0 and −π < Arg(z) < π. In particular z = i lies in
π
this region (note that i = 1ei 2 in polar form) and hence Log z is analytic
at z = i with
π π
Log (i) = ln 1 + i = i .
2 2

2 2 2
By contrast z 2 + 1 = (z − i) (z + i) has a double zero at z = i

2
in which case Log z/ z 2 + 1 must then have a double pole at z =
i. Therefore since
2
Log z Log z/ (z + i)
2 = 2 ,
(z 2 + 1) (z − i)
the theorem in section 73 ensures that
!
Log z 1 d Log z
Res 2 =
z=i 2
(z + 1) 1! dz (z + i)2
z=i

(z + i)2 1z − 2 (z + i) Log z
=
(z + i)4 z=i
2

(2i) 1i − 2 (2i) i π2
=
(2i)4
π + 2i
= .
8

Exercise 3, §74, p. 248

Find the value of the integral
Z
dz
,
C z 3 (z + 4)
taken counterclockwise around the circle
(a) |z| = 2;
(b) |z + 2| = 3.

Solution:
1
clearly has a simple pole at z = −4 and a pole of order 3 at z = 0.
z 3 (z + 4)
By the theorem in section 73, the residue at z = −4 is given by
 
1 1 1
Res = 3 =−
z=−4 z 3 (z + 4) (z) z=−4 64
 117 MAT3705/1

and at z = 0 by
 
1 1 d2 1
Res 3
= 2
z=0 z (z + 4) 2! dz (z + 4) z=0

1
= 3
(z + 4) z=0

1
= .
64
(a) Next observe that |0| < 2 and |−4| > 2. Of the two singular points only 0
is in the interior of |z| = 2. Thus when integrating around this circle we
get  
Z
dz 1 πi
3 (z + 1)
= 2πi Res 3 (z + 1)
= .
C z z=0 z 32
(b) Since |0 + 2| < 3 and |−4 + 2| < 3, both singular points lie inside |z + 2| =
3. Thus for this circle
Z     
dz 1 1
3
= 2πi Res + Res = 0.
C z (z + 1) z=0 z 3 (z + 1) z=−1 z 3 (z + 1)

Exercise 5, §74, p. 248

Evaluate the integral Z
cosh πz dz
2
C z (z + 1)
where C is the circle |z| = 2, described in the positive sense.

Solution:
cosh πz

2
has singular points where z z 2 + 1 = 0, i.e. where z = 0, ±i. Since
z (z + 1)

cosh πz is non–zero at these points and each point is a simple zero of z z 2 + 1 =
cosh πz
z (z − i) (z + i), these points are simple poles of . Thus
[z (z 2 + 1)]
cosh πz cosh πz
Res = d
z=i z (z 2 + 1) dz (z (z 2 + 1))
z=i

cosh πz
=
3z 2 + 1 z=i

cosh πi
= 2
3 (i) + 1
cos π
=
−2
1
= (use (3) of section 35).
2
Similarly
cosh πz cosh (−iπ) 1
Res 2
= 2 =
z=−i z (z + 1) 3 (−i) + 1 2
and
cosh πz cosh 0
Res = 2 = 1.
z=0 z (z 2 + 1) 3 (0) + 1
 118

Since all these points are inside |z| = 2, we have

Z  
cosh πz 1 1
2
dz = 2πi + 1 +
C z (z + 1) 2 2
= 4πi.

Exercise 2(b), §76, p. 255

Show that
exp (zt) exp (zt)
(b) Res + Res = −2 cos πt.
z=πi sinh z z=−πi sinh z

Solution:
Since
d
sinh z = cosh (±iπ) = cos (±π) = −1 6= 0
dz z=±iπ
(see (3) in section 35), sinh z clearly has simple zeros at ±iπ. Noting that exp (zt) is
exp (zt)
never zero, it follows that must have simple poles at z = ±iπ. Therefore
sinh z
   
exp (zt) exp (zt)
Res + Res
z=πi sinh z z=−πi sinh z
exp (iπt) exp (−iπt)
= +
cosh (iπ) cosh (−iπ)

= (−1) (cos πt + i sin πt) + (−1) (cos (−πt) + i sin (−πt))

= −2 cos πt.

Exercise 3, §76, p. 255

Show that
n+1 π
(a) Res (z sec z) = (−1) zn , where zn = + nπ (n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .) ;
z=zn 2
π 
(b) Res (tanh z) = 1, where zn = + nπ i (n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .) .
z=zn 2

Solution:
π
(a) The zeros of cos z are at zn = + nπ(n ∈ Z). Observe that since
2
d π 
n+1
(cos z) = − sin + nπ = (−1) 6= 0
dz z= π 2
2 +nπ

π
for each n ∈ Z (see section 34), cos z has simple zeros at zn = + nπ.
2
z
Thus z sec z = has simple poles at each of the zn ’s. Therefore
cos z
z
Res (z sec z) = d
z=zn
dz cos z
z=zn
π


+ nπ2
=

− sin π2 + nπ
 
n+1 π
= (−1) + nπ n ∈ Z.
2
 119 MAT3705/1

sinh z
(b) tanh z = has singular points where cosh z = 0, i.e. where zn =
cosh z
π
i (2n + 1) (n ∈ Z) (see section 26). At these points
2
d  π
cosh z = sinh i (2n + 1) 6= 0.
dz z=i(2n+1) π 2
2

sinh z
Therefore cosh z has a simple zero and tanh z = a simple pole at
cosh z
each zn = i (2n + 1) π2 (n ∈ Z) . At each of these points the residue is
sinh z sinh zn
Res (tanh z) = d
= = 1.
z=zn
dz cosh z sinh zn
z=zn

Exercise 4, §76, p. 255

Let C denote the positively oriented circle |z| = 2 and evaluate the integral
R
(a) C tan z dz;
Z
dz
(b) .
C sinh 2z

Solution:
sin z
(a) tan z = has singular points where cos z = 0, i.e. where zn =
cos z
π π
(2n + 1) (n ∈ Z) . Now the inequality (2n + 1) < 2 only holds
2 2
π
if n = 0, −1 and hence only ± lie inside the circle |z| = 2. Since
2
d  π
cos z = − sin ± = ∓1,
dz z=± π 2
2
π
the points z = ± are simple zeros of cos z and hence simple poles of
2
sin z
tan z = . Thus
cos z
sin z sin π2
Resπ tan z = = = −1
z= 2 d
dz cos z
− sin π2
z= π
2

and similarly


sin − π2
Resπ tan z =
= −1.
z=− 2 − sin − π2
Hence
Z  
tan zdz = 2πi Resπ tan z+ Resπ tan z = −4πi.
C z= 2 z=− 2

1
(b) has singular points where sinh 2z = 0; i.e. where zn = i n π2
sinh 2z
(n ∈ Z). Since
d
sinh 2z = 2 cosh (i n π)
dz z=i n π
2

= 2 cos (nπ) ((3) of section 35)

n
= 2 (−1) n∈Z
 120

it is clear that these points are simple zeros of sinh z and simple poles of
1 π
. At each zn = i n
sinh z 2
n
1 1 (−1)
Resπ = = .
z=i n 2 sinh 2z 2 cosh (i n π) 2
Of all these singular points only the ones corresponding to n = −1, 0, 1 lie
inside the circle |z| = 2. Consequently
Z " 1  #
dz X 1
= 2πi Res
C sinh 2z n=−1
z=zn sinh 2z
 
1 1 1
= 2πi − + −
2 2 2

= −πi.

Exercise 5, §76, p. 255

Let CN denote the positively oriented boundary of the square whose edges lie
along the lines
   
1 1
x=± N+ π and y = ± N + π,
2 2
where N is a positive integer. Show that
Z " N
#
dz 1 X (−1)n
2
= 2πi +2 .
CN z sin z 6 n=1
n2 π 2

Then, using the fact that the value of this integral tends to zero as N tends to
infinity (Exercise 8, section 43), point out how it follows that
X∞ n+1
(−1) π2
= .
n=1
n2 12

Solution:
1
has singular points where z = 0 and where sin z = 0, i.e. where
z2sin z
zn = nπ (n ∈ Z) . Since

d
sin z = cos (nπ) 6= 0,
dz zn =nπ

sin z has simple zeros at each zn with z 2 having a zero of order 2 at z = 0. Thus
z 2 sin z has a zero of order 3 at z = 0 and simple zeros at the other zn ’s, whence
1
of course has a triple pole at 0 and simple poles at the other zn ’s. Recall
z 2 sin z n
∞
P (−1)
that sin z = z 2n+1 . Hence
n=0 (2n + 1)!

1 1
= 3 1 2 1 4


z 2 sin z z 1− 3! z + 5! z + ...
 121 MAT3705/1

and so by the theorem in section 73

1 1 d2 1
Res = 1 2 1 4


z=0 z 2 sin z 2! dz 2 1− 3! z + 5! z − ...
z=0

2 4 3


1 d − − 3! z + 5! z − ...
=
2
2 dz 1 2
1 − 3! z + 1 4
5! z − ... z=0
" 2
1 2 12 2 1 2
=
4 − z + ... 1 − z + ...
1 2
2 1 − 3! z + ... 3! 5! 3!
  2 #
1 2 2 4 3
+2 1 − z + . . . − z + z − ...
3! 3! 5!
z=0

1
. =
6
For each zn = nπ (n = ±1, ±2, . . .) we have
1 1/z 2
Res 2
= d
z=nπ z sin z dz (sin z) z=nπ
2
1/z
=
cos z z=nπ
n
(−1)
= 2.
(nπ)
Since zn = nπ is inside the square CN whenever −N ≤ n ≤ N, it follows that
Z
dz
z 2 sin z
CN
" N  #
X 1
= 2πi Res
z=zn z 2 sin z
n=−N
"   N     #
1 X 1 1
= 2πi Res + Res + Res
z=0 z 2 sin z n=1
z=zn z 2 sin z z=z−n z 2 sin z
" N
#
1 X (−1)n
= 2πi +2 2 .
6 n=1 (nπ)
However in exercise 8 of section 43 we saw that
Z
dz
lim = 0.
N →∞ C z 2 sin z
N

Hence as N → ∞, it follows that

"
∞
#
X n
1 (−1)
0 = 2πi +2 2 .
6 n=1 (nπ)
This simplifies to
X∞ n+1
(−1) π2
= .
n=1
n2 12
 122

Exercise 6, §76, p. 256

Show that
Z
dz π
2 = √
C (z 2 − 1) + 3 2 2

where C is the positively oriented boundary of the rectangle whose sides lie
along the lines x = ±2, y = 0 and y = 1.

