31-10-2023

Dr. Ruchi Mudaliar

Module outline:
• Nature and Concept of Motivation
• Needs, Drives, Instincts;
• Types of Motives: Biological and Social Motives;
• Pull and Push Mechanism; Intrinsic Motivation.

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Brainstorming…

What makes some people work hard while

others do as little as possible?

Why motivation differs across individuals?

What can be the repercussions of absence/lack of

motivation in any setting (eg. Educational/
organizational)?

Nature and concept

• ‘Why does your father/mother go to work everyday?’

• ‘Why do you study for long hours?’ (or reverse?)

• ‘Why do you like to hang out with your friends?’

• ‘Why does your mother stay up the whole night and

care for you when you are feeling unwell?’

There is a reason or MOTIVE behind each type of activity mentioned. Working,

studying, playing and caring are some important activities which are considered
purposeful.

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The study of motivation

helps us understand not
• Behind every Motive, there is a NEED. only why we do the
things we do but also
why our behaviors can
change when our focus
shifts or gets redirected.

• Motivation arises from a perceived discrepancy

between a current state (which lacks something
necessary for well-being or satisfaction) and a desired
state (which fulfills that need).

What is Motivation?
• The term ‘motivation’ is derived from a latin word MOVERE
which means to move.
• A motive is an inner state that encourages, activates or moves
and that directs behaviour towards goals.
• A psychological force within an individual that sets him in
motion for the achievement of certain goals or satisfaction of
certain needs.

• Most of the motivated activities begin with a NEED (or internal

deficiency).
• The needs cause a DRIVE (an energized motivational state) to develop.
• Drives activate a RESPONSE (an action or series of actions) designed to
attain a GOAL (the Target of motivated behaviour).
• Reaching a goal that satisfied the need will end the chain of events.

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What is Motivation?
A psychological process through which unsatisfied wants or
NEEDS lead to DRIVES that are aimed at GOALS or
INCENTIVES.

The Basic Motivation Process

Attainment of
Drive toward goal to
Unsatisfied need goal (need
satisfy need
satisfaction)

Unsatisfied need

Drive toward
goal to
satisfy need

Attainment of
goal (need
satisfaction)

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Further….
•The force that initiates, guides and maintains goal-

oriented behaviors.

•Eg. It is what causes us to take action, whether to grab a

snack to reduce hunger or enroll in college to earn a

degree.
•The processes that accounts for an individual’s intensity,

direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.

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Examples
• When a person is relaxing in front of the television and begins to
feel hungry, the physical need for food might cause the person
to get up, go into the kitchen, and search for something to eat.
• The physical need of hunger caused the action (getting up),
directed it (going to the kitchen), and sustained the search
(finding or preparing something to eat).
• Loneliness may lead to calling a friend or going to a place where
there are people.
• The desire to get ahead in life motivates many people to go to
college. Just getting out of bed in the morning is motivated by
the need to keep a roof over one’s head and food on the table by
going to work.

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Three key elements:

Direction

Intensity Persistence

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Direction

Effort that is

channeled

toward, and

consistent with

your goals.
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Intensity

How hard a person

tries.

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It's not that I'm so smart,

it's just that I stay with
problems longer.

Persistence

How long a person can

maintain effort.
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Instincts and the Evolutionary Approach

• Early attempts to understand motivation focused on the
biologically determined and innate patterns of behavior
called INSTINCTS that exist in both people and animals.

• Just as animals are governed by their instincts to perform

activities such as migrating, nest building, mating, and
protecting their territory, evolutionary theorists proposed
that human beings may also be governed by similar
instincts (James, 1890; McDougall, 1908).

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• William McDougall (1908) actually proposed a total of 18

instincts for humans, including curiosity, flight (running away),
pugnacity (aggressiveness), and acquisition (gathering
possessions).
• As the years progressed, psychologists added more and more
instincts to the list until there were thousands of proposed
instincts. However, none of these early theorists did much more
than give names to these instincts.
• There was no attempt to explain why these instincts exist in
humans, if they exist at all (Petri, 1996).

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• Instinct approaches have faded away because,

although they could describe human behavior, they
could not explain human behaviour.
• But these approaches did accomplish one important
thing by forcing psychologists to realize that some
human behavior is controlled by hereditary factors.
• This idea remains central in the study of human
behavior today.

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Concept of Needs and Drives

• Drive-Reduction Theory (Clark Hull in 1943,)
• The next approach to understanding motivation focuses on the
concepts of needs and drives.

• A need is a requirement of some material (such as food or

water) that is essential for survival of the organism.

• When an organism has a need, it leads to a psychological tension

as well as a physical arousal that motivates the organism to act in
order to fulfill the need and reduce the tension. This tension is
called a drive (Hull, 1943).

