Tribal Society in Transition

UNIT 2 TRIBAL ECONOMY

Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Structural Features of Tribal Economy in India
2.3 Economic Classification of Tribes in India
2.4 Economic Change in Tribal India
2.5 Let Us Sum Up
2.6 Further Readings and References

2.0 OBJECTIVES
The present unit presents a brief discussion on the structure and dynamics of
tribal economy in India. By the end of this unit, you would be able to:
 describe the structural features of tribal economy in India;
 know the types of occupations followed by different tribes in the
country; and
 explain the dynamic forces and process of economic change in tribal
India.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Economy is one of major sub-systems of any societal system. Comprehension
of structure and dynamics of the economic system is prerequisite for social
work practice in tribal India as most of the challenges to tribal welfare are
embedded in them. Interestingly, social scientists have observed significant
differences between the economic structures of the tribal and the non-tribal
societies all over the world. Moreover, the tribal economies in India are at
different stages ranging from food gathering to industrial labour types.
Economy simply means economic system or institution. It regulates, governs
and facilitates economic relations and interaction among a group of people.
Economic relations are mainly concerned with the activities that supply material
means for human survival and sustenance. Generally, the economic system or
its structure is repetitive and relatively permanent. According to Dalton (1969)
“an economy is a set of institutionalised activities, which combine natural
resources, human labour, and technology to acquire, produce and distribute
material goods and specialised services in a structured and repetitive fashion”.
Thus, economy can be understood as an institutional arrangement that facilitates
acquisition, production, and distribution of material means of survival for
individual and community life.

To Dalton (1971) there are three interrelated features that characterize tribal
economy. They are as follows:
18
1. It is a structural arrangement and enforced rules for the acquisition and Tribal Economy

production of material goods and services.

2. In the process of acquisition and production of goods and services,

division of human labour, use of natural resources and application of
technology (tools and knowledge) are involved.

3. In the distribution process, superficial devices and practices such as

market place and devices for measuring some types of transaction are
involved.

Thus economy can be understood as an institutional and normative structure

that governs the economic relations among a group of people. This group may
range from a tribal village to a modern nation and even the entire world. The
major economic processes governed by this system are acquisition, production,
and distribution of goods and services necessary for human survival and
sustenance.

2.2 STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF TRIBAL

ECONOMY IN INDIA
India is a land of tribes and castes. The tribes are spread all over the country
in different geographic zones. Among them, there is not only cultural diversity
but also economic diversity. Hence, identifying the common features of tribal
economy in India is an uphill task. L.P. Vidyarthi and B. K. Rai (1976) have
identified nine structural features that characterise the tribal economies in
India. They are as under:

i) Forest Based Economy;

ii) Domestic or Familial/mode of Production;

iii) Simple Technology;

iv) Absence of Profit Motive in Exchange;

v) Community: as a Cooperative Unit;

vi) Gift and Ceremonial Exchange;

vii) Periodical Markets;

viii) Interdependence; and

ix) Economic Institution of Dhangar

Let us discuss all these basic features of tribal economy one by one.

i ) Forest Based Economy

Tribal economy is embedded in and revolves around the forest ecology. Not
only the tribal economy, but also the culture and social organisation are
interwoven with forests. Forests constitute the major natural resource base
for tribal livelihood in all the tribal regions of the country. Tribals depend on
forests for fulfilling their basic needs. The tribals harness the forest resources
with the help of simple implements without much technological aid from 19
Tribal Society in Transition the outer world. They collect edible roots, fruits, vegetables, flowers, honey,
insects, fish, pigeons, hares, pigs, etc,. from the forests for their consumption.
The forest dependence of the tribes in the country differs with their
economic typology. According to Rai (1967) the Birhors of Chotanagpur,
Chenchus of Andhra Pradesh, Juangs of Orissa, Kadars of Kerala, the
Paliyars and Paniyars of Tamil Nadu depend on forests for their survival and
sustenance.