Suggestion: By observing that the four zeros of the polynomial q (z) =

2 √
z 2 − 1 + 3 are the square roots of the numbers 1 ± 3i, show that the reciprocal
1
is analytic inside and on C except at the points
q (z)
√ √
3+i − 3+i
z0 = √ and − z 0 = √ .
2 2

Then apply Theorem 2 in section 76.

Solution:
1
2
2 has singular points where z 2 − 1 = −3, i.e. where z 2 = 1 ±
2
√ (z − 1) + 3
i 3. Now in polar form
√ iπ √ iπ
1 + i 3 = 2e 3 and 1 − i 3 = 2e− 3 .

1
The square roots of these numbers are precisely the singular points of
(z 2 − 1) + 3
and correspond to

√ ! r
√ iπ √ 3 1 3 1
2e 6 = 2 +i = + i√
2 2 2 2
√ ! r
√ i 7π √ 3 1 3 1
2e 6 = 2 − −i =− − i√
2 2 2 2
√ ! r
√ − iπ √ 3 1 3 1
2e 6 = 2 −i = − i√
2 2 2 2
√ ! r
√ i5π √ 3 1 3 1
2e 6 = 2 − +i =− + i√ .
2 2 2 2

Of these points only

r r
3 1 3 1
z0 = + i √ and − z 0 = − + i√
2 2 2 2
 123 MAT3705/1

lie inside the given rectangle. All these points are simple poles and so

1 1
Res 2 = h i
z=z0 (z 2 − 1) + 3 d 2
dz (z 2 − 1) + 3
z=z0

1
=
4 (z 2 − 1) z z=z0

1
= q 2  q 
3
4 2 + i √12 −1 3
2 + i √12
√
3 1
= − √ −i √
24 2 8 2
and
1 1
Res 2 =
z=−z 0 (z 2 − 1) + 3 4 (z 2 − 1) z z=−z 0

1
=  q 2  q 
4 − 2 + i 2 − 1 − 32 + i √12
3 √1

√
3 1
= √ −i √ .
24 2 8 2
Consequently
Z " #
dz 1 1
2 = 2πi Res 2 + Res 2
C (z 2 − 1) + 3 (z 2 − 1) + 3
z=z0 z=−z 0 (z 2 − 1) + 3
 
i
= 2πi − √
4 2
π
= √ .
2 2

Exercise 7, §76, p. 256

Consider the function
1
2,
f (z) =
[q (z)]
where q is analytic at z0 , q (z0 ) = 0, and q ′ (z0 ) 6= 0. Show that z0 is a pole of
order m = 2 of the function f, with residue
q ′′ (z0 )
B0 = 3.
[q ′ (z0 )]
Suggestion: Note that z0 is a zero of order m = 1 of the function q, so that
equation (3), section 76, holds. Then write
φ (z) 1
f (z) = 2 where φ (z) = 2.
(z − z0 ) [g (z)]
The desired form of the residue B0 = φ′ (z0 ) can be obtained by showing that
q ′ (z0 ) = g (z0 ) and q ′′ (z0 ) = 2g ′ (z0 ) .
 124

Solution:
Since by hypothesis q has a simple zero at z0 , it follows from (3) of section 76
that
(∗) q (z) = (z − z0 ) g (z)
where g is non–zero and analytic at z0 . Hence
1 1/g (z)2
f (z) = 2 = 2
q (z) (z − z0 )
1
where 2 is analytic and nonzero at z = z0 . Thus by the theorem in section 73
g (z)

1 d 1
Res f (z) =
z=z0 1! dz [g (z)]2
z=z0
′
2g (z0 )
= − 3.
[g (z0 )]
However by (∗) above
q ′ (z) = g (z) + (z − z0 ) g ′ (z)
and
q ′′ (z) = 2g ′ (z) + (z − z0 ) g ′′ (z) .
Consequently q ′ (z0 ) = g (z0 ) and q ′′ (z0 ) = 2g ′ (z0 ) . Therefore
−2g ′ (z0 ) q ′′ (z0 )
Res f (z) = 3 =− 3.
z=z0 [g (z0 )] [q ′ (z0 )]

Exercise 8, §76, p. 256

Use the result in Exercise 7 to find the residue at z = 0 of the function
(a) f (z) = csc2 z;
1
(b) f (z) = .
(z + z 2 )2

Solution:
d
(a) Since sin z = cos 0 = 1, sin z has a simple zero at z = 0. We may
dz z=0
therefore directly apply the results of Exercise 7 above to the function
1
f (z) = csc2 z =
sin2 z
to see that
 
d2
dz 2 sin z sin z
Res csc2 z = −  3 = = 0.
z=0 d
sin z cos3 z z=0
dz z=0

d

(b) Observe that z + z 2 has a zero at 0 whereas z + z2 = 1. As in
dz z=0
part (a), we may therefore directly apply the results of Exercise 7 above
to
1
f (z) = 2,
(z + z 2 )
 125 MAT3705/1

to conclude that
 2

d
1 − dz 2 z + z2 2
Res 2 = d  =− = −2.
z=0 (z + z2) 2 3 3
[1 + 2z]
dz (z + z ) z=0 z=0
 CHAPTER 7

Applications of Residues

Study only sections 78–83 and 85–87. Note that some of the exercises at the
end of section 84 refer to section 83. Although the material of section 84 does
not form part of the course, these particular exercises should be attempted. Thus
in section 84 attempt at least exercises 1, 3, 4, and 6(a), using the techniques of
section 83.
The importance of Cauchy’s Residue Theorem (discussed in chapter 6) stretches
far beyond complex analysis itself. Residue theory has many important applications
including the computation of real integrals, and finding the roots of polynomials.
Using a few clever tricks many classes of real integrals can be written in a form where
we can use residue theory to compute the integral. A number of these classes play
a very important role in physics, and are typically extremely difficult to compute
by other means. The largest part of chapter 7 is spent describing precisely how one
goes about using residue theory to compute these real integrals. A second important
consequence of residue theory, is Rouché’s theorem. By the fundamental theorem
of algebra we know that a polynomial of degree n, has n roots. Unfortunately for
polynomials of degree 4 or higher, there is no simple formula for computing the
roots. So knowing that the roots exist is very nice, but where are they? Using
Rouché’s theorem, we can approximate complicated polynomials by simpler ones,
and in this way at least get some idea of where to search for the roots of such
complicated polynomials.

127
 128

Solutions to selected problems

Exercise 1, §79, p. 267 Z ∞

dx
Use residues to evaluate the improper integral .
0 x2+1
Solution:
1
The function f (z) = has singularities at ±i. We integrate f around
1 + z2
the contour [−R, R] ∪ CR (R > 0) where
CR : z (t) = R eit 0≤t≤π
[−R, R] : z (t) = t − R ≤ t ≤ R.
For R > 1 the singular point z = i is in the interior of [−R, R]∪CR . So by Cauchy’s
residue theorem
Z R Z h i
f (t) dt + f (z) dz = 2πi Res f (z) .
−R CR z=i

Now by Theorem 2 in section 76, z = i is a simple pole of f with

1 1 1
Res 2
= = ,
z=i 1 + z 2z z=i 2i
and hence Z Z
R
f (t) dt = π − f (z) dz.
−R CR
1 1
For z = R eit we have z 2 + 1 ≥ R2 − 1 whence ≤ 2 . Then
1 + z2 R −1
Z  
1 1
2
dz ≤ 2
πR
CR 1 + z R −1
R
where πR is the length of CR . From this it is clear that CR f (z) dz → 0 as R → ∞.
Consequently
Z ∞ Z R
1 1
2
dt = lim dt
−∞ 1 + t R→∞ −R 1 + t2
Z
1
= π − lim dz
R→∞ C 1 + z 2
R
= π.
Since the integrand is even it follows that
Z ∞ Z
1 1 ∞ 1 π
2
dt = 2
= .
0 1 + t 2 −∞ 1 + t 2
(Note: We didn’t actually need residues to compute this integral. Since
d 1
arctan t = , it follows that
dt 1 + t2
Z ∞ Z b
1 1
2
dt = lim dt
0 1 + t b→∞ 0 1 + t2
= lim arctan b − arctan 0
b→∞
π
= .)
2
 129 MAT3705/1

Exercise 2, §79, p. 267 Z ∞

dx
Use residues to evaluate the integral 2.
0 (x2 + 1)
Solution:
1
Consider f (z) = 2 . By the theorem in section 73 f has poles of order
(z 2
+ 1)
2 at z = ±i. We integrate f over the same contour used in exercise (1) above. As
before z = i is in the interior of [−R, R] ∪ CR when R > 1, in which case Cauchy’s
residue theorem tells us that
Z R Z
f (t) dt + f (z) dz = 2πi Res f (z) .
−R CR z=i

Now since !
1 1 1
2 = 2 2 ,
(z 2 + 1) (z − i) (z + i)
it follows from the theorem in section 73 that
1 d 1
Res =
z=i (z 2 + 1)2 dz (z + i)2
z=i

−2
= 3
(z + i) z=i
i
= −
4
and hence that
Z R   Z
1 i 1
2 dt = 2πi −
4
− 2 dz
−R (t2 + 1) 2
CR (z + 1)
Z
π 1
= − 2 dz.
2 2
CR (z + 1)

As before if z = R eit (|z| = R), then

1 1 1
2 ≤ 2 = 2.
(z 2 + 1) 2
|z| − 1 (R2 − 1)

Since the length of CR is πR, this means that

Z
1 πR
2 dz ≤ →0
2
CR (z + 1) (R − 1)2
2

as R → ∞. But then
Z ∞ Z
1 π 1 π
2 2 dt = 2 − R→∞
lim 2 dz =
2
.
−∞ (t + 1) CR (z 2 + 1)
Since the integrand is an even function this yields
Z ∞ Z
1 1 ∞ 1 π
2 2 dt = 2 2 2 dt = 4 .
0 (t + 1) −∞ (t + 1)

Exercise 3, §79, p. 267 Z ∞

dx
Use residues to evaluate the improper integral .
0 x4 +1
 130

Solution:
1
Consider f (z) = . Such an f has singular points where z 4 = −1 = eiπ ,
1 + z4
i.e. where
iπ i3π i5π i7π
z0 = e 4 , z1 = e 4 , z2 = e 4 , z3 = e 4 .
(See section 9.) Of these only z0 and z1 are in the upper half–plane. Integrate f
over the same contour as in exercise (1) above. Then for R > 1 it follows from
Cauchy’s Residue Theorem that
Z R Z  
1 1 1 1
4
dt + 4
dz = 2πi Res + Res .
−R 1 + t CR 1 + z z=z0 1 + z 4 z=z1 1 + z 4

