10/24/23, 11:10 PM Learning Guide No.

1 - Nature of Inquiry and Research

Learning Guide No. 1 - Nature of Inquiry and Research

Site: New Era University Printed by: Jacon D. Estrella

Course: Practical Research 2 (Quantitative Research) Date: Tuesday, 24 October 2023, 11:10 PM
Book: Learning Guide No. 1 - Nature of Inquiry and Research

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Description

"Through the process of inquiry, individuals construct much of their understanding of the natural and human-designed worlds" (Thirteen Media,
2020). This module aims to give learners background knowledge on the nature of inquiry and research specifically, Quantitative Research; its
importance as well as the uses of its different variables.

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Table of contents

1. Introduction

2. Lesson 1: The Nature of Inquiry

3. Lesson 2: Research: An Overview

4. Lesson 3: Introduction to Research Design

4.1. Experimental Research Design
4.2. Non-experimental Research Design

5. Lesson 4: The importance of Quantitative Research Design

5.1. Characteristics of Quantitative Research
5.2. Strengths and Weaknesses

6. Lesson 5: The Nature and Use of Variables in Research

6.1. Kinds of Variables

7. DISCUSSION FORUM

8. QUIZ

9. M1: Assignment no. 1

10. Module References

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1. Introduction

Human history abounds with problems. Problems are everywhere in different variations in different perspectives which affect mankind.
Problems are observed along with political, social, environmental, and many aspects of life. This may between individuals, groups, or in an
organization. In that, mankind wants a solution to these problems. These solutions should not be only effective but also be acquired and used
for improvement. To be able to achieve that, solutions must be based on knowledge, not on mere beliefs, guesses, or theories. To acquire this
knowledge it requires a well-planned and systematic procedure and should be continuously evaluated on its accuracy and
usefulness. RESEARCH has been devised to meet this need.

Research is a systematic and unbiased way of solving a problem (Shone, 2015). It is a natural day-to-day activity of gathering information to
solve some day-to-day problems. It may in the form of qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative researches are those studies in which the data
concerned can be described without the use of numerical data while quantitative research suggests that the data concerned can be analyzed
in terms of numbers.

Quantitative research designs use numbers in stating generalizations about a given problem or inquiry in contrast to qualitative research that
hardly uses statistical treatment in stating generalizations. The numbers in quantitative research are the results of objective scales of
measurements of the units of analysis called variables.

Unlock your imaginations and creativity, spread your eyes around you, and make research as your baseline in making a decision. You can
change the world with your own simple discovery.

After completing this chapter, you are expected to be able to:

describe the characteristics, strengths, weaknesses, and kinds of quantitative research;

explain the kinds of quantitative research designs;
illustrate the importance of quantitative research across fields; and
differentiate kinds of variables and their uses.

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2. Lesson 1: The Nature of Inquiry

One goal of education is knowledge acquisition. However, education is not just stocking your brain with knowledge, but it also encourages you
to use acquired knowledge for a deeper understanding of the world—an understanding that inspires you to create, construct or produce things
for the betterment of not only your own life but of the whole world as well. How is this possible?

Inquiry, a term that is synonymous with the word ‘investigation,’ is the answer to this question. When you inquire or investigate, you tend to ask
questions to probe or examine something. You do this kind of examination through your HOTS or higher-order thinking strategies of inferential,
analytical, critical, creative, and appreciative thinking to discover more understandable or meaningful things beyond such object of your inquiry.
Thinking in this manner makes you ask open-ended questions to elicit views, opinions, and beliefs of others in relation to your research. (Small
2012)

Furthermore, according to Badke cited by Baraceros, solving a problem, especially social issues, does not only involved yourself but other
members of the society too. Whatever knowledge you have about the world bears the influence of your cultural, sociological, institutional, or
ideological understanding of the world. (Badke 2012)

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3. Lesson 2: Research: An Overview

The research process is, for many of us, just the way we do things. We research the best buys in cars and appliances, we research book
reviews before shopping for books, we research the best schools for our children and ourselves, and we probably perform some kind of
research in our jobs. Our search for information may lead us to interview friends or other knowledgeable people; read articles in magazines,
journals, or newspapers; listen to the radio; search an encyclopedia on CD-ROM; and, even explore the Internet and World Wide Web for
information. We use our local public libraries and our school libraries.

Research can be a way of life; it is the basis for many of the important decisions in our lives. Without it, we are deluged with information,
subjected to the claims of advertisers, or influenced by hearsay in making sense of the world around us. This informal, experiential research
helps us decipher the flood of information we encounter daily.

Formal academic research differs from experiential research and can be more investigative in nature. For example, it may require us to learn
about an area in which we have little knowledge or inclination to learn. It may be library-oriented or field-oriented, depending on the nature of
the research.

Research is a systematic process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting information to increase our understanding of a phenomenon about
which we are interested or concerned (Leedy & Ormrod, 2013).

Why DO research?

1. Produce new knowledge of information

2. Utilize new knowledge
3. Validate existing knowledge
4. Improvement of the researcher

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4. Lesson 3: Introduction to Research Design

Research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose in order to integrate the different components of the study in a coherent and
logical way, thereby ensuring you will effectively address the research problem. Furthermore, a research design constitutes the blueprint for the
selection, measurement, and analysis of data. The research problem determines the research you should.

Quantitative methods emphasize objective measurements and the statistical, mathematical, or numerical analysis of data collected through
polls, questionnaires, and surveys, or by manipulating pre-existing statistical data using computational techniques.

The kind of research is dependent on the researcher’s aim in conducting the study and the extent to which the findings will be used.
Quantitative research designs are generally classified into experimental and non-experimental as the following matrix below.

Characteristics of Quantitative Research

Emphasis on collecting and analyzing information in the form of numbers

Emphasis on collecting scores that measure distinct attributes of individuals and organizations
Emphasis on the procedures of comparing groups or relating factors about individuals or groups in experiments, correlational studies,
and surveys

source: Quantitative Research Methods, Nova Southeastern University

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4.1. Experimental Research Design

This allows the researcher to control the situation. In doing so, it allows the researcher to answer the question, “What causes something to
occur?” This kind of research also allows the researcher to identify cause and effect relationships between variables and to distinguish placebo
effects from treatment effects. Further, this research design supports the ability to limit alternative explanations and to infer direct causal
relationships in the study; the approach provides the highest degree level of evidence for single studies.

Types of Experimental Design

1. PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN. A type of research applies to an experimental design with the least internal validity. One type of pre-
experiment, the simple group, pre-test-post-test design, measures the group two times, before and after the intervention.

Instead of comparing the pretest with the posttest within one group, the posttest of the treated groups is compared with that of an untreated
group. Measuring the effect as the difference between groups marks this as between-subjects design. Assuming both groups experienced the
same time-related influences, the comparison group feature should protect this design from the rival explanations that threaten the within-
subject design.

2. QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN - In this design, the researcher can collect more data, either by scheduling more observations or finding more
existing measures. Quasi-experimental design involves selecting groups, upon which a variable is tested, without any random pre-selection
processes. For example, to perform an educational experiment, a class might be arbitrarily divided by alphabetical selection or by seating
arrangement. The division is often convenient and, especially in an educational situation, causes as little disruption as possible. After this
selection, the experiment proceeds in a very similar way to any other experiment, with a variable being compared between different groups, or
over a period of time.

There are two types of quasi-experimental design, these are:

Non-Equivalent Control Group. This refers to the chance failure of random assignment to equalize the conditions by converting a true
experiment into this kind of design, for purpose of analysis.
Interrupted Time Series Design. It employs multiple measures before and after the experimental intervention. It differs from the single-
group pre-experiment that has only one pretest and one posttest. Users of this design assume that the time threats such as history or
maturation appear as regular changes in the measures prior to the intervention.

3. TRUE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN. It controls for both time-related and group-related threats. Two features mark true experiments: two or more
differently treated groups; and random assignment to these groups. These features require that the researchers have control over the
experimental treatment and the power to place subjects in groups. The true experimental design employs both treated and control groups to
deal with time-related rival explanations.

A control group reflects changes other than those due to the treatment that occurs during the time of the study. Such changes include effects
of outside events, maturation by the subjects, changes in measures, and the impact of any pre-tests.

The true experimental design offers the highest internal validity of all the designs. Quasi-experimental design differs from a true experimental
design by the absence of a random assignment of subjects to different conditions. What quasi-experiments have in common with true
experiments is that some subjects receive an intervention and provide data likely to reflect its impact.

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4.2. Non-experimental Research Design

In this kind of design, the researcher observes the phenomena as they occur naturally and no external variables are introduced. In this research
design, the variables are not deliberately manipulated nor is the setting controlled. Researchers collect data without making changes or
introducing treatments. This may also be called a DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN because it is only one under non-experimental design.

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN’s main purpose is to observe, describe, and document aspects of a situation as it naturally occurs and
sometimes to serve as a starting point for hypothesis generation or theory development.

The types of descriptive design are as follows:

Survey - it is used to gather information from groups of people by selecting and studying samples chosen from a population. This is
useful when the objective of the study is to see the general picture of the population under investigation in terms of their social and
economic characteristics, opinions, and their knowledge about the behavior towards a certain phenomenon.
Correlational - It is conducted by researchers whose aim would be to find out the direction, associations, and/or relationship between
different variables or groups of respondents under study.
Ex-post facto / Causal Comparative - this kind of research derives a conclusion from observations and manifestations that already
occurred in the past and now compared to some dependent variables. It discusses why and how a phenomenon occurs.
Example 1: A researcher is interested in how weight influences the stress-coping level of adults. Here the subjects would be
separated into different groups (underweight, normal, overweight) and their stress-coping levels measured. This is an ex post facto
design because a pre-existing characteristic (weight) was used to form the groups.
Example 2: What is the Effect of Home Schooling on the Social Skills of Adolescents?
Comparative - it involves comparing and contrasting two or more samples of study subjects on one or more variables, often at a single
point of time. Specifically, this design is used to compare two distinct groups on the basis of selected attributes such as knowledge level,
perceptions, and attitudes, physical or psychological symptoms.
Example: A comparative study on the Health Problems among Rural and Urban People in Ilocos Region, Philippines.

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5. Lesson 4: The importance of Quantitative Research Design

Quantitative research is an objective, systematic empirical investigation of observable phenomena through the use of computational
techniques. It highlights the numerical analysis of data hoping that the numbers yield unbiased results that can be generalized to some larger
population and explain a particular observation. Simply, quantitative research is concerned with numbers and their relationship with events.

Your goal in conducting a quantitative research study is to determine the relationship between one thing (an independent variable) and another
(a dependent or outcome variable) within a population. Quantitative research designs are either descriptive (subjects usually measured once)
or experimental (subjects measured before and after treatment). A descriptive study establishes only associations between variables; an
experimental study establishes causality.

Its main characteristics are:

1. The data is usually gathered using structured research instruments.
2. The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population.
3. The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability.
4. The researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective answers are sought.
5. All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected.
6. Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often arranged in tables, charts, figures, or other non-textual forms.
7. Project can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict future results, or investigate causal relationships.
8. The researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or computer software, to collect numerical data.

Quantitative research makes you focus your mind on specific things by means of statistics that involve the collection and study of numerical
data. Thus, to give the basic meaning of quantitative research is to say that research is a way of making any phenomenon or any sensory
experience clearer or more meaningful by gathering and examining facts and information about such person, thing, place, or event appealing to
your senses. You use mathematical operations of addition, subtraction, division, and multiplication to study and express relationships between
quantities or magnitudes shown by numbers or symbols. Involving measurements and amounts, quantitative research seeks to find answers to
questions starting with how many, how much, how long, to what extent, and the like. Answers to these questions come in numerals,
percentages, and fractions, among others. (Suter 2012; Russell 2013)

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5.1. Characteristics of Quantitative Research

Since quantitative research uses numbers and figures to denote a particular thing, this kind of research requires you to focus your full attention
on the object of your study. Doing this, you tend to exclude your own thoughts and feelings about the subject or object. This is why quantitative
research is described as objective research in contrast to qualitative research that is subjective. Characterized by objectiveness, in which
only the real or factual, not the emotional or cognitive existence of the object matters greatly to the artist, quantitative research is analogous to
scientific or experimental thinking. In this case, you just do not identify problems but theorize, hypothesize, analyze, infer, and create as well.
Quantitative research usually happens in hard sciences like physics, chemistry, biology, and medicine; qualitative research, in soft sciences
such as humanities, social sciences, education, and psychology, among others.

Other characteristics of Quantitative Research are as follows:

1. OBJECTIVE. Quantitative research seeks accurate measurement and analysis of target concepts. It is not based on mere intuition and
guesses. Data are gathered before proposing a conclusion or solution to a problem.
2. CLEARLY DEFINED RESEARCH QUESTIONS. The researchers know in advance what they are looking for. The research questions are well-
defined for which objective answers are sought. All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data are gathered.
3. STRUCTURED RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS. Standardized instruments guide data collection, thus, ensuring the accuracy, reliability, and
validity of data. Data are normally gathered using structured research tools such as questionnaires to collect measurable characteristics
of the population like age, socio-economic status, number of children, among others.
4. NUMERICAL DATA. Figures, tables, or graphs showcase summarized data collection in order to show trends, relationships, or differences
among variables. In sum, the charts and tables allow you to see the evidence collected.
5. LARGE SAMPLE SIZES. To arrive at a more reliable data analysis, a normal population distribution curve is preferred. This requires a large
sample size, depending on how the characteristics of the population vary. Random sampling is recommended in determining the sample
size to avoid the researcher’s bias in interpreting the results.
6. REPLICATION. Quantitative methods can be repeated to verify findings in another setting, thus strengthen and reinforce the validity of
findings eliminating the possibility of spurious conclusions.
7. FUTURE OUTCOMES. By using complex mathematical calculations and with the aid of computers, if-then scenarios may be formulated
thus predicting future results. Quantitative research puts emphasis on proof, rather than discovery.