ii) Domestic or Familial Mode of Production

Family constitutes the basic unit of consumption as well as production in the

tribal economies of India. In the simple economy of tribals, all the members
of the family together form the unit of production and directly engaged in
economic process of production and consumption. The decision-making
processes of allocation of labour, and produce are governed by the familial
stipulations. The tribal household production is mainly geared for fulfilling their
consumption needs rather for the market. Hence, it is appropriate to call tribal
economy as subsistence economy. The division of labour in the tribal household
is based on age and gender. The economic roles of tribals generally depend
on the member’s age and gender. The gendered division of labour is based
on the primitive belief that women are physically weak. The boys and girls are
allotted different jobs suited to their age.
iii) Simple Technology
The development of an economy depends upon the level of its technological
advancement. Generally, it is held that technological advancement leads to
economic development. Technology, involves the use of tools and implements
in utilisation of natural as well as human resources for productive purposes.
The tools and implements used in the productive and distributive process of
tribal economy are generally crude, simple and indigenously developed without
the aid from outside. The simple technology used by most of the tribes in the
country involves tenuous manual labour, and higher degree of wastage and
difficulty, which is appropriate to their subsistence level of production. The
Birhor, a forest hunting tribe use very ordinary knife to procure forest raw
materials and make ropes manually. The hill cultivators such as Ao-Nagas use
very ordinary type of axe or a dao for felling the trees for their shifting
cultivation, which requires hard labour. The plough of the Agricultural tribes
such as Munda, Oraon, and Bhil is made of single piece of wood and cannot
plough deep.
iv) Absence of Profit Motive in Exchange
Maximisation of profit is the main goal of economic transactions that drives
the modern capitalistic economies. But the profit motive is quite absent in the
economic dealings in the tribal economies of India. Two major institutional
factors i.e. the communal nature of tribal economy and absence of money as
a medium of exchange are responsible for this. The mutual obligation and
extension of free labour to the fellow beings result in no significant surplus at
all. It is also because the exchange of goods and services takes place with
barter system rather than money. Money as a medium of exchange is almost
absent in the tribal economies of India. Hence, there is no scope for measuring
the value of goods and services and storing the profit generated in the exchange
20 process as wealth for posterity.
v) Community as a Cooperative Unit Tribal Economy

Community works as a cooperative unit in tribal societies and economic

activities are carried out in collectively as a group. According to Dalton (1991)
the primitive economy is embedded in other community relationships. Dalton
(1991) held that the factors such as low-level technology, small size of the
economy and its relative isolation from outer world contributes to mutual
dependence people sharing many social relationships. In fact, the economic
activities of tribal people are embedded in their neighbourhood, religion, kinship
and political relations.
In economic interactions, each tribal village community is considered as
cooperative unit. According to Vidhyarthi and Rai (1976) among the Munda,
Oraon, Ho, Santhal, Gond, and Bhil tribes, the villagers have close economic
relations. Most of them engage in common economic activities such as grazing
the cattle, working in the shifting and settled agricultural fields jointly together.
Their youth are jointly grazing the cattle and defend their village together. The
adult men and women jointly transplant and harvest paddy in each other’s
fields on a reciprocal basis.
vi) Gift and Ceremonial Exchange
Universally, reciprocal gift giving and hospitality to social intimates plays a
vital part in tribal economies. According to Herskovits (1952) the process of
distribution in tribal societies is part of non-economic relational matrix and
takes the form of gift and ceremonial exchange. Each group, whether a family,
a group of kinsmen, communities, villagers, or the tribe as a whole, implies
appropriate norm of reciprocity. Another well-known social anthropologist
Malinowski (1922) notes that the whole tribal life is permeated by a constant
give and take. Every ceremony, every legal and customary act is done to the
accompaniment of material gift and counter gift. Economic anthropologist
Dalton (1971) holds that the tribal mode of transaction is that of reciprocity
i.e. material gift and counter gift giving induced by social obligations of kinship.
Among the tribes, the degree or level varies from situation to situation and it
is not equal. According to Service (1966) the mutual obligations vary at three
standards, degrees or levels. The levels of reciprocity, according to him are
general reciprocity, balanced reciprocity, and negative reciprocity.
General reciprocity involves the assistance given and taken back or returned,
sharing, hospitality, gifts taken, mutual aid, and generosity. The expectation of
reciprocity is indefinite, and unspecified in terms of quantity, quality and time.
They are left to the convenience and ability of the donor and the recipient.
Balanced reciprocity is the direct exchange and the return and the goods
received should be of equal value. The barter system of exchange of goods
and services is the best example of this degree of reciprocity. This form of
reciprocity is considered as more economic, and less personal as compared
to the general reciprocity. Negative reciprocity is an attempt to get something
for nothing.
The generalised type of reciprocity can be observed among the agricultural
tribes of Munda, Oraon, Gond, etc. At the time of transplanting paddy, the
close and distant relatives come together and help each other. On completion
of this agricultural operation, the invitees are offered with food and drink as
hospitality. Balanced reciprocity has been observed among the number of
tribes especially in the case of economic transactions between the agricultural 21
Tribal Society in Transition and artisan tribes. The agriculturist tribes such as Oraon, Munda, Ho, and
Khania get their agricultural implements manufactured or repaired by the artisan
tribe of Lahars who in turn receive a customary annual payment in kind or
cash. The third form of reciprocity i.e. the negative reciprocity observed to
be non-existent among the intra-tribal or inter tribal economic exchange. But
it is the feature of exchange relations between tribals and non-tribals in the
weekly markets. The tribals who visit the weekly market to sell their indigenous
produce such as green vegetables, minor forest produce with the non-tribal
businessmen. In return, they practically get nothing for their goods exchanged.
In fact, the economic dealings with non-tribal merchants and moneylenders
have contributed to indebtedness, bonded labour, land alienation and
impoverishment among the tribal masses.