By the Theorem in section 76 we have

iπ
1 1 z0 e4 −1 1
Res = 3 = 4 = = √ −i √ .
z=z0 1 + z 4 4z0 4z0 −4 4 2 4 2
Similarly
i3π
1 z1 e 4 1 1
Res 4
= 4 = = √ −i √ .
z=z1 1+z 4z1 −4 4 2 4 2
Moreover for |z| = R
1 1 1
≤ 4 = 4 .
1 + z4 |z| − 1 R −1
Therefore  
Z
1 1
dz ≤ πR → 0
CR 1 + z4 R4 − 1
as R → ∞. Consequently
Z ∞
1
dt
−∞ 1 + t4
    Z
1 1 1 1 1
= 2πi − √ −i √ + √ −i √ − lim dz
4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 R→∞ CR 1 + z4
π
= √ ,
2
whence Z Z
∞ ∞
1 1 1 π
dt = dt = √
0 1 + t4 2 −∞ 1 + t4 2 2
1
since is an even function.
1 + t4

Exercise 5, §79, p. 267 Z ∞

x2 dx
Use residues to evaluate the improper integral 2.
0 (x2 + 9) (x2 + 4)

Solution: h

2 i
We integrate z 2 / z 2 + 9 z 2 + 4 around the positively oriented contour
CR ∪ [−R, R] where
CR : z (t) = R eit 0≤t≤π
[−R, R] : z (t) = t − R ≤ t ≤ R.
 131 MAT3705/1

h

2 i

2
Now f (z) = z 2 / z2 + 9 z2 + 4 has singularities where z 2 + 9 z2 + 4 = 0,
i.e. where z = ±3i, z = ±2i. Of these only 3i and 2i will lie inside CR ∪ [−R, R] for
R large enough. For R large it then follows from the residue theorem that
Z Z h i
(∗) f (z) dz + f (z) dz = 2πi Res (f (z)) + Res (f (z)) .
CR [−R,R] z=3i z=2i

2 2 2
Since z 2 + 9 z 2 + 4 = (z − 3i) (z + 3i) (z − 2i) (z + 2i) it follows from §73
that f (z) has a simple pole at z = 3i and a double pole at z = 2i. Therefore by
the Theorem in §76
" #
z2
Res (f ) = lim (z − 3i)
z=3i z→3i (z − 3i) (z + 3i) (z 2 + 4)2

z2
= lim 2
z→3i (z + 3i) (z 2 + 4)
−9
= 2
6i (−9 + 4)
3i
=
50

and by the Theorem in §73

!
1 d z2
Res (f ) =
z=2i 1! dz (z 2 + 9) (z + 2i)2
z=2i
h
i h
i
2 2
z 2 + 9 (z + 2i) 2z − 2z (z + 2i) + 2 z 2 + 9 (z + 2i) z 2
=
(z 2 + 9)2 (z + 2i)4
z=2i

13i
= −
200
h
i
(Note that f (z) = (z − 2i)−2 g (z) where g (z) = z 2 / z 2 + 9 (z + 2i)2 .) Now for
z = R eit we have


2
z2 + 9 z 2 + 42 = z2 + 9 z2 + 4
  2
2 2
≥ |z| − 9 |z| − 4


2
= R2 − 9 R2 − 4 ,

and so with z (t) = R eit we have that

Z Z π 2
z (t)
f (z) dz ≤ 2 2 iR eit dt
CR 0 (z (t) + 9)(z (t) + 4)2
Z π
R3 R3 π
≤ 2 dt = 2 →0
0 (R2 − 9) (R2 − 4) (R2 − 9) (R2 − 4)
 132

as R → ∞. Applying all this to (∗) , it follows that

Z ∞ Z Z R
x2 x2
dx = lim f (z) dz + 2 dx
−∞ (x2 + 9) (x2 + 4) R→∞ ΓR −R (x2 + 9) (x2 + 4)
 
3i 13i
= 2πi −
50 200
π
= .
100

Since the integrand is an even function it then follows that

Z ∞ Z ∞
x2 1 x2
dx = dx
0 (x2 + 9) (x2 + 4)2 2 −∞ (x2 + 9) (x2 + 4)
π
= .
200

Exercise 7, §79, p. 267

Use residues to find the Cauchy principal value of the integral
Z ∞
xdx
.
−∞ (x2 + 1) (x2 + 2x + 2)

Solution:
z
Let f (z) = . This function has singular points where
(z 2
+ 1) (z 2 + 2z √
+ 2)

z = ±i and where z = 21 −2 ± 4 − 8 = −1 ± i . Of these only z = i and
z = −1 + i lie in the upper half–plane. By Theorem 2 in section 76

z
z (z 2 +2z+2)
Res 2 = d
z=i (z + 1) (z 2 + 2z + 2) 2
dz (z + 1) z=i
i
(i2 +2i+2)
=
2i
1
=
2 (1 + 2i)
1 2
= −i .
10 10

Similarly

z
z (z 2 +1)
Res =
z=−1+i (z 2 + 1) (z 2 + 2z + 2) 2z + 2
z=−1+i
(−1+i)
(1−2i)
=
2i
1 3i
= − + .
10 10
 133 MAT3705/1

Now let CR be as in exercise (1) above. Then for R > 0 large enough it will follow
from Cauchy’s Residue theorem that
Z R Z
xdx 1
2 + 1) (x2 + 2x + 2)
+ 2 + 1) (z 2 + 2z + 2)
dz
−R (x CR(z 
= 2πi Res f (z) + Res f (z)
(∗) z=i z=−1+i
i
= 2πi
10
π
= − .
5
Next note that for z on CR (i.e. |z| = R)
2
z2 + 1 ≥ |z| − 1 = R2 − 1
2
z 2 + 2z + 2 ≥ z 2 + 2z − 2 ≥ |z| − 2 |z| − 2 = R2 − 2R − 2
and hence
z R
≤
(z 2 2
+ 1) (z + 2z + 2) (R − 1) (R2 − 2R − 2)
2

for such z. Therefore

Z
zdz πR2
2 2
≤ →0
CR (z + 1) (z + 2z + 2) (R2 − 1) (R2 − 2R − 2)
as R → ∞. (Recall that the length of CR is πR.) If in (∗) above we let R → ∞,
we then get
Z ∞
xdx π
2 + 1) (x2 + 2x + 2)
=− .
−∞ (x 5

Exercise 8, §79, p. 267

Use residues and the contour shown in Fig. 95 in the textbook, where R > 1,
to establish the integration formula
Z ∞
dx 2π
3
= √ .
0 x +1 3 3
Solution:
R∞ 1
To compute 1+x3 dx we follow the hint and integrate around the perimeter
0
of the sector corresponding to the join of the interval [0, R] , the curve CR : R eit

i2π iπ2
0 ≤ t ≤ 2π
3 , and the line segment LR : (R − t) e
3 (0 ≤ t ≤ R)from R e 3 to 0.
1 i(2k+1)π

3
has singularities at the 3rd roots of −1, i.e. at z = e( 3 ) , k = 0, 1, 2.
1+z
π
Of these only the root corresponding to k = 0 (the one with argument ) will lie
3
inside the given curve for R big enough. Hence
ZR Z Z  
1 1 1 1
(1) dx + dz + dz = 2πi Resiπ .
1 + x3 1 + z3 1 + z3 z=e 3 1 + z3
0 CR LR

1 iπ
Now by Theorem 2 in §76, 1+z 3 has a simple pole at e
3 with

 
1 1 z 1 iπ
Res 3
= 2 iπ =
3
iπ = − e 3
iπ
z=e 3 1+z 3z z=e 3 3z z=e 3 3
iπ
(Here we used the fact that e 3 is a 3rd root of −1.)
 134

Moreover
2π
Z Z3
1 1
dz ≤ Rdt
1 + z3 1 + R3 ei3t
CR 0

2π
Z3
R
≤ dt
R3 −1
0

2Rπ
= → 0 as R → ∞
3 (R3 − 1)
and
Z ZR  i2π 
1 1
dz = −e 3 dt
1 + z3 1 + [(R − t) e
i2π
3 ]3
LR 0

ZR
i2π 1
= −e 3 dt.
1 + (R − t)3
0
Setting x = R − t yields
Z ZR
1 i2π 1
3
dz = −e 3 dx.
1+z 1 + x3
LR 0

Thus (1) reduces to

 i2π
 ZR 1
Z
1 (−2πie 3 )
iπ

1−e 3 dx + dz = .
1 + x3 1 + z3 3
0 CR

Letting R → ∞ it follows that

 i2π
 Z∞ 1 −2πie 3
iπ

1−e 3 dx =
1 + x3 3
0
or equivalently that
Z∞ iπ
! −iπ
1 π 2ie 3 e 3
dx = ×
1 + x3 3 e
i2π
3 −1 e
−iπ
3
0
 
π 2i
= iπ
3 e 3 −e
−iπ
3

π 1
=
3 sin π3
π π
= cosec .
3 3

Exercise 9, §79, p. 268

Let m and n be integers, where 0 ≤ m < n. Follow the steps below to derive
the integration formula
Z ∞  
x2m π 2m + 1
dx = csc π .
0 x2n + 1 2n 2n
 135 MAT3705/1

(a) Show that the zeros of the polynomial z 2n + 1 lying above the real axis
are
 
(2k + 1) π
ck = exp i (k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1)
2n
and that there are none on that axis.
(b) With the aid of Theorem 2 in Sec. 76, show that

z 2m 1
Res = − ei(2k+1)α (k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1) .
z=ck z 2n + 1 2n
where ck are the zeros found in part (a) and
2m + 1
α= π.
2n
Then use the identity (see Exercise 9, Sec. 8)
n−1
X 1 − zn
zk = (z 6= 1)
1−z
k=0

to obtain the expression

n−1
X z 2n π
2πi Res 2n
= .
z=ck z +1 n sin α
k=0

(c) Use the final result in part (b) to complete the derivation of the integration
formula.

Solution:
(a) The zeros of the polynomial z 2n + 1 are at all z for which z 2n = −1 = eiπ .
Thus by the formula in section 9 the roots are
    
π 2kπ (2k + 1) π
zk = exp i + = exp i
2n 2n 2n

where 0 ≤ k ≤ 2n − 1. For such a root to be on the real axis (2k+1) 2n π

would have to be an integer multiple of π. But since 2n is even and 2k + 1
odd, this is not possible since 2k+1
2n can never be an integer. The roots
that are in the upper half–plane are those for which
2k + 1
0≤ π ≤ π,
2n
i.e. those corresponding to all k with
2k + 1
0≤ ≤ 1.
2n
We conclude that
 
(2k + 1) π
zk = exp i 0≤k ≤n−1
2n

are all the roots that lie in the upper half–plane.