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5.2. Strengths and Weaknesses

22+ Strengths and Weaknesses for Job Interviews [2020 Best Answers]

The strengths of quantitative research include the following:

1. It is objective. The most reliable and valid way of concluding results, giving way to a new hypothesis, or to disproving it. Because of the
bigger number of the sample of a population, the results or generalizations are more reliable and valid. Since it provides numerical data, it
can’t be easily misinterpreted.

2. The use of statistical techniques facilitates sophisticated analyses and allows you to comprehend a huge amount of vital characteristics
of data.

3. It is real and unbiased. If the research is properly designed it filters out external factors, and so can be seen as real and unbiased.

4. The numerical data can be analyzed in a quick and easy way. By employing statistically valid random models, findings can be generalized
to the population about which information is necessary.

5. Quantitative studies are replicable. Standardized approaches allow the study to be replicated in different areas or over time with the
formulation of comparable findings.

6. Quantitative experiments are useful for testing the results gained by a series of qualitative experiments, leading to a final answer, and
narrowing down of possible directions to follow.

The weaknesses of quantitative research are as follows:

1. Quantitative research requires a large number of respondents. It is assumed that the larger the sample is, the more statistically accurate
the findings are.

2. It is costly. Since there are more respondents compared to qualitative research, the expenses will be greater in reaching out to these
people and in reproducing questionnaires.

3. The information is contextual factors to help interpret the results or to explain variations are usually ignored. It does not consider the
distinct capacity of the respondents to share and elaborate on further information, unlike qualitative research.

4. Much information is difficult to gather using structured research instruments, specifically on sensitive issues like pre-marital sex,
domestic violence, among others.

5. If not done seriously and correctly, data from questionnaires may be incomplete and inaccurate. Researchers must be on the look-out on
respondents who are just guessing in answering the instrument.

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6. Lesson 5: The Nature and Use of Variables in Research

The term ‘variable’ has been mentioned several times so that it is necessary to define it here. In research, a variable refers to a “characteristic
that has two or more mutually exclusive values or properties” (Sevilla and Other, 1988). Sex, for instance, has two properties which are
maleness and femaleness. The ages of different persons have different values; so with their size, height, weight, and income. The phenomenon
of variety is what makes life interesting; it is one of the motivating factors of the research undertaking.

The root word of the word variable is “vary” or simply “can change”. These variables are among the fundamental concepts of research,
alongside measurement, validity, reliability, cause and effect; and theory. Bernard (1994) defines a variable as something that can take more
than one value, and values can be words or numbers.

A variable specifically refers to characteristics or attributes of an individual or an organization that can be measured or observed, and that
varies among the people or organizations being studied (Creswell, 2002).

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6.1. Kinds of Variables

1. INDEPENDENT VARIABLES – Those that probably cause, influence, or affect outcomes. They are invariably called treatment, manipulated,
antecedent, or predictor variables. This is the cause variable or the one responsible for the conditions that act on something else to bring about
changes.

EXAMPLE: A study is on the relationship between study habits and academic performance of UTNHS senior high school students. STUDY
HABITS is the independent variable because it influenced the outcome or the performance of the students.

2. DEPENDENT VARIABLES – those that depend on the independent variables; they are the outcomes or results of the influence of the
independent variable. That is why it is also called the outcome variable.

EXAMPLE: A study is on the relationship between study habits and academic performance of UTNHS senior high school students. ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE is the dependent variable because it is depending on the study habits of the students; if the students change their study habit
the academic performance also changes.

3. INTERVENING OR MEDLING VARIABLES – Variables that “stand between” the independent and dependent variables, and they show the
effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable.

EXAMPLE: Consider the given below. Even if farm production is good, if the attitude towards payment is negative, loan repayment would be low,
whereas, if the attitude towards repayment is positive or favorable, loan repayment would be high.

4. CONTROL VARIABLES – Special types of independent variables that are measured in the study because they potentially influence the
dependent variable. Researchers use statistical procedures (e.g. analysis of covariance) to control these variables. They may be demographic
or personal variables that need to be “controlled” so that the true influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable can be
determined.

5. CONFOUNDING VARIABLES – Variables that are not actually measured or observed in a study. They exist but their influence cannot be
directly detected in a study. Researchers comment on the influence of confounding variables after the study has been completed, because
these variables may have operated to explain the relationship between the independent variables and dependent variable, but they were not or
could not be easily assessed.

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7. DISCUSSION FORUM

Share your thoughts. Click HERE.

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8. QUIZ

Click HERE to answer the quiz.

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9. M1: Assignment no. 1

Click HERE to answer the assignment.

NOTE: DO THIS ASSIGNMENT BEFORE PROCEEDING TO MODULE 2.

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10. Module References

References:

Baraceros, E. (2016). Practical Research 2 E-book. Rex Bookstore, Inc..

Brown, J. D. (2015). Characteristics of sound quantitative research. Shiken, 24.

Sukamolson, S. (2007). Fundamentals of quantitative research. Language Institute Chulalongkorn University, 1, 2-3.

Video References:

1. Fatima Bahir Introduction to Research Methods

2. Stelly Library NKU Research as inquiry

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10/24/23, 11:11 PM Learning Guide No. 2 - Identifying the Inquiry and Stating the Problem

Learning Guide No. 2 - Identifying the Inquiry and Stating the

Problem

Site: New Era University Printed by: Jacon D. Estrella

Course: Practical Research 2 (Quantitative Research) Date: Tuesday, 24 October 2023, 11:11 PM
Learning Guide No. 2 - Identifying the Inquiry and Stating the
Book:
Problem

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Description

"The greatest challenge to any thinker is stating the problem in a way that will allow a solution" (Russell, n.d.). This module lets students identify
specific problems and issues that are important to address.

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Table of contents

1. Introduction

2. Lesson 1: Research Topic Area Identification

2.1. Sources of Research Topics or Problems
2.2. Selecting Research Topic
2.3. Video Supplements
2.4. M2: Writing Activity 1
2.5. Selected Guidelines in the Formulation of a Research Title

3. Lesson 2: Formulating Research Questions and Objectives of the Study

3.1. Video Supplement
3.2. M2: Writing Activity 2

4. Lesson 3: Writing the Scope, Limitation and Significance of the/Contribution of the Study
4.1. Video Supplements

5. DISCUSSION FORUM

6. Quiz no. LG2-1

7. ASSIGNMENT M2-1

8. Module References

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1. Introduction

Research begins with an inquisitive in mind, an idea or concepts that needs to be explored, speculations and skeptisims that needs to be
exposed, and, or by identifying a problem that needs to be addressed. For a beginning researcher, identifying what needs to be researched on is
far more difficult than finding the answers to their queries. Thus, it is important for the research to learn to identify the missing and conflicting
links in the literature review and write down what needs to be studied about them.