vii) Periodical Markets

Market is a major economic institution that regulates as well as facilitates

distribution of goods and services among the people all over the world. Yet,
the anthropologists observed the absence of permanent market in the tribal
societies. However, in the tribal areas, periodical markets and the system of
barter exchange play a vital role in the economic life. These periodical markets
were weekly, fortnightly, or biweekly and are widespread in the tribal areas
of Andhra Pradesh, Jarkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa etc. These periodical
markets, locally known as Bazar, Hat, Pithia, Shandies, etc., generally serve
the tribal villages within the radius of 5-10 KMs. and function on a specific
place, at regular intervals of time.
In these markets, people of different tribes and caste groups come together
and conduct their business transactions. Now a days, both barter and monetary
transactions are observed to co exist in these market. Prof. Vidhyarthi has
observed that the native (locally produced) goods such as food grains, local
hand woven cloths, baskets, etc. are exchanged in the barter mode while
money is used in the transactions of non-native (produced outside tribal area)
goods such as salt, mill clothes, readymade clothes, cosmetics, soaps etc.
The periodical markets have significant impact on the tribal socio-cultural and
economic life. They are facilitating cultural interaction among people of castes
and tribes in addition to integration of tribal economy with the national and
global economy.
The weekly market plays vital role in integrating the tribal economy with
wider national economy. It promotes innovation, monetisation of tribal economy.
According to Sinha, the market is the hub of economic life in the tribal areas.
It serves as a centre of redistribution for resources and material goods of
occupationally diverse communities in the region.
viii) Interdependence
The economic relationship among the tribes is often considered as one of
interdependence while the sprit of competition is almost absent in the tribal
economic life. The relationship between tribes, within tribes, or tribal people
and non-tribal people are functionally interdependent. Vidyarthi and Rai(1976)
observe that the economic functional interdependence is similar to the Jajmani
system, found among the Hindu caste groups in most of the regions of the
country. Under the Jajmani system each caste group, within a village, is
expected to give certain standardised service to the people of other castes.
The family head served by an individual known as the Jajman, while the man
22
who performs as Kamin of Jajman. Economic interdependence among the Tribal Economy
tribes has been observed in different tribal zones of the country in variety of
ways.
This feature of tribal economic interdependence can be better illustrated with
an example from Tamil Nadu observed by well known anthropologist
Herskovits (1952). Herskovits has observed the functional relationship between
the four primitive tribal groups in the Nilgiris, these are the Badaga, the Kota,
the Toda and the Kurumba. The artisan Kotas serve the agriculturist Badaga
and pastoral Toda households with pots, knives, iron tools and music receiving
in return food grains from the former and milk products, buffalos etc., from
the Todas. The Kurumbas provide magical and ritual services to the others
and in return get food grains, milk products, etc. from the others.
ix) Economic Institution of Dhangar
Among the agriculturist tribes of India a peculiar economic institution of labour
attachment was observed by the anthropologists. This institution of labour is
known as differently among the landed tribes, facilitates effective utilisation of
human labour and land in cultivation. It is called dhangar among the tribes of
Jharkhand while begal among the Bhumijs of West Bengal. Similar institution
of labour attachment and absorption was observed among the Tharus of
Tarai area, Khasas of Himalaya and Rangma Nagas of North East India.
In Jharkhand for instance, the big tribal land lords employ a fellow tribal on
a semi-permanent basis for cultivating their land. He is from the same tribe
and more often belongs to the same village. The person so employed is
known as Dhangar among the tribes of the Oraon, Munda, and Ho the
prominent tribes of the state. The Dhangar is generally engaged on an annual
basis but this tenure may be prolonged further depending on the nature of
relationship between both the parties. From the day of engagement he is
treated as a family member of the land lord and treated alike. He is regarded
more as an assistant rather than as servant by the land lord’s family. Apart
from some annual payment in cash or in kind, the Dhangar is provided with
food and a roof. Interestingly, he can even marry the land owner’s daughter
or sister if he is from a different clan.