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• Drive-reduction theory proposes a connection between

internal physiological states and outward behavior.
• In this theory, there are two kinds of drives.
• PRIMARY DRIVES - Those that involve survival needs of the
body such as hunger and thirst
• ACQUIRED (SECONDARY) DRIVES -Those that are learned
through experience or conditioning, such as the need for money
or social approval

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• HOMEOSTASIS
• This theory also includes the concept of homeostasis, or the
tendency of the body to maintain a steady state.
• Homeostasis is the body’s version of a thermostat—
• Thermostats keep the temperature of a house at a constant level,
and homeostasis does the same thing for the body’s functions.
• When there is a primary drive need, the body is in a state of
imbalance. This stimulates behavior that brings the body back
into balance, or homeostasis.

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Drawback of drive reduction theory

• Although drive-reduction theory works well to explain the
actions people take to reduce tension created by needs, it does
not explain all human motivation.

• Why do people eat when they are not really hungry? People
don’t always seek to reduce their inner arousal either—
sometimes they seek to increase it.

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• Bungee-jumping, parachuting as recreation, rock

climbing, and watching horror movies are all activities
that increase the inner state of tension and arousal, and
many people love doing these activities.
• Why would people do such things if they don’t reduce
some need or restore homeostasis?
• The answer is complex: There are different types of
needs, different effects of arousal, different incentives,
and different levels of importance attached to many
forms of behavior.

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• Most theories emphasize that most needs are the result of some
inner physical drive (such as hunger or thirst) that demands to
be satisfied (physiological needs).
• Other theories examine our psychological needs.
• Mcclelland’s Theory: Affiliation, Power, and Achievement
Needs
• David C. McClelland (1961, 1987) proposed a theory of
motivation that highlights the importance of three psychological
needs not typically considered by the other theories:
– Affiliation,
– Power, and
– Achievement.

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(nAch)

nAff

(nPow).

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Pull and push mechanism

•Incentive approaches to motivation suggest that
motivation stems from the desire to obtain valued external goals,
or incentives. In this view, the desirable properties of
external stimuli—whether grades, money, affection, food,
or sex—account for a person’s motivation.

• Although the theory explains why we may succumb to an

incentive (such as a mouthwatering dessert) even though
we lack internal cues (such as hunger), it does not provide
a complete explanation of motivation, because organisms
sometimes seek to fulfill needs even when
incentives are not apparent.
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• Consequently, many psychologists believe that the

internal drives proposed by drive-reduction theory
work in tandem with the external incentives of
incentive theory to “push” and “pull” behavior,
respectively.
• Thus, at the same time that we seek to satisfy our
underlying hunger needs (the push of drive-reduction
theory), we are drawn to food that appears very
appetizing (the pull of incentive theory).
• Rather than contradicting each other, then, drives and
incentives may work together in motivating behavior
(Pinel, Assanand, & Lehman, 2000; Lowery, Fillingim,
& Wright, 2003; Berridge, 2004).

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CHARACTERISTICS OF MOTIVATION

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• 1. It pushes us to reach the goals we have set for

ourselves. In order to reach our goals we need to be aroused or feel
active. Too little arousal will make us feel dull and relaxed, whereas, too
much arousal may make us withdraw from our goal. Hence, we must be
motivated to maintain a balanced or optimum level of arousal.

Arousal
theory of
Motivation
(Yerkes-
Dodson
Principal)

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• 2. People are motivated

to behave in certain
ways because of the
pleasing and
pleasant
properties of
external stimuli,
such as, money, good
grades, food, which
motivate the person to
act in a
purposeful/focused
manner.

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• 3. Motivation is the result of the person’s

thoughts and expectations.

Sometimes we work
hard and
produce high quality
work when motivation
is intrinsic rather than
extrinsic. On the
other hand, we are also
influenced by the
external rewards.
In life, both types of
motivation are
important.

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Studies on Intrinsic motivation

• 1. (Amabile et al., 1976) found that children’s creativity was affected by the kind of
motivation for which they worked: Extrinsic motivation decreased the degree of
creativity shown in an experimental group’s artwork when compared to the creativity
levels of the children in an intrinsically motivated control group.

• 2. Intrinsic motivation leads to greater persistence

• Grant (2008) When intrinsic motivation is high, does it have any impact on
prosocial motivation and persistence as a result?

• This study suggests it does, by acting to strengthen the relationship between

the two. In the research, firefighters who reported high levels of both
prosocial and intrinsic motivation then went on to demonstrate greater
persistence by subsequently working considerably more overtime hours per
week over a two month period. The desire to help others had resulted in
increased effort and increased levels of persistence.