Now, let’s help Carlo in solving his problem. Carlo needs to work on a research requirement. How does he find a research problem? He can start
by posing these questions in his mind and writing down some possible answers.

What specific problems and issues around me do I need to address?

Why is it important to address the problem?
Who will benefit if the problem will be solved?
What can be the appropriate solution to the identified problem?
How will my study add up to what is already known about the problem?

The chapter focuses on the formulation and statement of a research problem. It aims to develop the research problem write-up. Lesson 1
deals with topic area identification and justification of the need for the study. Lesson 2 focuses on the formulation of research questions and
objectives, while Lesson 3 explains what is included in the scope and limitation of the research paper, and the significance of the paper.

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2. Lesson 1: Research Topic Area Identification

At the end of the lesson, the students must be able to:

Identify a good topic area for research;

Identify the research focus or problem from the identified topic area;
Design a research paper useful in daily life;
Write a relative title for the research;
Describe the background of the research problem;
Write the definition of terms.

Identify a good topic area for research

Research begins with an inquiry (a question, a problem, or an issue) which leads further to a discovery (an answer, a solution, or a
clarification). In answering at discovery, the person must be guided by the standards in the discipline (theories, concepts, principles, models)
so that the research will be valid, scientifically done, and acceptable in the field.

Finding a topic to research on is quite difficult for students. Although there are no particular rules in identifying a topic for research,
certain suggestions can help. Important sources of topics for research, both in quantitative and qualitative studies are experiences,
deductions from theory, related literature concerning some trends in the field, current issues, practical solutions, personal insights and
replications (Ary, Jacobs, Sorense & Walker, 2014; Mcmillan & Schumacher, 2010).

Here are the following good topic areas for research:

1. Research’s observations, interests, and experiences

Beginning researchers can make use of their own experiences, in whatever environment they may be, as a fertile source of topics for
research. Realistically, you have to select something that you are interested in since you are going to commit yourself to a significant
investment of time and energy. Thus if you are not personally interested, it will be difficult to sustain the effort needed to complete the
research with any measure of quality or validity. Research topics may come from problems arising from daily life situations. For
example, ideas may come out of your own experiences like improving your math computation skills, your reading difficulties, or the
growth of plants that you cultivate in your homes. Specifically, if the researcher is concerned about the students’ academic
performance, then he can work on the possible effects of the students’ general weighted average (GWA).

2. Deductions from theories

The close connection between theory and research cannot be denied. The main purposes of research are for theory testing and
theory generation. There is an interactive relationship between theory and research, in the sense that it is the theory that dictates
what data is to be collected while the research findings provide a challenge to accepted theory. This indicates that research is
considered as a vehicle for theory development and validation. On the other hand, when the purpose of the research is for theory
generation, the intended topic suggests the data to look for. For example, one may want to know if consumption increases as income
increases. So the students will have to gather data that includes their respondents’ income level and expenditures for a certain period
of time. On the other hand, when the purpose is for theory testing, the theory dictates the data to be collected. If you want to verify
the quantity-supply theory, then the researcher will have to gather data pertaining to the price and production of some companies for
a certain period of time.

3. Related Literature

The things that you have read from empirical researches related to your chosen topic can be a good source of research problems.
These researches may be done again or replicated, with some changes either in the subjects of the study, the measure, procedures
and interventions. The process of replicating makes us confirm the findings of either study, extend the validity of the research findings
to a different locus or group of participants using different methods of measurement, determine trends or changes over time, and
develop more effective or efficient interventions (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010).

4. Clarification of contradictory findings

Contradictory or conflicting results across previous researches can be easily identified through the tabular reconnaissance developed
during the review of related literature. These situations can be a very good source of research problems. New studies can be
designed to resolve the discrepancies in order to explain the reason behind these contradictions (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010). For
example, some previous studies found that admission tests possibly predict students’ academic performance, while other studies
found that admission tests do not actually predict students’ academic performance. Because of these conflicting results from previous
studies, the results were not that conclusive. Thus, this can be a good source of a research problem. Further, a study on the results

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of a certain fertilizer on a plant may improve its growth while another study may indicate no effect in research design or situations or
even a negative effect on the plant. These studies may be replicated to see if changes in research design or situations or even
involving other variables in the study will surface some changes in the results.

Identify the research focus

There is a need to clarify or narrow down the identified topic area. A topic area such as “Students can’t read.” is not clear because
many aspects of reading, including discrete reading skills and strategies, may contribute to reading difficulties. Alternatively,
“Students cannot find the main idea in reading passages,” is much clearer and potentially much easier to measure and address,
since one can define the main idea and determine student performance related to this behavior in a number of ways.

So whether in the classroom, at home, the physician’s office, or the mechanic’s shop, defining or diagnosing a problem is key to
designing and implementing effective interventions to address it. Without adequately defining the problem or the focus of the study,
researchers may find themselves going off on a “goose chase” to tackle a vague phenomenon, trying to deal with the symptom rather
than the root causes, and wasting time, becoming frustrated, or even making the actual problem worse.

The use of standardized test scores for entrance examinations of college students can be an example of a research topic. While
this may be a good topic, it is not well defined; it needs to be narrowed by thinking about the kind of information that the researcher
wants to find out. Whether you are interested in the kinds of tests that are used, the average cutoff scores, or the degree to which
scores predict college grade point average, as for example, a topic has to be specific enough to be clearly defined and yield helpful
results from a later literature search.

Your chosen research focus must have your interest sustained and your imagination stimulated yet it must be relevant enough for
it to merit the investigation. Consider knowledge and experience in the identified topic area. Required data can be made available to
the researcher and the entire research agenda manageable in size. Expected results must have the potential to contribute to the
existing literature in terms of theories, practices, and policies.

Clarifying the focus of the problem may be done by identifying the areas (specific problems) affected by it. Given the following
news item, identify the problem focuses that are affected by the trend and the issue relative to the problem focus that needs to be
resolved.

Example #1

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Consider the following news item on how mathematics is being taught.

Teaching mathematics the Singapore way.

Jamaica Observer, Monday, July 20, 2015

KINGSTON, Jamaica – The Ministry of Education says students cannot improve their learning and
understanding of mathematics unless teachers are able to adequately impart mathematical
knowledge to them.

In a press release today, the ministry said that this was the key sentiment echoed throughout a
recent seminar on the Singapore method of teaching mathematics.