Check Your Progress I

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. Why is there a need to understand the structural features of tribal
economy in India?
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2. Describe any one feature of tribal economy in your own words which
is significantly different from that of the Non-tribal economy.
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Tribal Society in Transition
2.3 ECONOMIC CLASSIFICATION OF TRIBES
IN INDIA
The tribes of India subsist on the number of occupations. Interestingly, the
economic lives of the tribes in India exist at different grades. There are significant
differences in the pattern of their occupation and the livelihood options
exercised. According to Vidhyarthi and Rai(1976) tribal economies are complex
systems as a tribe generally uses all available means to eke out its subsistence
and combines minor forest produce collection with settled agriculture or shifting
cultivation, simple cultivation with food collection. Yet each tribe has a primary
means of survival on this basis some anthropologists have attempted economic
classification of tribes in India.
Vidhyarthi and Rai(1976) have proposed a comprehensive eight fold economic
typology of tribes in India taking into consideration various classifications
suggested by the other anthropologists. They are:
i) The forest hunting type;
ii) The hill cultivation or shifting cultivation type;
iii) The plain agriculture type;
iv) The simple artisan type;
v) The pastoral and cattle-herder type;
vi) The folk-artist type;
vii) The agricultural and non-agricultural labour type; and
viii) The skilled, white collar job and traders type;
Let us briefly examine these eight economic typology of tribes in India:
i) Forest Hunting Type
The livelihood of tribes mainly depends on collection of minor forest produce,
hunting of wild animals and fishing in the shallow waters of the forest. They
collect edible roots, tubers, fruits, nuts, flowers, leaves, fibre, bamboo, honey,
wax etc for their subsistence. Most of them hunt deer, hares, monkeys, birds
and fish. They use simple indigenous tools such as digging sticks, iron jungle
knives, earthen wooden or bamboo pots and vessels, bamboo baskets and
sticks for food gathering. In hunting, they employ different types of traps and
weapons. The availability and adequacy of food from these sources differ
according to season, cycle, area and the rainfall. The Rajis in the Himalayan
Region, Birhors, the Hill-Khariyas, the Parahiyas, the Birjias and the Korwas
in the Middle India belong to this category. Likewise, the Juangs in Orissa,
Hill Maria Gonds of Bastar, Chenchus, Yanadis, Kadars, Mala Pantarams,
Kurumbas, and the Paliyans of South India are also hunters and food gatherers.
The tribes of this type constitute a small population which is about a thousand.
They have simple life and social organisation and their settlement generally
consist of five to 15 huts. In them the family work as a productive unit and
the villagers work as an economic unit at times. Theses tribes are switching
over from forest hunting as a primary source of livelihood to agriculture.
24
ii) Hill Cultivation or Shifting Cultivation Type Tribal Economy

The tribal groups depending on cultivation for livelihood rely on their skills
and hard labour in cultivation. They rely on any of the three types of cultivation
for their survival and sustenance. They are slash- and-burn cultivation with the
help of digging sticks; hoe- and- burn cultivation; and terrace cultivation in the
hill areas with the help of natural irrigational sources. The tribes who subsist
on the first two types of hill cultivation in addition to that depend on food
gathering and hunting for survival.
Under the shifting cultivation the tribal cultivators switch over from the field
which is not productive enough to new field. They do not cultivate a piece of
land for ever as the settled cultivators do.