 136

 
(b) Let zk = exp i (2k+1)π
2n (0 ≤ k ≤ n − 1) be as in (a). By Theorem 2 in
z 2m
section 76 each of these is a simple pole of (z 2n +1) with

z 2m z 2m
Res =
z=zk z 2n + 1 2nz 2n−1 z=zk
1 2(m−n)+1
= (zk )
2n
1 h i(2k+1)π/2n i2(m−n)+1
= e
2n
1 −i(2k+1)π i(2k+1)α
= e e
2n
1
= − ei(2k+1)α
2n
where α = 2m+1
2n π. (Since 2k + 1 is odd, e
−i(2k+1)π
= −1 by (3) of section
6.) Given that
n−1
X 1 − zn
zk = z 6= 1
1−z
k=0

it therefore follows that

n−1
X n−1
X
z 2m −1 i(2k+1)α
2πi Res = 2πi e
z=zk z 2n + 1 2n
k=0 k=0
X n−1
πi
k
= − eiα ei2α
n
k=0
πi 1 − ei2nα
= − eiα
n 1 − ei2α
i(2m+1)π
πi 1 − e
=
n (eiα − e−iα )
πi 1 − (−1)
=
n 2i sin α
π
=
n sin α


(recalling that α = (2m+1)π
2n and that 2i1
eiα − e−iα = sin α).
z 2m
(c) We now integrate f (z) = z2n +1 over the curve [−R, R] ∪ CR where CR is
as in exercise 1 above. For R large enough (R > 1) the curve [−R, R]∪CR
will contain all singular points of f (z) in the upper half–plane. Therefore
with zk as in (a), we have by (a) and (b) that
Z R Z
x2m z 2m
2n
dx + dz
−R x +1 CR z 2n +1
n−1
X 2m
z
= 2πi Res
z=zk z 2n + 1
k=0
π
=
n sin α  
π (2m + 1) π
= cosec
n 2n
 137 MAT3705/1

(where α = (2m + 1) π/2n). Now for z on CR (i.e. |z| = R) we have that

2n
z 2n + 1 ≥ |z| − 1 = R2n − 1 and hence that

z 2m R2m
≤ .
z 2n + 1 R2n − 1

Therefore
Z  
z 2m R2m ÷ R2n
dz ≤ πR
CR z 2n + 1 R2n − 1 ÷ R2n
R−[2(n−m)−1] π
=
1 − R−2n
0
→ =0
1
as R → ∞. (To see that this is the case, recall that 2 (n − m) − 1 > 0
since n > m.) Letting R → ∞ it follows that
Z ∞   Z
z 2m π (2m + 1) π z 2m
2n + 1
dz = cosec − lim dz
−∞ z n 2n R→∞ C z 2n + 1
R
 
π (2m + 1) π
= cosec .
n 2n

Since the integrand is even this means that

Z ∞ Z
z 2m 1 ∞ z 2m
dz = dz
0 z 2n + 1 2 −∞ z 2n + 1
 
π (2m + 1) π
= cosec .
2n 2n

Exercise 1, §81, p. 275

Use residues to evaluate the improper integral
Z ∞
cos xdx
2 2 2 2
(a > b > 0) .
−∞ (x + a ) (x + b )

Solution:
We integrate
eiz
f (z) =
(z 2 + a2 ) (z 2 + b2 )
around the contour CR ∪ [−R, R] where as before CR is the circle sector

CR : z (t) = R eit 0 ≤ t ≤ π.



The function f (z) has singularities where z 2 + a2 z 2 + b2 = 0, i.e. where z =
±ai, z = ±bi. Of these only ai and bi lie inside CR ∪ [−R, R] for large R and so by
the residue theorem
Z R Z  
f (ẋ) dx + f (z) dz = 2πi Res (f ) + Res (f )
−R CR z=ai z=bi
 138

for large R. The function f has simple poles at ai and bi and therefore by Theorem
2 in §76
 
eiz
Res (f ) = lim
z=ai z→ai (z + ai) (z 2 + b2 )

e−a e−a i
= 2 2
=
2ai (b − a ) 2a (a2 − b2 )
 
eiz
Res (f ) = lim
z=bi z→bi (z 2 + a2 ) (z + bi)

e−b i
= − .
2b (a2 − b2 )
Moreover for z = R eit = R cos t + iR sin t
eiz = e−R sin t ≤ e0 = 1 for t ∈ [0, π] ,

  


2 2
z 2 + a2 z 2 + b2 ≥ |z| − a2 |z| − b2 = R2 − a2 R2 − b2 .
Therefore
Z Z π
eiz eiz(t)
dz ≤ iR eit dt
CR (z 2 + a2 ) (z 2 + b2 ) 0 (R2 − a2 ) (R2 − b2 )
Rπ
≤ →0
(R2 − a2 ) (R2 − b2 )
as R → ∞. Applying all of this to the first equality, it follows that
Z ∞ Z Z R
eix
2 2 2 2
dx = lim f (z) dz + f (x) dx
−∞ (x + a ) (x + b ) R→∞ C
R −R
 
e−a i e−b i
= 2πi −
2a (a2 − b2 ) 2b (a2 − b2 )
 
π 1 1
= − a .
(a2 − b2 ) beb ae


Finally recall that ℜ eix = cos x. If therefore we compare the real parts of the
previous equality, we get that
Z ∞  
cos x π 1 1
2 2 2 2
dx = 2 − a .
−∞ (x + a ) (x + b ) (a − b2 ) beb ae

Exercise 3, §81, p. 275

Use residues to evaluate the improper integral
Z ∞
cos ax
dx (a > 0, b > 0) .
0 (x2 + b2 )

Solution:
eiaz
We integrate g (z) = (z 2 +b2 )2
around the contour CR ∪ [−R; R] where CR is
it
parametrised by z (t) = R e (0 ≤ t ≤ π). The function g has singularities at ±bi.
Of these only bi will lie inside CR ∪ [−R, R] for large R > 0. Therefore by the
residue theorem
Z R Z  
eiax eiaz
dx + dz = 2πi Res g (z) .
2 2 2 2 2 2
−R (x + b ) CR (z + b ) z=bi
 139 MAT3705/1

Since " #
1 eiaz
g (z) = ,
(z − bi)2 (z + bi)2
z = bi is a double pole. By the theorem in section 73
!
d eiaz
Res g (z) =
z=bi dz (z + bi)2
z=bi
2 iaz
(z + bi) iae − 2 (z + bi) eiaz
=
(z + bi)4 z=bi
(ab + 1) e−ab
= .
i4b3
Therefore by equating real parts
Z R Z
cos ax π (ab + 1) e−ab eiaz
2 dx = − ℜ dz.
2 2 2b 3 2 2 2
−R (x + b ) CR (z + b )

2
Next observe that since eiaz = e−ay ≤ 1 whenever y ≥ 0, and z 2 + b2 ≥
 2
|z|2 − b2 , it follows that
1
|g (z)| ≤ 2
(R2 − b2 )
whenever z ∈ CR . Consequently
Z Z
πR
ℜ g (z) dz ≤ g (z) dz ≤ 2 →0
CR CR (R2 − b2 )
as R → ∞. If therefore we let R → ∞, then surely
Z ∞
cos ax π (ab + 1)
2 + b2 )
dx = .
−∞ (x 2b3 eab
cos a(−x) cos ax
Since = (the integrand is even), this means that
((−x)2 +b2 )2 (x2 +b2 )2
Z ∞ Z ∞
cos ax 1 cos ax π (ab + 1)
2 dx = 2 2 dx =
4b3 eab
.
0 (x2 + b2 ) −∞ (x2 + b2 )

Exercise 5, §81, p. 276

Use residues to evaluate the improper integral
Z ∞
x sin ax
4
dx (a > 0) .
−∞ x + 4

Solution:
iaz
We integrate g (z) = (zze4 +4) over the contour [−R, R] ∪ CR where CR is the
semicircle CR : z (t) = R eit (0 ≤ t ≤ π) .
The function g has singular points where z 4 = −4 = eiπ , i.e. at
√
zk = 2ei( 4 +k 2 )
π π
0 ≤ k ≤ 3.
Of these z0 and z1 are in the upper half–plane. Therefore for R big enough
√

R > 2 , Cauchy’s residue theorem ensures that
Z R Z  
xeiax zeiaz
4
dx + 4
dz = 2πi Res g (z) + Res g (z) .
−R x + 4 CR z + 4 z=z0 z=z1
 140

On comparing imaginary parts we see that

Z R    Z 
x sin ax zeiaz
4
dx = ℑ 2πi Res g (z) + Res g (z) − ℑ 4
dz .
−R x + 4 z=z0 z=z1 CR z + 4
√
Now if R > 2, f (z) = z4z+4 is analytic outside and on the circle |z| = R. Now
4
for |z| = R, z 4 + 4 ≥ |z| − 4 = R4 − 4 whence
z R
≤ 4 →0 as R → ∞.
z4 + 4 R −4
Therefore by Jordan’s lemma (the Theorem in section 81)
Z
zeiaz
4
dz → 0 as R → ∞,
CR z + 4

i.e. Z 
zeiaz
ℑ 4
dz →0 as R → ∞.
CR z + 4
Now by Theorem 2 in section 76
π
zeiaz z0 eiaz0 z 2 eiaz0 2ei 2 eia(1+i) −i −a ia
Res 4 = 3 = 0 4 = = e e .
z=z0 z + 4 4z0 4z0 −16 8
Similarly
zeiaz z 2 eiaz1 i
Res 4
= 1 4 = e−a e−ia .
z=z1 z +1 4z1 8
Therefore
zeiaz zeiaz i   1
Res + Res = − e−a eia − e−ia = e−a sin a.
z=z0 z 4 + 4 z=z1 z 4 + 4 8 4
(Recall that 2i sin a = eia − e−ia .) Then
Z ∞    Z 
x sin ax 1 −a zeiaz
4
dx = ℑ 2πi e sin a − lim dz
−∞ x + 1 4 R→∞ C z 4 + 1
R
π −a
= e sin a.
2

Exercise 7, §81, p. 276

Use residues to evaluate the improper integral
Z ∞
x sin xdx
2 2
.
−∞ (x + 1) (x + 4)

Solution:
zeiz
We integrate g (z) = (z2 +1)(z 2 +4) over the same contour as in exercise (5) above.