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• Intrinsic motivation enhances engagement

• Cho and Perry (2012 )- Intrinsic motives have three times the impact on
employee engagement levels when compared to extrinsic motives. The
research found that intrinsic motivation was positively associated with
employee satisfaction and, unsurprisingly, was negatively associated with the
intention to leave. When there were higher levels of managerial
trustworthiness and goal direction, that link grew even stronger.
• Kuvaas & Dysvik (2009) found that intrinsically motivated employees were
more likely to be highly engaged and more involved in their work, as well as
display a greater readiness to step up and take responsibility.

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• Intrinsically motivated learning is more effective

• Baranek (1996)-The use of rewards in the classroom can actually

negatively affect both the rate and how effectively students learn. That was
one of the findings in this research from Grand Valley State University, which
identified that these kinds of external motivators can actually slow learning
down and lead to students making more errors during the learning process.
What really matters is the level of intrinsic motivation and how much the
student wants to learn. If the student’s learning because it’s fulfilling them
and it’s enjoyable, rather than because they’re fixated on getting high grades
or pleasing someone, then it actually improves the whole learning
experience.

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• Employees perform better when they’re intrinsically rewarded

• Edirisooriya, W.A. (2014). Employee performance and motivation are directly

influenced by such rewards, encouraging people to work harder to achieve
and benefit from those feelings. Intrinsic motivation is a better predictor of
long term job performance than extrinsic motivation too.

• Intrinsically motivated employees are more likely to stay

• In a study by McKinsey (a management consulting firm), it was found that

when employees are intrinsically motivated, they show 46% higher levels of
job satisfaction and 32% greater levels of commitment to their jobs. At the
same time, they’re a lot less likely to experience job-related burnout – which
all means that employees are a lot more likely to want to stick around with
their employer.

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• 4. Finally, motivational needs are ordered such that

basic needs such as hunger and thirst are satisfied first and then other
higher-needs, such as need for achievement and power are fulfilled.

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Needs
Fundamental requirements that individuals must satisfy in order to survive and
thrive.

• Biological, psychological, or social requirements that are

necessary for an individual's well-being, survival, and overall
functioning.
• Innate and universal to all human beings.
• Encompass -
– Basic physiological requirements (like food, water, and
shelter),
– Psychological needs (such as belongingness, esteem, and
self-actualization as per maslow's hierarchy), and
– Social needs (like affiliation and recognition).

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Motives
• Sometimes the terms Needs and Motives are
used interchangeably.
• They are closely overlapping terms.
• Many books refer to Needs and Motives in
essentially the same sense.
• Motives or needs are characterized in terms of:
– Primary (Physiological) needs/motives and
– Secondary (Psychological and Social)
needs/motives.

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Physiological Motives
• Basic requirements for human
survival, like food, water, air,
and shelter.

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Influence of Environment on Primary

Needs
• Many a times our biological motives, such as hunger, are influenced by
environmental factors.
• Often we are likely to feel hungry because of a number of reasons
rather than due to low glucose levels in the blood.

Learned liking Stress can lead to

and habits, for eating, for
example, a person example,
who enjoys having examination stress
pizza will want to makes some
eat it even if not students eat more
hungry. than is required.

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Influence of Environment on Primary

Needs

External cues, such as when Dietary restraints, if

it is dinner time or your the doctor has
mother calls out for dinner advised a patient to
you are likely to feel hungry. avoid sweet foods
The smell and attractive there
appearance of food may may be an increased
also make you feel hungry. desire to eat sweets.

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Social Motives

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Social Motives

• Encompasses the need for security, stability,

and protection from physical and emotional
harm.
• For instance, individuals seek stable
employment and a safe living environment.

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Some common social motives

• Achievement: To strive for success and excellence, carry out
difficult tasks.
• Affiliation: To seek and enjoy the company of others, to make
friends.
• Power: To strive for impact on others, to influence, control and
persuade others.
• Nurturance: To help and take care of others such as children,
elderly or sick persons.
• Aggression: To fight, forcefully overcome opposition, to hurt
and ridicule.
• Exploration: To seek a variety of stimulation, to explore novel
things.

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Psychological needs

• Pertain to mental and emotional well-being.

• The need for love, belongingness, and self-
esteem.
• A person may seek companionship and
affection from family and friends

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1. Maslow’s Theory
The Hierarchy-of-Needs Theory

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Background

• Maslow first began working with

monkeys early in his career,

conducting research on their

behaviour with Harry Harlow (known

for his work on attachment behaviour

with rhesus monkeys).

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Vs.

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Maslow’s Observation

• Maslow noticed that some needs take precedence,

for example one will quench their thirst before

satisfying their hunger.

• This discovery started him on the theory which we now

call the Needs Theory.

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Self-Actualization
Needs

Esteem Needs HIGHER-ORDER NEEDS

-satisfied internally.
Social Needs

Safety Needs
LOWER-ORDER NEEDS
-predominantly
Physiological Needs
satisfied externally.

•As a need becomes substantially satisfied, the next

need becomes dominant.
•No need is ever fully gratified; a substantially satisfied
need no longer motivates.