More than 150 school leaders and teachers from primary and secondary schools, along with
mathematics specialists and education officers, attended the two-day seminar, which was hosted
by LMH Publishing Limited and Singaporean publisher Marshall Cavendish Education in
collaboration with the Ministry of Education.

The seminar was presented by representatives of the National Institute of Education, the sole
teacher-training institute under the Ministry of Education in Singapore, which is a world leader in
the teaching and learning of mathematics.

Key presenters Bee Huay and Dr. Dennis Kwek covered topics surrounding the teaching and
administration of mathematics. Dr. Kwek presented on what the mathematical landscape was like in
Singapore, the country’s aim for 2020, and the challenges faced in enacting the Primary
Mathematics Curriculum.

Bee Huay See focused on using assessment to make differential instruction and teaching skills
to improve visualization and problem-solving such as designing parallel tasks, simpler shapes, and
designing rich tasks.

The final presenter, Dr. Adrian Mandara – a Jamaican educator and author – implored the
teacher to go out and make a difference by first changing the way they approach mathematics.

Participants committed to returning to their schools and assessing the way they now operate
and plan to discuss ways to make it better.

Lena Buckle-Scott, deputy chief education officer, said the Ministry of Education was extremely
grateful to LMH Publishing Limited and Marshall Cavendish Education for their help in improving
the learning of mathematics, through the staging of this seminar.

(Retrieved from [Link] on

November 2015)

Identified topic and focus of the study from a news item on mathematics teaching

Identified Focus of the Study

Identified Topic or Trend
(affected areas by the trend)
Teaching Strategies
Mathematics achievement level
Singaporean way of teaching mathematics
Math anxiety
Study habits
These were four focus areas identified in the report (see table above). Teaching strategies were identified as one, as See made
mentioned of differentiated instruction and teaching skills, while Mandara implored the teachers to make a difference in their
approaches in teaching mathematics. Mathematics achievement is another focus area since all the discussions were about how the
teaching strategies affected the achievement of students. Lastly, mathematics anxiety and study habits may have anxiety, and study
habits may have an effect on the achievement level of the students.

One issue that can be investigated based on the news item may focus on the direct effect of the Singaporean way of teaching
mathematics to the achievement level of the students. Another issue that researchers can look into is the effect of the Singaporean
way of teaching mathematics in reducing the anxiety level of the students thus improving their academic performance. A third issue

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is the moderating role of the Singaporean way of teaching mathematics in enhancing the effect of students’ study habits on the
anxiety level of the students. Indeed, once the areas affected by the trend are identified, there are a lot of issues that can already be
investigated.

Guidelines in the Selection of Research Topic

Certain guidelines must be considered in selecting a research topic so as to ensure the acceptability and applicability of the chosen
topic. Acceptability refers to how researchers view the topic in relation to the field of study while applicability refers to the
usefulness of the research output to a wider group of people and that it has implications to theory, research and practice.

Similarities and differences in the findings of the previous researches may be compared so as to identify conflicting findings and
unexplored areas in research (de Guzman, 2015).

Research Problem defined

A research problem is an area affected by the identified topic or trend in the field that you would like to address, investigate, or study,
whether historically, descriptively, or experimentally (de Guzman, 2015). It is the focus or reason for engaging in your research. It is
typically a topic, a phenomenon, or a challenge that you are interested in and with which you are least somewhat familiar.

Many people often perceive they understand the problems that surround them while in fact they actually don’t. For example, you
planted an onion sprout in a pot. But after several weeks, it withered. You may think that the reason for this is that it did not get
enough sunlight and fertilizer that would allow it to grow. However, the withering effect may actually be due to overwatering of the
plant that prevented in roots from growing in the soil.

Another example, when students do not hand in homework or participate in class, the teacher might be inclined to think that the
students are not motivated. While there may be motivational issues, motivation may not be the only factor. A high school student may
have an evening job that demands considerable time and energy. A younger student may be trying desperately to camouflage poor
or non-existent skills. In some cases, the chosen instructional strategy may not be well matched to the student’s cognitive or
attention level. Therefore, it is crucial that researchers accurately identify the problem they want to study.

Research problems are the issues, controversies, or concerns that are being studied by researchers (Creswell, 2005). These
problems exist in our surroundings. Some of those concerns that require research are:

The increasing cost of gasoline and electricity

The daily magnitude of collected garbage
The amount of carbon dioxide that diesel engines emit

The above-stated problems are not only the concern of the government but by each one of us since we are all affected by these
situations. Researchers identify the problem as a single statement or by several statements. In order to determine the research
problem, the following questions may be asked:

What was the issue, problem, or controversy that I would like to address concerning the situation or topic of interest?
What do I already know about the topic of interest?
What else do I need to know about the topic of interest?
What studies were already done on the topic of interest?
What were the findings of the previous studies done on the topic?
Were the findings of previous researches similar or diverse?

If there are no studies done yet on the chosen topic, then an innovative study may be done that will be able to answer the queries on
the situation. But if there are already previous studies done on the topic, then there is a need to look into the findings of these
researches. If findings of previous researches prove to be the same, then it is not necessary to do a similar study anymore unless
the study will be done on a different locus or will use a different research method. But if findings prove to be conflicting, then there is
a need to verify which of the findings may be accepted.

Components of the Research problem Write-up

The research problem is included in the introduction section of a research paper. As indicated in the figure below, it consists of three
components, namely: the context, the rationale, and the significance of the research problem.

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The context or background shows how the problem is formulated. It places the research problem in a bigger setting. For example,
the researcher might say “There has been growing interest on the pervasiveness of private tutoring in the country” or “For many
years, researchers have documented the importance of student’s self-efficacy to academic performance” or “The researcher is
interested in investigating the effect of a new approach in learning mathematics”. This could be done on a first or third-person point
of view. Provide excerpts from published articles.

The rationale of the study indicates the major purpose and the specific objectives for the conduct of the study. It shows in a more
specific manner what is being investigated. This could be stated using broad statements like:

The purpose of this study is to investigate effective approaches to diminishing math anxiety among students.
The purpose of this study is to determine the employability rate of high school graduates
The purpose of this study is to identify factors predicting customer satisfaction
The purpose of this study is to provide empirical evidence of the proliferation of private tutoring in the country

The rationale of the study can be more specific, similar to the research questions.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the causal relationship between X and Y variables.
The purpose of this investigation is to relate the achievement level of the students in Math and English.
The study aims to determine if significant differences exist in the growth of a plant when different fertilizers were used.

Definition of Terms

What exactly do the variables in the study mean? If we say that the purpose of the study is to analyze the self-efficacy of the
students, then what exactly are we talking about? Without defining explicitly what the term really means, the readers may not be able
to fully understand the study or determine whether the researcher was able to accomplish what was stated in the problem statement.