The function g has singular points where z = ±i, z = ±2i. Of these z = i, z = 2i

are in the upper half–plane. So for R > 2, Cauchy’s residue theorem ensures that
Z R Z
xeix zeiz
2 2
dx + 2 2
dz
−R (x + 1) (x + 4) CR (z + 1) (z + 4)
 
zeiz zeiz
= 2πi Res 2 + Res 2 .
z=i (z + 1) (z 2 + 4) z=2i (z + 1) (z 2 + 4)

Now take imaginary parts to get

Z R  h i Z 
x sin x
(∗) 2 2
dx = ℑ 2πi Res g (z) + Res g (z) − g (z) dz .
−R (x + 1) (x + 4) z=i z=2i CR
 141 MAT3705/1

z
Next notice that f (z) = (z2 +1)(z 2 +4) is analytic outside the circle |z| = 2. In
addition if R > 2 and |z| = R, then
z R
≤ →0
(z 2 + 1) (z 2 + 4) (R2 − 1) (R2 − 4)
2
as R → ∞ (since z 2 + 4 ≥ |z| − 4 = R2 − 4 and z 2 + 1 ≥ R2 − 1). So by the
Theorem in section 81
Z
zeiz
lim dz = 0.
R→∞ C (z 2 + 1) (z 2 + 4)
R

In addition Theorem 2 in section 76 reveals that

zeiz ie−1
zeiz (z 2 +4) (−1+4) e−1
Res 2 = d
= = ,
z=i (z + 1) (z 2 + 4) 2 2i 6
dz (z + 1)
z=i
zeiz 2ie−2
zeiz (z 2 +1) (−4+1) −e−2
Res 2 = d
= = .
z=2i (z + 1) (z 2 + 4) 2 4i 6
dz (z + 4)
z=2i
If therefore we let R → ∞ in (∗) above, it follows that
Z ∞   −1 
x sin x e e−2 π

2 2
dx = ℑ 2πi − = e−1 1 − e−1 .
−∞ (x + 1) (x + 4) 6 6 3

Exercise 10, §81, p. 276

Use residues to find the Cauchy principal value of the integral
Z ∞
(x + 1) cos x
2
dx.
−∞ x + 4x + 5

Solution: iz
Consider the integral of the function g (z) = (z(z+1)e
2 +4z+5) on [−R, R] ∪ CR where

as before CR is the upper half of the circle |z| = R. √This function
has singular
points where z 2 + 4z + 5 = 0, i.e. where z = 12 −4 ± 16 − 20 = −2 ± i. Since
z = −2 + i is in the upper half–plane, it follows from Cauchy’s residue theorem that
Z R Z  
(x + 1) eix (z + 1) eiz (z + 1) eiz
2
dx + 2
dz = 2πi Res ,
−R x + 4x + 5 CR z + 4z + 5 z=−2+i z 2 + 4z + 5

for R big enough. Taking real parts we get that

Z R    Z 
(x + 1) cos x
2
dx = ℜ 2πi Res g (z) − g (z) dz .
−R x + 4x + 5 z=−2+i CR

By Theorem 2 in section 76
(z + 1) eiz (z + 1) eiz
Res =
z=−2+i z 2 + 4z + 5 2z + 4 z=−2+i
1 + i −1−2i
= e
2
e−1
= ((cos 2 + sin 2) + i (cos 2 − sin 2)) .
2
(z+1) √
Moreover since f (z) = (z 2 +4z+5) is analytic outside the circle |z| = |−2 ± i| = 5,
and since
(z + 1) R+1
≤ 2
z2 + 4z + 5 R − 4R − 5
 142

whenever |z| = R with the right hand side tending to 0 as R → ∞, it follows from
the Theorem in section 81 that
Z
(z + 1) eiz
lim dz = 0.
R→∞ C z 2 + 4z + 5
R

Therefore on letting R → ∞, it follows from the above that

Z ∞  
(x + 1) cos x e−1
2
dx = ℜ 2πi ((cos 2 + sin 2) + i (cos 2 − sin 2))
−∞ x + 4x + 5 2
= πe−1 (sin 2 − cos 2) .

Exercise 12, §81, p. 276

Follow the steps below to evaluate the Fresnel integrals, which are important
in diffraction theory:
Z ∞ Z ∞ r
2

2

1 π
cos x dx = sin x dx = .
0 0 2 2


(a) By integrating the function exp iz 2 around the positively oriented bound-
ary of the sector 0 ≤ r ≤ R, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π4 (Fig. 99) and appealing to the
Cauchy–Goursat theorem, show that
Z R Z R Z

1 2 2
cos x2 dx = √ e−r dr − ℜ eiz dz
0 2 0 CR

y _iπ
R e4

CR

x
O R
and
Z R Z R Z

1 2 2
sin x2 dx = √ e−r dr − ℑ eiz dz,
0 2 0 CR
π


where CR is the arc z = R eiθ 0≤θ≤ 4 .

(b) Show that the value of the integral along the arc CR in part (a) tends to
zero as R tends to infinity by obtaining the inequality
Z Z π
2 R 2 −R2 sin θ
eiz dz ≤ e dθ
CR 2 0
and then referring to the form (3), Sec. 81, of Jordan’s inequality.
(c) Use the results in parts (a) and (b), together with the known integration
formula Z ∞ √
−x2 π
e dx = ,
0 2
to complete the exercise.
 143 MAT3705/1

Solution:
it
(a) The boundary of the sector consists of [0,R], CR where
 CR : z (t) = R e
iπ
and the line segment LR from R e 4 = √R2 + i √R2 to 0 which we may
  2
parametrise by LR : z (t) = − √12 + i √12 t, −R ≤ t ≤ 0. Now since eiz
is analytic on all of C, it follows from the Cauchy-Goursat theorem that
Z Z Z
iz 2 iz 2 2
0 = e dz + e dz + eiz dz
CR LR [0,R]
Z Z 0  ”2 
Z R
1 1
“
2 i √2 +i √2 t2
1 1 2
= eiz dz + −√ − i√
e dt + eit dt
CR −R 2 2 0
Z  Z R Z R
2 1 1 2 2
= eiz dz − √ + i √ e−s ds + eit dt.
CR 2 2 0 0

(In the second integral we set s = −t.) Since

Z R Z R Z R
2
eit dt = cos t2 dt + i sin t2 dt
0 0 0
we may therefore compare real and imaginary parts to get
Z R Z R Z R Z
2 it2 1 −s2 2
cos t dt = ℜ e dt = √ e ds − ℜ eiz dz
0 0 2 0 CR

and similarly
Z R Z R Z
2 1 −s2 2
sin t dt = √ e ds − ℑ eiz dz.
0 2 0 CR
it
(b) Note that if z (t) = R e , then


iz 2 (t) = iR2 ei2t = i R2 cos 2t + iR2 sin 2t = −R2 sin 2t + iR2 cos 2t.
Hence for such z (t)’s we have by (7) of section 29 that

= eℜ(iz (t))
2 2 2
eiz (t)
= e−R sin 2t

Therefore
Z Z π
4
Z π
4
iz 2 iz 2 (t) it 2
e dz = e iR e dt ≤ e−R sin 2t
Rdt.
0 0

Now make the substitution s = 2t in the last integral to get

Z Z π
2 R 2 −R2 sin s
eiz dz ≤ e ds.
CR 2 0
(c) Finally apply (3) of section 81 to see that
Z
2 R π  π
eiz dz ≤ 2
= →0
CR 2 2R 4R
R 2
as R → ∞. But then lim CR eiz dz = 0, and hence by the theorem in
R→∞
section 55
Z  Z 
iz 2 iz 2
lim ℜ e dz = 0 = lim ℑ e dz .
R→∞ CR R→∞ CR

Moreover Z √
∞
−s2 π
e ds = .
0 2
 144

R∞
If therefore we let R → ∞ in (a) we surely have 0 cos t2 dt =
1
R ∞ −s2 p R∞ p
√
2 0
e ds = 12 π2 and similarly 0 sin t2 dt = 21 π2 .

Exercise 1, §84, p. 286

Derive the integration formula
Z ∞
cos (ax) − cos (bx) π
2
dx = (b − a) (a ≥ 0, b ≥ 0) .
0 x 2
Then, with the aid of the trigonometric identity 1 − cos (2x) = 2 sin2 x, point out
how it follows that Z ∞
sin2 x π
2
dx = .
0 x 2

Solution:
(eiaz −eibz )
Consider the function g (z) = z2 . We integrate this function across the
contour [−R, −ρ] ∪ Cρ ∪ [ρ, R] ∪ CR where
CR : z (t) = R eit 0≤t≤π
−it
Cρ : z (t) = ρe −π ≤t≤0
(see figure 101 in section 82). The only singular point of the integrand is at z = 0
and so by the residue theorem
Z −ρ iax Z Z R iax Z
e − eibx eiaz − eibz e − eibx eiaz − eibz
2
dx + 2
dz + 2
dx + dz = 0.
−R x Cρ z ρ x CR z2
It follows that
Z Z
eiaz − eibz eiaz − eibz
− 2
dz − dz
Cρ z CR z2
Z R iax Z −ρ iax
e − eibx e − eibx
= 2
dx + dx
ρ x −R x2
(set x = −s in the 2nd integral)
Z R iax Z R −ias
e − eibx e − eibs
= dx + ds
ρ x2 ρ s2
Z R
cos (ax) − cos (bx)
= 2 dx.
ρ x2
1 iax

(Set x = s and recall that cos ax = e + e−iax , etc.)
2
Notice that
∞ n ∞ n
!
1 iaz
1 X i n
X i n
e − eibz = (az) − (bz)
z2 z2 n=0
n! n=0
n!
∞
!
n
1 X (i) n n n
= (a − b ) z
z 2 n=1 n!



i (a − b) a2 − b 2 i a3 − b 3
= − − z + ··· .
z 2! 3!