Hill cultivation is seasonal in nature and widely practiced by the many tribes
in North East India, and Middle India while some in South India also practice
the same. Mizos, Garos, Nagars, Chakmas, etc. in the North East, Malers,
Hill Khariyas, Parahiyas and Birjias in Middle India, Muka Dhoras, Malekudias
in South India belong to this economic category of tribes.

A notable proportion of tribal population in India depend on shifting cultivation

in India. According to Government of India over 6 lakh tribal families in the
North Eastern states, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh practise
shifting cultivation on a continuous basis as per the 9th Five Year Plan period.
The major problems with this type of cultivation are ecological degradation,
low productivity and low standard of living. Hence, the incidence of poverty
is very high in the areas where this type of cultivation is practiced.

iii) The Plain Agriculture Tribes

The predominant occupation of the tribal population in India is that of settled

agriculture or plain agriculture. In its simpler form plain agriculture requires
ploughing with a pair of animals. For over two-thirds of the tribal population
in the country settle agriculture is the means of survival. However, the agriculture
as practiced in tribal India is simple, less productive and at the subsistence
level. The tribal cultivators hardly could meet their day to day needs. They
cultivate paddy in low lying lands while in high lands coarse grains, pulses,
millets, etc. are cultivated. Their agricultural implements are indigenous and
locally made. A few use cow dung and modern high yielding varieties, chemical
fertilisers and pesticides in cultivation.

The Khasis and Jaintias of Meghalaya, Khasas and Tharus of Tarai region,
Kinnuras, Pangawalas of Himachal Pradesh region, Bhumij, Koras, Bhuiyas,
Santals, Mundas, Oraons, Hos, Kharwars, Baigas, Gonds in the Middle
India, numerous tribes in other regions belong to this category of tribes.

iv) The Simple Artisan Type

In Tribal India a number of tribes depend on crafts and cottage industries for
survival. They are engaged in activities such as basket making, making of iron
and wooden tools, spinning and weaving, metal work, etc. Any tribe belonging
to this category specialises in a specific craft. They use simple tools in their
day today work. These tribes are found among the population of other tribes
and they have interdependent relationship with them. They live in mixed tribal 25
Tribal Society in Transition villages and generally have no exclusive villages of their own. They sell their
finished products in the periodical markets.

They are engaged in a variety of crafts and art works. For instance, the
Gujjars of Kashmir and Kinnauris of Himachal Pradesh make wooden
products. The Kanjars of Uttar Pradesh make baskets and ropes. The Lohars,
Karmalis, Chik-Bariks and Mahalis are making agricultural implements for
agriculturalist tribes. The Kotas of Tamil Nadu are carpenters, blacksmiths,
goldsmiths, and potters all at once.

v) The Pastoral and Cattle Herder Type

Pastoralism involves herding or rearing cattle such as cow, buffalo, sheep,

goats, etc. And thus, pastoralists are those people who completely or partially
depend on the cattle rearing for their subsistence. The Todas of the Nilgiris,
the Gujjars, the Bakarwals, Gaddis and Jadhs of Himachal Pradesh are purely
pastoralists. The middle Indian tribes of Negesias are pastoralist to some
extent. The tribes belonging to this type have very less population. The
pastoralists in different regions of the country have adapted themselves to
their changing environments in different ways. Some eke out their living by
selling milk and milk products, wool, hair, etc. while others earn by selling
livestock. A brief description of the Todas of Tamil Nadu would give a better
understanding on the life style of pastoralists. The Todas are fully devoted to
their buffaloes and their occupation is simply taking care of them. Their society,
culture, religion, and economy revolve around their buffaloes. A few have
taken cultivation but still most of them are herders.

vi) The Folk-Artist Type

Tribes living on folk arts such as singing and dancing, music barding, acrobatics,
conjuring, snake-charming, etc. belong to this category. These numerically
small folk artist tribes depend on the larger tribes and are found along with
them.