Most beginning researchers rely on dictionary definition which may not really be adequate to surface the real meaning of the term
being used. Instead, each term should be defined operationally or as it is used in the study. Its operational definition makes the
term mean what exactly the researcher wants it to mean within the context of his research problem. Readers of the study may not
agree with what a term really means, but if it is explicitly defined operationally, they can easily comprehend what the researcher is
trying to convey and be able to appreciate and evaluate the research appropriately.

A formal definition consists of three parts: (1) the term or concept to be defined, (2) the collective term or general class to which
the concept belongs and the (3) differentia, the specific characteristics or attributes that distinguish the concept defined from all other
concepts in its general classification (Leedy & Ormond, 2013). For example, teamwork (the term to be defined) may be defined as a
shared, positive, fulfilling, work-related psychological state (the collective term to which the concept belongs) characterized by group
vigor, dedication, and absorption, which emerges from the interaction and shared experiences of the work team (the specific
characteristics of the term).

The researcher should avoid circular definitions in which the term being defined is used in the definition itself. For instance, self-
reliance should not be defined as reliance on one’s self. This gives the readers little or no assistance in understanding the term.

Definitions may also come from reputable sources such as books, dictionaries, encyclopedia, newspapers, and magazines,
referred to as lexical definitions. Since online sources are easily accessible nowadays, Wikipedia (wiki, a Hawaiian term which means
quick) is not accepted as a valid definition because of its lack of credibility. Definition from Wikipedia may not come from experts in
the field since anybody can upload their definition on the web.

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2.1. Sources of Research Topics or Problems

Sources of Research Topics or Problems

1. Prevailing theories and philosophy

2. Observations, intuitions or a combination of both

3. Different subjects taken and from them identify a problem that interest a student-researcher most

4. Fields of interest or specialization or event from related studies

5. Existing problems in the classroom/school/campus/university which one may want to solve are good sources of research problems

6. Existing needs of the community

7. Repetition or extension of investigations already conducted or may be an offshoot of studies underway (Angeles, 1996, p 86)

8. Related studies and literatures

9. Advice of authorities or experts from funding agencies

10. Offshoots of friendly conversations

11. Incidental from interesting topics of professors during the course meeting/session.

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2.2. Selecting Research Topic

Selecting Research Topic

1. It should be new or different from what has already been written about.

2. It must be original

3. It should be significant to the field of study or discipline

4. It must necessarily arouse intellectual curiosity

5. It should be of researcher’s interest and researcher must be with the topic

6. It should be a modest one for a beginner to be carried on within a limited period of time.

7. It should be clear, not ambiguous.

8. It should be specific, not general.

9. It should consider the training and personal qualifications of the researcher.

10. It should consider the availability of data involved in the study and the methods and techniques to be employed in gathering them.

11. It should consider the availability of effective instruments for gathering the data and their treatment.

12. It should consider the financial capacity of the researcher to support the project.

13. It should consider the time factor involved in the undertaking

Source: Faltado, R.E., Bombita, M.B., & Boholano H. B. (2017). Practical Research 2 (Quantitative Research for SHS) (pp 14-15). Cubao, Quezon
City: Lorimar Publishing Inc

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2.3. Video Supplements

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2.4. M2: Writing Activity 1

This activity lets you prepare to write a research paper by IDENTIFYING THE AREA OF YOUR RESEARCH TOPIC, ITS FOCUS, and A RELATIVE
TITLE FOR IT.

Note: Do this activity before proceeding to the next lesson.

Click here to start with the activity.

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2.5. Selected Guidelines in the Formulation of a Research Title

Selected Guidelines in the Formulation of a Research Title

1. The Title must contain the ff. elements:

a. the subject matter or research problem;

b. the setting or locale of the study;

c. the respondents or participants involved in the study; and

d. the time or period when the study was conducted.

2. The title must be broad enough to include all aspects of the study but should be brief and concise as possible.

3. The use of terms as “Analysis of “, “A study of”, “An Investigation of” and the like should be avoided.

4. If the title contains more than one line, it should be written in inverted pyramid.

5. When typed or encoded in the title page, all words in the title should be in capital letters.

6. If possible, the title should not be longer that 15 substantive words.

7. Avoid a long, detailed title that gives too much information.

8. To shorten the title, delete the terms assessment or evaluation if these are already emphasized in the text.

Source: Faltado, R.E., Bombita, M.B., & Boholano H. B. (2017). Practical Research 2 (Quantitative Research for SHS) (pp 17-18). Cubao, Quezon
City: Lorimar Publishing Inc.

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3. Lesson 2: Formulating Research Questions and Objectives of the Study

At the end of the lesson, the students must be able to:

formulate research questions for the study;

translate research questions to objectives; and
write a research title.

This lesson discusses the nature of a research problem, where we might get ideas for a problem to investigate, narrowing down or
focusing on a particular problem to address, and writing good research questions. After you have narrowed down your topic or
problem, searching and reviewing existing literature may further clarify your research approach. Moreover, by identifying where the
conclusions of previous research are unclear or where gaps may exist in the literature, you will be better prepared to write good
research questions.

What is a Research Question?

A research question is a way of expressing the researcher’s interest in a problem or phenomenon. There could be more than one
research question for a study, depending on the complexity and breadth of the proposed work. Each question should be clear and
specific, refer to the problem or phenomenon, reflect an intervention in experimental work, and note the target population or
participants. Identifying a research question will provide greater focus on the reseach or clarify the direction of the investigation,
whether the research is descriptive or experimental. Quite significantly, a well-written research question will also shed light on
appropriate research methods (e.g., specify the intended actions of the variable and how an experimental intervention might be
measured).

Characteristics and Examples of Good Research Questions

The following are some problem situations and possible questions that may be asked.

Almost one-fourth of the students in the literature class of Mr. Reyes are foreign students. He is finding it difficult to
make them read and comprehend literary pieces. What research questions can be asked to help Mr. Reyes?

Research Question 1: What strategies will help the students improve their comprehension of the literary pieces?

Research Question 2: Does the use of metacognitive strategies help improve the reading skills and comprehension of foreign
students?

Which among the above-stated questions is a good research question?

Research question 1 is somewhat clear, but the target group is not explicitly mentioned. Additionally, there is no specific reference
to an intervention, which is an important component if this is for experimental research. On the other hand, if this is intended for
descriptive research, the research question may suffice if the thrust of the paper is simply to identify the teaching strategies that may
be useful for the students.

Research question 2 is clear and quite specific. It took into consideration the target participants and indicates the variables to be
studied.

Mr. de Guzman is the principal of XYZ school. He would like to address the low performance of the students in the
achievement test. How can we help him? What research questions can be asked?

Research Question 1: Will computer literacy improve the test scores of the students?

Research Question 2: Will the use of cooperative learning improves the academic performance of slow students?

Which among the above-stated questions is a good research question?

Although the intervention was mentioned and the way to measure the performance was implied in research question 1, the
problem and target population are unclear.