Therefore z12 eiaz − eibz has a simple pole at 0 with residue i (a − b). Therefore
by the theorem in section 82
Z
eiaz − eibz
lim dz = (−i (a − b)) πi = π (a − b) .
ρ→0 C
ρ
z2
 145 MAT3705/1

Now for |z| = R , z12 = R12 → 0 as R → ∞. Therefore since z12 is analytic

whenever |z| > 0, it follows from the theorem in section 81 that both
Z Z
eiaz eibz
dz and dz
CR z2 CR z2

tend to 0 as R → ∞. If therefore we let R → ∞ and ρ → 0 in the above formula,

it follows that
Z ∞
cos ax − cos bx
2 dx = −π (a − b)
0 x2

i.e.
Z ∞
cos ax − cos bx π
2
dx = (b − a) .
0 x 2

Now notice that 2 sin2 x = 1 − cos 2x = cos 0 − cos 2x. Therefore by what we’ve
just shown (with a = 0 and b = 2) we get that
Z ∞
sin2 x π
2 dx = (2 − 0) .
0 x2 2

Hence
Z ∞
sin2 x π
dx = .
0 x2 2

Exercise 3, §84, p. 286

Use the function
 
e( 3 ) log z log z
1 1
z 3 log z π 3π
f (z) = 2 = |z| > 0, − < arg z <
z +1 z2 + 1 2 2

to derive this pair of integration formulas:

Z ∞ √ Z ∞ √
3
x ln x π2 3
x π
dx = , dx = √ .
0 x2 + 1 6 0 x2 + 1 3

Solution: 1 log z
We integrate the function g (z) = e (z2 +1)log z
3
over the contour [−R, −ρ] ∪ Cρ ∪
[ρ, R] ∪ CR where Cρ and CR are as in exercise 1 above and where

π 3π
log (z) = ln |z| + i arg (z) − < arg (z) < .
2 2

Now for z in the interval [−R, −ρ] we get log z = ln |z| + iπ whereas log z = ln |z|
for z in [ρ, R]. Moreover for R > 1 and 0 < ρ < 1 the singular point z = i of the
 146

function lies inside the given contour. By the residue theorem we then have

2πi Res g (z)

z=i
Z −ρ Z Z R Z
= g (x) dx + g (z) dz + g (x) dx + g (z) dz
−R Cρ ρ CR
Z −ρ 1

Z
exp (ln |x| + iπ) (ln |x| + iπ)
3
= dx + g (z) dz
−R x2 + 1 Cρ
Z R
Z
exp 13 ln |x| ln |x|
+ dx + g (z) dz
ρ x2 + 1 CR
Z −ρ 1 Z Z R 1 Z
iπ (|x|) 3 (ln |x| + iπ) x 3 ln x
= e 3 dx + g (z) dz + dx + g (z) dz
−R x2 + 1 Cρ ρ x2 + 1 CR

(set x = −s in the 1st integral)

 iπ
 Z R x 31 ln x iπ
Z R 1
x3
Z Z
= 1+e 3 dx + iπe 3 dx + g (z) dz + g (z) dz.
ρ x2 + 1 2
ρ x +1 Cρ CR

By Theorem 2 in section 76
1


exp 3 log z log z
Res g (z) =
z=i 2z
1


z=i

exp 3 ln 1 + i π2 ln 1 + i π2
=
2i
π iπ
= e6
4 !
√
π 3 1
= +i .
4 2 2

Now for |z| = R

1 1 1 3π


z 3 log (z) |z| 3 |ln |z| + i arg (z)| R 3 ln R + 2
2
≤ 2 ≤ .
z +1 |z| − 1 R2 − 1

Therefore
Z " 1
#
3π
R 3 |ln R| + 2
g (x) dz ≤ πR → 0 as R → ∞,
CR R2 − 1

that is
Z
lim g (z) dz = 0.
R→∞ CR

Similarly
Z " 1
#
3π
ρ 3 |ln ρ| + 2
g (x) dz ≤ πρ.
Cρ ρ2 − 1

Since ρ ln ρ → 0 as ρ → 0 (we can show this by L’Hospital’s theorem), this means

R
that Cρ g (z) dz → 0 as ρ → 0 and hence that
Z
lim g (z) dz = 0.
ρ→0 Cρ
 147 MAT3705/1

If therefore we let R → ∞ and ρ → 0 in the above integration formula it follows

that
√ √ !Z ∞ 1 √ !Z
∞ 1
π2 π2 3 3 3 x 3 ln x π 3 π x3
− +i = +i dx + − + i dx.
4 4 2 2 0 x2 + 1 2 2 0 x2 + 1
Now let I and J respectively denote the first and second integral above. Comparing
real and imaginary parts reveals that
√ √ 2 √
π2 3 3π 3π 3 π
− = I− J and = I + J.
4 2 2 4 2 2
From these equations we may now solve for I and J to get
Z ∞ 1
x 3 ln x π2
dx = I =
0 x2 + 1 6
and Z ∞ 1
x3 π
2
dx = J = √ .
0 x +1 3

Exercise 4, §84, p. 286

Use the function
2  
(log z) π 3π
f (z) = 2 |z| > 0, − < arg <
z +1 2 2
to show that Z Z ∞
∞ 2
(ln x) π3 ln x
2+1
dx = , 2+1
dx = 0.
0 x 8 0 x
Suggestion: The integration formula obtained in Exercise 1, Sec. 79, is needed
here.

Solution:
z)2
We integrate the function g (z) = (log(z 2 +1) over the same contour as in exercise
3 above where as before
log (z) = ln |z| + i arg (z)
and
π 3π
− < arg (z) < .
2 2
The singular point z = i is the only singular point inside [−R, −ρ]∪Cρ ∪[ρ, R]∪CR .
In addition log z = ln |z| + iπ on [−R, −ρ] and log z = ln |z| on [ρ, R]. Therefore by
the residue theorem
2πi Res g (z)
z=i
Z −ρ 2 Z Z R 2 Z
(ln |x| + iπ) (ln x)
= dx + g (z) dz + dx + g (x) dz
−R x2 + 1 Cρ
2
ρ x +1 CR

(Set s = −x in the 1st integral)

Z R 2 Z R Z R
(ln x) 2 1 ln x
= 2 2+1
dx − π 2+1
dx + 2πi 2 + 1)
dx
ρ x ρ x ρ (x
Z Z
+ g (z) dz + g (z) dz.
Cρ CR

Now by Theorem 2 in section 76 we have that

2 2

2
(log z) (log z) ln 1 + i π2 π2
Res 2 = = = i.
z=i z + 1 2z 2i 8
z=i
 148

3π
For |z| = R, |log z| ≤ |ln |z|| + |arg (z)| ≤ ln R + 2 . Therefore
2


3π 2
(log z) ln R + 2
2
≤
z +1 (R2 − 1)
and hence
Z 2

2
(log z) ln R + 3π
2
dz ≤ πR → 0
CR z2 + 1 (R2 − 1)
as R → ∞. (To see this note that we can use L’Hospital’s theorem to show that
2
both lnRR and (lnRR) tend to 0 as R → ∞.) Similarly
Z 2

2
(log z) ln ρ + 3π
2
2
dz ≤ πρ → 0 as ρ → 0.
Cρ z + 1 (ρ2 − 1)
(Again this can be seen by using L’Hospital’s theorem to show that both ρ ln ρ and
ρ (ln ρ)2 tend to 0 as ρ → 0.) Thus
Z Z
lim g (z) dz = 0 = lim g (z) dz.
R→∞ CR ρ→0 Cρ

Finally recall that in exercise (1) of section 79 we showed that

Z ∞
1 π
2+1
dx = .
0 x 2
If therefore we let R → ∞ and ρ → 0 in the first integration formula we obtained,
we get
Z ∞ 2 Z ∞
π3 (ln x) ln x
=2 2
dx + 2πi dx.
4 0 1 + x 0 1 + x2
Comparing real and imaginary parts now reveals that
Z ∞ Z ∞
(ln x)2 π3 ln x
2
dx = and dx = 0.
0 1+x 8 0 1 + x2

Exercise 6(a), §84, p. 287

Show that Z ∞
dx π
√ 2
=√
0 x (x + 1) 2
by integrating an appropriate branch of the multiple–valued function
e(− 2 ) log z
1 1
z− 2
f (z) = 2 =
z +1 z2 + 1
over the indented path in Fig. 101, Sec. 82.

Solution: 1
z− 2 exp(− 12 log z )
Consider the function g (z) = (z 2 +1) = (z 2 +1) where as before
π 3π
< arg (z) <
log z = ln |z| + i arg (z) ; − .
2 2
We again integrate this function over [−R, −ρ] ∪ Cρ ∪ [ρ, R] ∪ CR where Cρ and
CR are as before. As in exercise (1) above it follows that log (z) = ln |z| + iπ on
[−R, −ρ] and log (z) = ln |z| on [ρ, R]. In addition g has a singular point at z = i
which will lie inside the contour if 0 < ρ < 1 < R. It will then follow from the
residue theorem that
 149 MAT3705/1

2πi Res g (z)

z=i
Z −ρ
Z Z R
Z
exp − 21 log x exp − 21 log x
= dx + g (z) dz + dx + g (z) dz
−R x2 + 1 Cρ ρ x2 + 1 CR
Z −ρ
Z Z R

exp − 12 ln |x| − i π2 exp − 21 ln |x|
= dx + g (z) dz + dx
−R x2 + 1 Cρ ρ x2 + 1
Z
+ g (z) dz
CR
Z 1 Z R −1 Z Z
−ρ
−i |x|− 2 x 2
= 2
dx + 2
dx + g (z) dz + g (z) dz
−R x + 1 ρ x +1 Cρ CR
Z R −1 Z Z
x 2
= (1 − i) 2
dx + g (z) dz + g (z) dz.
ρ x +1 Cρ CR
Z −ρ −1 Z R −1
|x| 2 s 2
(Note that 2
dx = 2
ds. To see this set s = −x.)
−R x + 1 ρ s +1

By Theorem 2 in section 76




exp − 21 log z exp − 12 ln 1 + i π2 1
Res g (z) = = = √ (1 − i) .
z=i 2z 2i 2 2i
z=i
Now for |z| = R

1 1
exp − 21 log z z− 2 R− 2
= ≤ .
z2 + 1 z2 + 1 R2 − 1
(To see this note that
      
1 1 1 1
exp − log z = exp ℜ − log (z) = exp − ln |z| = |z|− 2 .)
2 2 2
But then Z
πR
g (z) dz ≤ 1 → 0 as R → ∞.
CR R (R2 − 1)
2

Similarly
Z
πρ
g (z) dz ≤ 1 → 0 as ρ → 0.
Cρ ρ (ρ2 − 1)
2

Consequently Z Z
lim g (z) dz = 0 = lim g (z) dz.
R→∞ CR ρ→0 Cρ
Therefore on letting R → ∞ and ρ → 0 in the above integration formula, we get
that   Z ∞ −1
1 x 2
2πi √ (1 − i) = (1 − i) dx,
2 2i 0 x2 + 1
i.e. that Z ∞
dx π
√ 2 + 1)
= √ .
0 x (x 2
√ ds
Note As an alternative we could have set s = x (i.e. s2 = x). Then dx = 2√1 x
and hence Z ∞ Z ∞
1 1 1
2
√ dx = 2 4
ds.
0 x +1 x 0 s +1
The integral on the right hand side can now be solved by means of the techniques
of section 79.
 150