The Nats and Saperas in the North India, Mundupattas, and Kelas of
Orissa, Pardhans and Ojhas of Jharkhand, Madarias, Pamulas, Garadis of
Andhra Pradesh, etc., are some of the tribes belonging to this category. For
instance, the Nats perform acrobatics, singing, and dancing and subsist on
them. On the other hand, the Kalbelas of Rajasthan, popularly known as
Saperas earn primarily their livelihood on snake charming, dancing, singing
and conjuring.

vii) The Agricultural and Non-agricultural Labour Type

There is no single tribe that can be included under the agricultural labour or
industrial labour type. Yet, some of the members of agricultural and artisan
tribes have taken the avenues of employment in agriculture and industries as
casual labourers. Agricultural development on the one hand and industrialisation
in the tribal region on the other has contributed to the emergence of these
types labour type among the tribal people in the country. Nearly 20 percent
of the ST working population depend on agricultural wage for survival while
4.4 percent of the tribal work force depends on industrial wage labour for
26 survival.
The tribal agricultural labourers mostly work in their own locality within a Tribal Economy

radius of a few kilometres. On the other hand non-agricultural or industrial

labourers work in different industries. Most of the industrial labourers are
generally seasonal migrants to nearby or distant towns, mines, mills and tea
gardens and work as wage labourers in railway and road construction, forestry,
civil work, etc. Some times they move to these works in distant locations in
bands inclusive of both genders.

Tribal agricultural labour was found wherever there was high incidence of
indebtedness, and land alienation. The non-agricultural labour type of tribal
households could be located in the states of Jharkhand, Orissa, West Bengal,
and Madhya Pradesh where industrialisation has spread. Interestingly, the
members of the Jharkhand tribes are engaged as labourers in tea gardens of
Assam and serve in forestry, and construction work in Andaman Islands.

viii) The Skilled, White Collar Job and Traders Type

Educational advancement, spread of Christianity, reservation policy of

Government of India etc. have prompted a significant proportion of the members
to take of the skilled white collar jobs and trades of different kinds. Such
skilled white collar workers could be found all over the country. Many
individuals and households belonging to the tribes could be observed working
in government offices, hospitals, factories and business enterprises. Some are
engaged in business activities. The Bhotiyas of Indo-Tibetan border, the
Valmikis, the Haikers of Andhra Pradesh and a few individuals from different
tribes depend on trade for their sustenance. About 1 percent of the working
population of STs depend on trade.

2.4 ECONOMIC CHANGE IN TRIBAL INDIA

Tribal economies in India are in transitions. Their exposures to a number of
exogenous factors contributed to change in them. They adapt to the modern
economic forces, acquire economic new activities, adopt modern technology
and means and are geared towards achieving the goal of development. There
are a number of factors that can be attributed to change in the economic
structure and functions of tribes in India. The chief among them are educational
expansion, transportation and communication, Cooperatives and Commercial
Banks. In addition to these the Government policy, programmes and
development interventions have also contributed to economic changes.

The following five interrelated processes of economic change are happening

among the major tribes in India in response to forces of modernisation:

i) Occupational Change: Modern Occupations Replacing the Traditional

Ones;

ii) Subsistence to Commercialisation;

iii) Market Integration and Commoditisation;

iv) Barter to Monetary Exchange; and

v) Proletarianisation Depeasantisation and Impoverishment;