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Drives

1. Internal states that push individuals to take action in order to

fulfill their needs. They arise when there's a discrepancy
between a person's current state and their desired
state.
2. Drives motivate individuals to engage in activities or behaviors
that will lead to the satisfaction of their needs.

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Drives

Hunger Drive Thirst Drive

When a person's body detects a

drop in blood sugar levels, it Dehydration leads to a sensation of
triggers a sensation of hunger. This thirst, prompting an individual to
drive compels the person to seek seek and consume water to maintain
and consume food to restore the proper bodily functions.
balance.

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Drives
Achievement Drive Affiliation Drive

This is the internal motivation to This drive motivates individuals to

accomplish personal goals and form social connections and seek
realize one's potential. For companionship. For example, a
example, a student might be person may feel lonely and thus seek
driven to excel academically in out social interactions.
order to secure a desired career.

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Drives can
be influenced
by past
experiences,
learned
behaviors,
and cultural
factors.

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Case: The Drive for Achievement

Past Experiences

Manya, grew up in a family where academic success was

highly valued and celebrated. From a young age, Manya's
parents praised her for good grades and encouraged her
to excel in school. She received positive reinforcement
and a sense of accomplishment whenever she performed
well academically.
As a result of these early experiences, Manya developed a
strong drive for achievement. She associates academic
success with feelings of pride, validation, and approval
from her family. This drive has been shaped by her past
experiences and the positive emotions associated with
academic accomplishments.

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Case: The Drive for Achievement

Learned Behaviors
Manya's drive for achievement is further reinforced by
learned behaviors. She has developed effective study
habits, time management skills, and a proactive approach
to learning. These behaviors have been cultivated over
time through trial and error, as well as through guidance
and encouragement from teachers and mentors.

For example, Manya learned that setting specific goals,

breaking tasks into manageable chunks, and seeking help
when needed are effective strategies for achieving
academic success. These learned behaviors contribute to
her ongoing motivation to excel in her studies.

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Case: The Drive for Achievement

Cultural Factors
Manya's cultural background also plays a significant role in shaping
her drive for achievement. She comes from a cultural context where
educational attainment is highly valued and seen as a pathway to
future opportunities and success. In her community, there is a
strong emphasis on the importance of education in achieving
personal goals and societal recognition.

Manya's cultural environment reinforces her drive for achievement

by providing her with role models, such as successful individuals
who have excelled academically and gone on to achieve notable
accomplishments in their careers. Additionally, cultural norms and
expectations regarding academic performance contribute to
Manya's motivation to meet and exceed these standards.

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Needs Vs. Drives

NEEDS DRIVES

Fundamental biological, psychological, Internal states or impulses that push

or social requirements that individuals individuals to take action in order to
must satisfy for their well-being, fulfill their needs. They arise when
survival, and overall development. there's a perceived discrepancy
between a person's current state and
their desired state.

Needs are inherent in human nature Drives are specific to individuals and
and are universal. They apply to all can vary based on personal
individuals regardless of cultural, experiences, learned behaviors, and
social, or economic differences. unique circumstances.

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Offering a bonus or a salary

Offering discounts raise to employees who meet or
Incentives on products or
services can
exceed performance targets
incentivize
Monetary
External stimuli customers to
Rewards
make a purchase.
that encourage or
discourage Acknowledging an
employee's hard
certain behaviors. Discounts Recognitio work and
and n and
They can be Coupons Praise
accomplishments in
front of their peers.
positive (rewards)
or negative
(punishments).

Promotion
Penalties
s Imposing fines for violating
Offering the possibility of rules or regulations can serve
career advancement as an as a disincentive to prevent
incentive for employees to undesirable behavior.
excel in their roles

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Can there be motivation without need?

Yes. In some cases, motivation may not be directly related to a specific need.

• Altruistic Motivation:
Altruistic individuals are
motivated by a desire to help
others, often without
expecting anything in return.
While there may not be a
direct personal need being
fulfilled, the motivation
stems from a genuine
concern for the well-being of
others.

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Can there be motivation without need?

• Pure Curiosity or
Exploration:
Sometimes, individuals
are motivated by sheer
curiosity or a desire for
exploration and
discovery. This can drive
people to seek out new
experiences or
knowledge, even when
there is no apparent
need in the traditional
sense.

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Can there be motivation without need?

• Achievement for
Personal Fulfillment:
Some individuals are
driven by a deep-
seated desire for
personal growth and
accomplishment. This
motivation may not
always be tied to a
specific need, but
rather to a sense of
fulfillment and self-
realization.

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Can there be motivation without need?

• Intrinsic Motivation
in Tasks: Intrinsic
motivation refers to
the internal desire to
engage in an activity
for its own sake,
without the need for
external rewards. This
can be seen in tasks
that individuals find
inherently enjoyable
or fulfilling.

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