Exercise 1, §85, p. 290

Use residues to evaluate the definite integral
Z 2π
dθ
.
0 5 + 4 sin θ

Solution:
By (1), (2) and (3) of section 85 the given integral becomes
Z 2π Z Z
dθ 1 1 dz
= 1 1


dz = 2
0 5 + 4 sin θ C 5 + 4 2i z − z iz C 2z + 5iz − 2

where C is the positively oriented circle |z| = 1. The integrand of the com-
plex
 integral
q has singular
 points where 2z 2 + 5iz − 2 = 0, that is where z =
1
4 −5i ± (5i)2 + 16 = 14 (−5i ± 3i) = −2i, − 12 i. Of these points only z = − 21 i
lies inside C. Therefore by the residue theorem
Z !
2π
dθ 1
= 2πi Res1 2
.
0 5 + 4 sin θ z=− 2 i 2z + 5iz − 2

Applying Theorem 2 in section 76 we conclude that

Z 2π  
dθ 1 2π
= 2πi = .
0 5 + 4 sin θ 4z + 5i z=− 1 i 3
2

Exercise 3, §85, p. 290

Use residues to evaluate the definite integral
Z 2π
cos2 3θdθ
.
0 5 − 4 cos 2θ

Solution:
By the remark at the end of section 85 we have that
   
1 1 1 1
cos nθ = zn + n sin nθ = zn − n
2 z 2i z

for each n ∈ N where z = eiθ . Therefore

Z 2π Z 1 3 1

2
cos2 3θ 2 z + z 3 1
dθ = 1 1

 dz
5 − 4 cos 2θ 2 zi
0 |z|=1 5 − 4 2 z + z 2

Z
2
i z6 + 1
= dz.
4 |z|=1 z 5 (2z 4 − 5z 2 + 2)

2
z6 + 1
The integrand g (z) = 5 has singularities where z = 0 and where
z (2z 4 − 5z 2 + 2) √

2z 4 − 5z 2 + 2 = 0. The roots of the last equation are at z 2 = 41 5 ± 25 − 16 =
 1 √
2, 2 (i.e. z = ± 2 and z = ± √12 ). Thus the integrand has singularities at
√
0, ± 2 and ± √12 . Of all these singularities only 0, √12 and − √12 lie inside the circle
 151 MAT3705/1

|z| = 1. The integrand has simple poles at ± √12 and a pole of order 5 at 0. We
may therefore use Theorem 2 in §76 to find the residues at ± √12 . By this result
"
2 #
z 6 + 1 /z 5
Res g (z) = d 4 2
dz (2z − 5z + 2)
z= √12 1
√ z= 2
"
2 #
z 6 + 1 /z 5
=
8z 3 − 10z
z= √12

27
= −
16
and similarly
"
2 #
z 6 + 1 /z 5 27
Res1 g (z) = =− .
z=− √2 8z 3 − 10z 16
z=− √12

To find the residue at 0 we have by the theorem in §73 that

"
2 #
1 d4 z6 + 1
Res g (z) = − .
z=0 4! dz 4 (2z 4 − 5z 2 + 2)
z=0

However to avoid the pain of differentiating 4 times we rather look at the Laurent
series of

2  
z6 + 1 7 1 1
= z + 2z + .
z 5 (2z 4 − 5z 2 + 2) z 5 (2z 2 − 1) (z 2 − 2)
Now by partial fractions
 
1 1 1 2
= − .
(2z 2 − 1) (z 2 − 2) 3 (z 2 − 2) (2z 2 − 1)
Therefore for |z| small enough
" #
1 1 1 1 2
= −
+
(2z − 1) (z 2 − z)
2 3 2 1 − 12 z 2 (1 − 2z 2 )
∞ ∞
1 X 1 2k 2 X k 2k
= − z + 2 z
6 2k 3
k=0 k=0
∞
X  
1 1
= 2k+1 − k+1 z 2k
3 2
k=0

whence

2   ∞   !
z6 + 1 1 X 1 1
7
= z + 2z + 5 2k+1 − z 2k .
z 5 (2z 4 − 5z 2 + 2) z 3 2k+1
k=0

1
In the resulting expansion the term will be
z
   
1 1 1 63 1
8 − z4 = .
z5 3 8 24 z
Therefore
63
Res g (z) = .
z=0 24
 152

By means of the residue theorem we now have that

Z 2π Z
2
cos2 3θ i z6 + 1
dθ = dz
0 5 − 4 cos 2θ 4 |z|=1 z 5 (2z 4 − 5z 2 + 2)
" #
i
= 2πi Res1 g (z) + Res1 g (z) + Res g (z)
4 z= √2 z=− √2 z=0

 
π 27 27 63
= − − − +
2 16 16 24
3π
= .
8
Alternative: In the above integral the difficulty posed by computing the
residue at a pole of order 5 can be avoided altogether if we use partial fractions.
Observe that
1 1
5 4 2
=   .
z (2z − 5z + 2) z 5 (z 2 − 2) 2 z − √1 z + √1
2 2

Hence we can write

 
1 A B C D E 1 F G Hz + I
5 4 2
= + 2+ 3+ 4+ 5+  +  + 2
z (2z − 5z + 2) z z z z z 2 z − √12 z + √12 (z − 2)

and solve for the constants to get

21 5 1 8 1
B = D = I = 0, A = , C = , E= , F =G=− , H= .
8 4 2 3 24

2
On multiplying both sides by z 6 + 1 and integrating over |z| = 1 Cauchy’s
integration formulae then ensure that
Z
2
z6 + 1
5 4 2
dz
|z|=1 z (2z − 6z + z)

Z
2 Z
2 Z
2
21 z6 + 1 5 z6 + 1 1 z6 + 1
= dz + dz + dz
8 |z|=1 z 4 |z|=1 z3 2 |z|=1 z5
Z
2 Z
2 Z
2
4 z6 + 1 4 z6 + 1 1 z6 + 1
−   dz −   dz + dz
3 |z|=1 z − √1 3 |z|=1 z + √1 24 |z|=1 (z 2 − 2)
2 2

   
21 5 2πi d2 6

2 1 2πi d4
2
= (2πi × 1) + 2
z + 1 + 4
z6 + 1
8 4 2! dz z=0 2 4! dz z=0
 !2   !2 
 6  6
4 1 4 1
− 2πi √ + 1  − 2πi −√ +1 +0
3 2 3 2

21πi 81πi 81πi

= +0+0− − +0
4 24 24
3πi
= − .
2
 153 MAT3705/1

(The last integral is zero since there the integrand is analytic inside and on |z| = 1.)
Therefore
Z 2π Z
2
cos2 3θ i z6 + 1
dθ = dz
0 5 − 4 cos 2θ 4 |z|=1 z 5 (2z 4 − 5z 2 + z)
 
i 3πi 3π
= − = .
4 2 8

Exercise 5, §85, p. 291

Use residues to evaluate the definite integral
Z ∞
cos 2θdθ
(−1 < a < 1) .
0 1 − 2a cos θ + a2

Solution:
By (1), (2) and (3) of section 85 we see that
Z π Z 1 2 1


cos 2θ 2 z + z 2

1
2
dθ = 1 1 2
dz
−π 1 − 2a cos θ + a C 1 − 2a 2 z + z + a iz
Z

i z4 + 1
= 2 2 2
dz
C 2z (az − (a + 1) z + a)
where C is the positively oriented circle |z| = 1. The denominator of the inte-

q
1 2 2 2 2
grand has zeros where z = 0 and where z = 2a a + 1 ± (a + 1) − 4a =
1



1
2a a2 + 1 ± 1 − a2 = a , a. None of these zeros are also zeros of z 4 + 1 and
hence all are singular points of the integrand. Of these points only 0 and a are
inside C. Therefore the residue theorem tells us that
Z π h i
cos 2θ
2
dθ = 2πi Res g (z) + Res g (z)
−π 1 − 2a cos θ + a z=0 z=a

i(z 4 +1)
where g (z) = [2z 2 (az 2 −(a2 +1)z+a)] .
By the theorem in section 73


d i z4 + 1
Res g (z) =
z=0 dz 2 (az 2 − (a2 + 1) z + a)
z=0






1 i4z 3 az 2 − a2 + 1 z + a − i z 4 + 1 2az − a2 + 1
= 2
2 (az 2 − (a2 + 1) z + a) z=0
 2 
i a +1
= .
2 a2
From Theorem 2 in section 76 it follows that
(z4 +1)

i 2z2 i a4 + 1
Res g (z) = d = 2 2 .
z=a 2 2
dz (az − (a + 1) z + a)
2a (a − 1)
z=a
Thus
Z "  
#
π
cos 2θ i a2 + 1 i a4 + 1
dθ = 2πi +
−π 1 − 2a cos θ + a2 2 a2 2 a2 (a2 − 1)



a4 − 1 + a4 + 1
= −π
a2 (a2 − 1)
2
2a π
= .
(1 − a2 )
 154

Finally notice that

cos (2 (−θ)) cos 2θ
= ,
1 − 2a cos (−θ) + a2 1 − 2a cos θ + a2
cos 2θ
i.e. that (1−2a cos θ+a2 ) is an even function . Therefore
Z π Z
cos 2θ 1 π cos 2θ a2 π
dθ = dθ = .
0 1 − 2a cos θ + a2 2 −π 1 − 2a cos θ + a2 (1 − a2 )

Exercise 7, §85, p. 291

Use residues to evaluate the definite integral
Z π
sin2n θdθ (n = 1, 2, . . .) .
0

Solution:
Again by (1), (2) and (3) of section 85
Z π Z   2n n+1 Z

2n
1 1 1 i (−1) z2 − 1
sin2n θdθ = z− dz = dz
−π C 2i z iz 22n c z 2n+1
where C is the positively oriented circle |z| = 1 and where n = 1, 2, . . .. The
(z2 −1)2n
function z2n+1 has a singular point at z = 0, and hence by the residue theorem
Z
2n
2n
z2 − 1 z2 − 1
dz = 2πi Res .
C z 2n+1 z=0 z 2n+1
By the binomial theorem

2n 2n  
z2 − 1 1 X 2n 2n−k 2k
= (−1) z
z 2n+1 z 2n+1 k
k=0
X2n  
2n 2n−k 2k−(2n+1)
= (−1) z
k
k=0

n
for all 0 < |z|. The coefficient of the z1 term (corresponding to k = n) is 2n n (−1) .
That is
2n  
z2 − 1 2n n (2n)! n
Res = (−1) = 2 (−1) .
z=0 z 2n+1 n (n!)
Therefore
Z π !
n+1
i (−1) (2n)! n (2n)!
sin2n θdθ = 2n
2πi 2 (−1) = 2π 2.
−π 2 (n!) 2n
2 (n!)
Since sin2n θ is an even function we conclude that
Z π
(2n)!
sin2n θdθ = π 2.
0 2n
2 (n!)