27
Tribal Society in Transition i) Occupational Change: Modems Occupations Replacing the
Tradiational Ones
As we know tribal economies are simple primary producing economies and
most of the people depend on land and forest for their livelihood. In response
to the initiatives of Central and State Governments the tribal people are
changing their economic activities. A number of members of tribes also have
taken up modern occupations increasingly. Some of the tribes slowly switch
over from their traditional shifting cultivation to settle cultivation as its less
remunerative and ecologically destructive. Some other tribes who are
traditionally hunting are also taking up the practice of cultivation in addition
to their traditional occupation. As we have seen in the previous section, as
a consequence of educational advancement many members of the tribes have
taken up white collar jobs. As a consequence of marginalisation in agriculture
some have taken up as agricultural or industrial wage earners.
ii) Subsistence to Commercialisation
The tribal economies over a long period were stagnant and are of subsistent
type. The tribal people’s production and acquisition of goods and services
were concerned with the household consumption. There was hardly any
significant surplus with them. There was no profit motive and motivation for
saving among them. This has changed much in response to their increased
interaction with the nontribal economy. The development of physical
infrastructure especially road, transport and communication facilities in the
tribal areas, exposure to agricultural extension agencies etc. have contributed
to the emergence of commercial aptitude among many tribes in India. Now
a days many of them produce crops or acquire goods from the forests for the
purpose of selling in the local market. The cropping patterns in the tribal
regions have experienced a shift from food crops primarily meant for household
consumption towards commercial crops such as potatoes, green vegetables,
and fruits which are meant for markets. Vidhyarthi and Rai have observed the
sale of minor forest produces like firewood, tooth sticks, seasonal fruits,
broom-grass, kendu leaves by the tribals in the Jharkhand.
iii) Market Integration and Commoditisation
Tribal people were, by and large, out of the ambit of national and global
market forces as their interaction was minimal. But the market forces have
penetrated into the tribal areas through the channels of road, transport,
communication as well as agencies of banks, cooperatives, merchants, money
lenders, etc. Increasingly, they are absorbed into the network structure of
market. Their day-to-today economic activities are affected by the market
forces. They are affected by the changes in the price levels. They look at the
goods and services as commodities to be sold or purchased. Many of them
have learnt the process of bargaining, selling and purchasing which are akin
to the modern market places.
iv) Barter to Monetary Exchange
Monetisation is one of the major changes that are taking place in the tribal
economies of India. It is simply the process of switch over from traditional
barter system of exchange to money based transactions. Most of the tribes
were neither aware nor used money in their economic transaction as a measure
of the value of their goods and services. The tribal people’s interaction with
the outer economy through periodical markets and establishment of cooperative
28
and commercial banks and institutions have all contributed the spread of Tribal Economy

money as most popular medium of exchange of goods and services in the

tribal India. Monetisation and market penetration reinforce each other in the
tribal economy.
v) Proletarianisation Depeasantisation and Impoverishment
The above said process of economic modernisation have significant impact on
the economic life, livelihood and living conditions of the people. The economic
integration of tribals, market penetration, commoditisation and
commercialisation, have contributed to economic decline of tribes. Economic
decline of tribal people have taken place because many of the tribals have
become indebted, alienated their land, some have become landless and/or
bonded labourers. Economic modernisation in the tribal areas have had
contributed to poverty rather economic development in the Tribal India. The
non-tribal money lenders, merchants and at times forest officials have exploited
tribals and many times deprived them of their land and livelihood, though
there are constitutional mechanisms for their protection. In spite of
implementation of Ten Five Plans, unfortunately tribals constitute the most
economically marginalised citizens of our democratic republic. Tribal masses
and their leaders have responded to their economic crises in ways of creative
movements and struggles. In the wake of new economic policy the fragile
simple tribal economies are increasingly integrated with global economies having
far reaching consequences of the livelihood and living conditions of the people.

Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. List the five interrelated processes of economic change among the
major tribes in India in response to forces of modernisation.
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2. What are some of the factors contributing to change in tribal economy
in India.
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2.5 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have seen the structural features of tribal economy, the economic
typology of tribes in India, and the forces and process of economic change
therein. As we know economy is an institutional mechanism for regulating the
human activities of acquisition and production of goods and services as well
as their distribution among the people. We have also discussed the
characteristics of tribal economic systems in India such as forest based
economy, familial mode of production, simple technology, absence of profit 29
Tribal Society in Transition motive, economic cooperation, gift and ceremonial exchange; periodical
markets etc. At the end of the unit we have discussed the factors, and
processes of economic change and their implication for living conditions of
tribal masses.

2.6 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Choudhuri, Buddhadeb (Ed.) 1992; Tribal Transformation in India Vol. I-
V, New Delhi: Inter India Publications.
Furer-Heimendorf, Christoph von 1982; Tribes of India: The Struggle for
Survival, Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Majumdar, D.N. and Madan, T.N. 1956; An Introduction to Social
Anthropology, New Delhi: Asian Publishing House.
Pfeffer, George and Behera, Deepak Kumar (Eds.) 1994; Contemporary
Society: Tribal Studies, New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company.
Rath, Govinda Chandra (Ed.) 2006; Tribal Development in India, New
Delhi: Sage Publications.
Vidyarthi, L.P. and Rai, Binay Kumar. 1976; The Tribal Culture of India.
New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company.

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