Research question 2 gives a more vivid picture of the problem, target population, variables which are the important elements of good
research.

The following examples of a good question from experimental research:

1. Will the use of the Self-Regulated Strategy Development model for written expression improve the composition skills of students
with learning disabilities?

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2. Would students in classrooms of teachers receiving professional development in early numeracy skills show better academic
performance in mathematics when compared to those in control classrooms?

3. Would a combined repeated reading and question generation intervention improve the reading achievement of students with
learning disabilities?

The following are examples of good questions from descriptive research:

1. What are the benefits and attitudes of basic education mathematics teachers regarding teaching students with learning disabilities?

2. How are the alternate assessments and achievement standards implemented for student-at-risk?

3. What are the achievement goals of students with ADHD?

Writing the Research Title

Writing the research title may seem to be a simple task yet it is the most important determinant of readership. Readers come across
research paper titles in searches through internet databases and reference sections of the library. They deduce what a paper is
about and its relevance to them based on the title. A good research title must be able to summarize what the paper is all about into
12 or less substantive words. A lengthy title may seem unclear to the readers as they may not be able to capture the relevant ideas
being conveyed by the researcher. At the same time, it should be able to differentiate the research from previous researches in the
field.

Building Blocks of a Research Title

A research title should contain the following: the variables used in the study, the research design, the argument being investigated,
and the locus of the study (de Guzman, 2015).

The variables used in the study are an essential part of the research title since it conveys to the readers what the research is all
about. In the case wherein one cannot put all the variables in the title in consideration of the number of words, then the researcher
may use a collective term to encompass the variables in the study.

The research design may be explicitly written in the title especially if it is a sophisticated design that is not commonly used like
conjoint analysis or path analysis. However, if the research design is common, it may just be implied in the title.

The argument being advanced in the study should be well understood by the readers through the title. Likewise, the locus reveals
who the respondents are and where they come from. Either of the two may be included in the title. These will provide information to
the readers the idea of the relevance of the study in their field.

Consider the following research titles:

1. Testing the efficacy of collaborative learning strategy in teaching geometry

[Link] impact of leadership style on job satisfaction and work performance of employees in the restaurant service industry

3. Teacher self-efficacy and teacher burnout: A study of relations

4. Managing bullying more strategically in the classroom: An analysis of environmental causes

Title 1 explicitly deals with only one variable, that of the efficacy of collaborative learning strategy but its efficacy can only be
determined if there will be two groups of students, one undergoing the traditional way of teaching geometry and the other group using
collaborative learning, also known as the control group and experimental group respectively. Thus, the study makes use of two
variables, namely: the test variable, efficacy, and the grouping variable, the teaching strategy used. The locus implies the students in
a geometry class. The argument shows the comparison of two teaching strategies while the design used is descriptive-comparative.

Title 2 speaks of impact or effect as an argument in the study. There are three variables involved, namely: leadership style, job
satisfaction, and work performance. The loci of the study are the employees in the restaurant service industry while the design is
descriptive-causal since it deals with the effect of leadership style on the satisfaction and work performance of the employees.

Title 3 has to establish a relationship as its argument dealing with two variables self-efficacy and burnout, with the teachers as the
locus of the study and descriptive-correlational as the design.

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Title 4 deals with a causal relationship as the argument of the study. Since there are so many factors causing bullying, thus they are
just simply stated as a collective term, environmental causes. The loci are students in the classroom and the design is descriptive-
causal.

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3.1. Video Supplement

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3.2. M2: Writing Activity 2

This activity lets you prepare to write a research paper by

formulating research questions for the study;

translating research questions to objectives; and
writing a research title.

Note: Do this activity before proceeding to the next lesson.

Click here to begin with the activity.

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4. Lesson 3: Writing the Scope, Limitation and Significance of

the/Contribution of the Study

At the end of the lesson, the students must be able to:

construct scope and limitation of the study; and

cite benefits and beneficiaries of the study.

This lesson deals with setting boundaries for a research paper so as to cover only what is essential and feasible for the
investigations. It also seeks to surface the contributions of the study and the groups of people and/or institutions who will benefit from
the research.

The statement of the problem describes exactly what the researcher intends to do. But it is also of equal importance to indicate
what the researcher will not be able to cover. What the researcher intends to do and does not intend or may not be able to do is
stated in the scope and limitations of the study. The limits of the study should be carefully bounded as a parcel of land for real estate
transfer so that to set appropriate expectations and applications for the output of the study.

Research problems usually come from larger contexts and wider problem areas. The researcher can be easily fascinated and
drawn to consider all issues raised on the problem. Although it could be the best thing to do, it may not be feasible considering the
time and financial constraints for the conduct of the study.

For example, if a researcher intends to investigate the impact of study habits on students’ academic performance, then the
researcher will only be concerned with two variables: study habits and academic performance. Other variables that may also be
included in the investigation are the demographic profile of the respondents such as age, gender, year level among others. In the
same manner, in a study on the use of cooperative learning which purports to improve the academic performance of slow learners,
the variables involved are cooperative learning strategy and academic performance only. Other learning strategies are not part of the
study. Also, the study is limited to the performance of slow learners as the population of the study.

What the researcher should be careful in his study is to become involved in any data extraneous to his objectives, no matter how
enticing or interesting other foci may be. Only a researcher who carefully thinks about his problem and his objectives in doing such a
study can distinguish between what is relevant and what is not relevant for the study. All the things relevant in order to provide
solutions to the issues raised in the research problem should be stated in the scope of the study and those that are not relevant to the
problem must be carefully stated as its limitations.

Limitations are matters and occurrences relative to the conduct of research which is beyond the researcher’s control. They set
certain boundaries to which a study can be done, which sometimes affect the results and conclusions that can be drawn. Every
research, no matter how well it is planned and conducted, has limitations. This means that future researchers can still be done to
validate further the results of any study. The current research may have access only to a certain population and pertinent data.
These are what we refer to as limitations. Subsequent researches may be able to look beyond these limitations.

There could be instances when instead of stating the limitations of the study, limitations are used. Delimitations of a study are
those characteristics that arise from limitations in the scope of the study and by the exclusion and inclusion decisions made during
the planning phase of the investigation. Unlike limitations, which come from the constraints met in the conduct of the research,
delimitations result from specific choices by the researcher. Among these are the choice of objectives, variables of interest adopted
theoretical perspectives, method, theoretical framework, and respondents. The first delimitation occurs in the choice of the problem,
implying that there were other related problems that could have been chosen but were not selected due to some reasons. To explain
the delimitations of your study, you have to take consideration of each decision you made in planning your research. In the purpose
statement, state what the study intends to accomplish. In the delimitations section, state what the study does not intend to cover and
the reason for such a decision. Reasons for the exclusion may be due to irrelevance, feasibility, or problems that will probably arise
from its inclusion.