Exercise 1, §87, p. 296

Let C denote the unit circle |z| = 1, described in the positive sense. Use the
theorem in Sec. 86 to determine the value
of ∆C arg f (z) when
7
(a) f (z) = z 2 ; (b) f (z) = z 3 + 2 /z; (c) f (z) = (2z − 1) /z 3 .
 155 MAT3705/1

Solution:
(a) f (z) = z 2 has a double zero at z = 0 and no poles inside |z| = 1. Hence
here

∆C arg z 2 = 2π (2 − 0) = 4π.


(b) f (z) = z 3 + 2 /z has a simple pole at z = 0 and zeros at the roots of
z 3 = −2. However all these roots lie outside |z| = 1. Thus
 3 
z +2
∆C arg = 2π (0 − 1) = −2π.
z
(2z−1)7
(c) f (z) = has a triple
z3   pole at z = 0 and a zero of order 7 at z = 21 .
(2z−1)7
Hence ∆C arg = 2π (7 − 3) = 8π.
z3

Exercise 2, §87, p. 296

Let f be a function which is analytic inside and on a simple closed contour
C, and suppose that f (z) is never zero on C. Let the image of C under the
transformation w = f (z) be the closed contour Γ shown in Fig. 107. Determine
the value of ∆C arg f (z) from that figure; and, with the aid of the theorem in Sec.
86, determine the number of zeros, counting multiplicities, of f interior to C.
v

Solution:
Since f is analytic inside and on C, it clearly has no poles inside or on C. So
by the theorem in section 86
1
Z= ∆C arg f (z)
2π
where Z is the number of zeros (counting multiplicities) of f inside C. Now from
the sketch it is clear that as z traverses once around the contour C, f (z) will
effectively circle the origin 3 times. That is
∆C arg f (z) = 3 × 2π = 6π.
1
Therefore counting multiplicities f has 2π (6π) = 3 zeros inside C.

Exercise 3, §87, p. 296

Using the notation in Sec. 86, suppose that Γ does not enclose the origin w = 0
and that there is a ray from that point which does not intersect Γ. By observing
that the absolute value of ∆C arg f (z) must be less than 2π when a point z makes
one cycle around C and recalling that ∆C arg f (z) is an integral multiple of 2π,
point out why the winding number of Γ with respect to the origin w = 0 must be
zero.
 156

Solution:
Let f and Γ be as stated and suppose that the ray w = reiα (0 ≤ r < ∞) does
not intersect Γ. Since 0 is by assumption outside Γ and also on the ray, the entire
ray must then be outside Γ (or else it would have crossed Γ). Now let f (z) traverse
around Γ starting from say f (z0 ) where arg f (z0 ) = ϕ0 and α − 2π < ϕ0 < α.
Although arg f (z) may increase or decrease as f (z) traverses Γ, the fact that f (z)
can never be on the ray w = reiα (0 ≤ r < ∞) ensures that arg f (z) can never cross
either θ = α − 2π or θ = α. (To see this note that a point w 6= 0 lies on the ray
if and only if arg w = α + 2kπ (k ∈ Z).) Clearly then |arg f (z) − arg f (z0 )| < 2π
for each f (z) on Γ, whence
|∆C arg f (z)| < 2π.
Since ∆C arg f (z) must be an integer multiple of 2π, this inequality can only hold
if in fact
∆C arg f (z) = 0.
The claim follows.

Exercise 6, §87, p. 297

Determine the number of zeros, counting multiplicities, of the polynomial
(a) z 6 − 5z 4 + z 3 − 2z; (b) 2z 4 − 2x3 + 2z 2 − 2z + 9
inside the circle |z| = 1.

Solution:


(a) Let f (z) = z 6 − 5z 4 and g (z) = z 3 − 2z. Now f (z) = z 4 z 2 − 5 has
6 zeros counting multiplicities, but only 4 are inside the circle |z| = 1.
On the circle |z| = 1 we have |f (z)| ≥ 5 |z|4 − |z|6 = 4 and |g (z)| ≤
3
|z| + 2 |z| = 3. So by Rouché’s theorem f (z) + g (z) = z 6 − 5z 4 + z 3 − 2z
also has 4 zeros inside |z| = 1.
(b) Let f (z) = 9 for all z and g (z) = 2z 4 − 2z 3 + 2z 2 − 2z. Clearly f has no
zeros anywhere. In addition if |z| = 1 then
|g (z)| ≤ 2 |z|4 + 2 |z|3 + 2 |z|2 + 2 |z| = 8 < 9 = |f (z)| .
Thus by Rouché’s theorem f (z) + g (z) = 2z 4 − 2z 3 + 2z 2 − 2z + 9 also
has no zeros inside |z| = 1.

Exercise 8, §87, p. 297

Determine the number of roots, counting multiplicities, of the equation
2z 5 − 6z 2 + z + 1 = 0
in the annulus 1 ≤ |z| < 2.

Solution:
First let f (z) = −6z 2 and g (z) = 2z 5 + z + 1. Here f has 2 zeros inside |z| = 1.
Now for |z| = 1 we have
5 2
|g (z)| ≤ 2 |z| + |z| + 1 = 4 and |f (z)| = 6 |z| = 6.
Hence by Rouché’s theorem f (z) + g (z) = 2z 5 − 6z 2 + z + 1 also has 2 zeros inside
|z| = 1. Next let f˜ (z) = 2z 5 and g̃ (z) = −6z 2 + z + 1. The polynomial f (z) = 2z 5
has 5 zeros inside |z| = 2 (all at z = 0.) For |z| = 2 we have
2 5
|g̃ (z)| ≤ 6 |z| + |z| + 1 = 27 and f˜ (z) = 2 |z| = 64.
 157 MAT3705/1

So by Rouché’s theorem f˜ (z) + g̃ (z) = 2z 5 − 6z 2 + z + 1 also has 5 zeros inside

|z| = 2. So in the region inside |z| = 2 but not inside |z| = 1 (i.e. the region
1 ≤ |z| < 2), the polynomial 2z 5 − 6z 2 + z + 1 must have exactly 5 − 2 = 3 roots.

Exercise 10, §87, p. 298

Let the functions f and g be as in the statement of Rouché’s theorem in Sec.
87, and let the orientation of the contour C there be positive. Then define the
function Z
1 f ′ (z) + tg ′ (z)
Φ (t) = dz (0 ≤ t ≤ 1) ,
2πi C f (z) + tg (z)
and follow the steps below to give another proof of that theorem.
(a) Point out why the denominator in the integrand of the integral defining
Φ (t) is never zero on C. This ensures the existence of the integral.
(b) Let t and t0 be any two points in the interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 1, and show that
Z
|t − t0 | f g′ − f ′g
|Φ (t) − Φ (t0 )| = dz .
2π C (f + tg) (f + t0 g)

Then, after pointing out why

f g′ − f ′g |f g ′ − f ′ g|
≤ 2
(f + tg) (f + t0 g) (|f | − |g|)
at points on C, show that there is a positive constant A, which is inde-
pendent of t and t0 , such that
|Φ (t) − Φ (t0 )| ≤ A |t − t0 | .
Conclude from this inequality that Φ (t) is continuous on the interval
0 ≤ t ≤ 1.
(c) By referring to equation (8), Sec. 86, state why the value of the function
Φ is, for each value of t in the interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 1, an integer representing
the number of zeros of f (z) + tg (z) inside C. Then conclude from the
fact that Φ is continuous, as shown in part (b), that f (z) and f (z) + g (z)
have the same number of zeros, counting multiplicities, inside C.

Solution:
(a) By assumption |g (x)| < |f (z)| for all z on the contour C. Thus for any
0 ≤ t ≤ 1 this implies that
|f (z) + tg (z)| ≥ |f (z)| − t |g (z)| ≥ |f (z)| − |g (z)| > 0
whenever z is a point on C.

(b) Now let t, t0 ∈ [0, 1]. Then

Φ (t)Z− Φ (t0 ) 
1 f ′ (z) + tg ′ (z) f ′ (z) + t0 g ′ (z)
= − dz
2πi ZC f (z) + tg (z) f (z) + t0 g (z)
1 (f (z) + tg (z)) (f (z) + t0 g (z)) − (f (z) + t0 g ′ (z)) (f (z) + tg (z))
′ ′ ′
= dz
2πi C Z (f (z) + tg (z)) (f (z) + t0 g (z))
′ ′
(t − t0 ) g (z) f (z) − f (z) g (z)
= dz. (∗)
2πi C (f (z) + tg (z)) (f (z) + t0 g (z))
Now as we saw in part (a)
|f (z) + sg (z)| ≥ |f (z)| − |g (z)|
 158

for all z ∈ C and all 0 ≤ s ≤ 1. In particular for t and t0 it then follows

that
2
|(f (z) + tg (z)) (f (z) + t0 g (z))| ≥ (|f (z)| − |g (z)|)
for all z on C, whence
f g′ − f ′g |f g ′ − f ′ g|
(∗∗) ≤ 2
(f + tg) (f + t0 g) (|f | − |g|)
for all z on C. Since f, g are analytic on C, each of f, g, f ′ and g ′
are then continuous on C. (This follows from for example Theorem 1 of
|f g′ −f ′ g|
section 52 and the discussion at the end of section 19.) Since (|f |−|g|)2 is
then defined and continuous on C, it follows from (6) of section 18 that
we can find a constant M > 0 so that
|f g ′ − f ′ g|
2 ≤ M for all z on C.
(|f | − |g|)
Comparing this with (∗∗) above, it then follows from (1) of section 43 that
Z
f (z) g ′ (z) − f ′ (z) g (z)
dz ≤ M L
C (f (z) + tg (z)) (f (z) + t0 g (z))
where L is the length of C and M is clearly independent of t and t0 . By
(∗) we then have
ML
|Φ (t) − Φ (t0 )| ≤ |t − t0 | .
2π
2πε
Now let ε < 0 be given and set δ = ML . Then
ML
|t − t0 | < δ ⇒ |Φ (t) − Φ (t0 )| < δ = ε.
2π
Thus by definition t → Φ (t) is continuous on [0, 1].
(c) For each fixed t, f (z) + tg (z) is analytic inside and on C (i.e. it has no
poles inside or on C), and hence it then follows from (8) of section 86 that
Z
1 f ′ (z) + tg ′ (z)
Φ (t) = dz
2πi C f (z) + tg (z)
is an integer representing the number of zeros of f (z) + tg (z) inside C.
But then Φ (t) must be constant on [0, 1] since if Φ was not constant the
fact that all its values are integers means that it would then have to admit
of a “jump discontinuity” somewhere on [0, 1]. But there can be no such
jump since Φ is continuous. Therefore t → Φ (t) is constant on [0, 1] as
claimed. In particular Φ (0) = Φ (1) , or in other words f and f + g have
the same number of zeros inside C (counting multiplicities of course).