In brief, the scope and limitation of the study should include the following: a description of the topic to be studied, the locus of the
study or where data will be gathered, the population where the respondents belong, and the time frame when data will be collected.

Significance/Contribution of the Study

The significance of the study provides a backdrop as to how the study will make a contribution to current knowledge and/or practice.
This also indicates the group of people and/or institutions to which findings of the study will prove to be relevant. For basic and
applied researches, it is imperative for the study to be clearly related to the existing body of knowledge such as theories, concepts,
principles, or models. In regard to its contribution to practice, the problem needs to be concerned with what actually occurs in the
identified topic areas. Whether based on contributions to knowledge and/or practice, the significance is essentially the justification for

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the study – why is it relevant and to whom is it relevant? Is it relevant to the community, school, administrator, students, athletes,
researchers, business people, medical persons, teachers, government, and the like? The group to be affected by the study and how
it is going to be affected should be clearly spelled out.

Sample write-up

The study purports to determine the difficulties and challenges of public school teachers in the National Capital Region (NCR) in
terms of content, communication and conduct management in teaching mathematics to grade 7 students during the AY 2013-2014
and the factors contributory to these difficulties and challenges during the implementation of the K to 12 curriculums. The result of
this study will help the government, curriculum planners, and administrators in formulating programs and actions that will help
teachers to overcome their difficulties and face the different challenges brought about by the change in curriculum. Additionally, the
developed instruments will assist school administrators and future researchers in identifying areas that need to be given attention to
faculty development and direction for future studies.

Write-up Elements

Topic to be studied: Teachers’ difficulties and challenges in the content, communication and conduct management of grade 7
mathematics during the implementation of the K to 12 curriculum

Locus of the study: Public schools in NCR

Population: Grade 7 mathematics teachers

Time frame: AY 2013-2014

Contribution to whom: Government, curriculum planners, and school administrators, future researchers

For what: Formulate programs and actions that will help teachers to overcome their difficulties and face challenges brought about by
the change in curriculum.

Identify areas that need to be given attention to faculty development and direction for future studies.

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4.1. Video Supplements

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5. DISCUSSION FORUM

Click HERE to participate in the discussion forum.

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6. Quiz no. LG2-1

Click here to answer the quiz

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7. ASSIGNMENT M2-1

Click here to answer the assignment

Note: Convert your Word document to PDF format before submitting.

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8. Module References

Contents...

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Learning Guide No. 3 - Learning from Others and Reviewing the

Literature

Site: New Era University Printed by: Jacon D. Estrella

Course: Practical Research 2 (Quantitative Research) Date: Tuesday, 24 October 2023, 11:11 PM
Learning Guide No. 3 - Learning from Others and Reviewing the
Book:
Literature

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Description

"Literature is the safe and traditional vehicle through which we learn about the world and pass on values from one generation to the next. Books save lives"
(Anderson, n.d.). This module aims to explain the meaning of the literature review as well as its characteristics, purpose, function, and its proper citation.

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Table of contents

1. Lesson 1: Selecting Relevant Literature

2. Lesson 2: Citing Related Literature

3. Lesson 3: Synthesizing Related Literature

4. Lesson 4: Making a Coherent Review of Literature

5. Lesson 5: Ethical Standards in Writing the Related Literature

6. Lesson 6: The Conceptual Framework

6.1. Conceptual Framework Models

7. Lesson 7: Writing the Theoretical Framework

8. Lesson 8: Definition of Terms

9. Lesson 9: Research Hypothesis

10. SAMPLE REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

11. DISCUSSION FORUM

12. QUIZ

13. ASSIGNMENT

14. Module References

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1. Lesson 1: Selecting Relevant Literature

Before we proceed with our task for this chapter, we need to know the following important concepts about the Review of Related Literature:

Definition of Review of Related Literature

Reviewing related literature (or RRL) is one major activity in research that makes you examine or study concepts or ideas related to your research that
people manage to publish in books, journals, or other reading materials in the past (Baraceros, 2016).

A literature review is a compilation, classification, and evaluation of what other researchers have written on a particular topic (Serrano, 2016). It is a
systematic, explicit, and reproducible method for identifying, evaluating, and synthesizing the existing body of completed and recorded work produced by
researchers, scholars, and practitioners (Fink, 2005).

Purpose of Literature Review

You may be wondering why we need to review the related literature of our research.

The purpose of a literature review is to provide an overview of what is known about the topic and to assess the strength of the evidence on that topic.

According to Baraceros (2016), the following are the purposes why we do RRL:

1. To find out the connection of your research to the current conditions or situation of the world;

2. To know more about theories or concepts underlying your research and to learn from them with respect to your own research study;

3. To discover the relation of your research with previous research studies;

4. To obtain information on the accuracy or relevance of your research questions; and

5. To familiarize yourself with technical terms related to your research

Steps in Conducting a Systemic Review (Baraceros, 2016)

1. Clarify the research questions

2. Plan the research based on your understanding of the research questions

3. Search the literature

4. List criteria for considering the values of written works

5. Evaluate the quality of previous research studies

6. Summarize the various forms of knowledge collected

Reference:

Baraceros, E. L. (2016). Learning from Others and Reviewing the Literature Practical Research 2. Manila: Rex Book Store Inc.

Another flow of the procedure was illustrated through a diagram indicating the steps in conducting a literature review. Be sure to understand each step.

Leslie S. UB LibGuides at University of The Bahamas (updated 2020, May 11) Conducting a Literature Review. Retrieved from
[Link]

1. Choose the topic – As a researcher, you must be able to identify your research question or research topic that your literature aims to address.

2. Identify databases and resources – There is a vast array of resources available online and printed materials that you can choose from

3. Search and refine – You must be able to select which materials are relevant to your research topic/question. Narrow down and focus on the materials
that are related to your topic.

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4. Read and analyze – You will have to ask yourself if you have critically analyzed the literature you have gathered. You will then have to analyze the
strengths and weaknesses of the items that are indicated as you relate them to your research topic.

5. Write the review – Organize the literature review according to themes, trends, and important concepts. It is not just merely listing down all the literature
that you have gathered. This is the stage where you synthesize and evaluate them according to the direction of your research topic.

There are two types of reviewing literature – the traditional (usually used in qualitative research) and systematic type (quantitative research). The table
below shows the process and the procedure in doing a review of literature.

Carnegie Mellon University Libraries (updated Sept 23,2019) What is a Systemic Revi

Retrieved from [Link]

Here is an example of a part of a simple literature review:

Auckland University of Technology. Literature Review Assignments. Retrieved

from [Link]

If you want to view a critique of an actual literature review, watch this video from YouTube:

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2. Lesson 2: Citing Related Literature

CITING RELATED LITERATURE

In RRL, you cannot avoid borrowing information, ideas, concepts, and details from other resources that are originally created by other people. As
part of research ethics, it is a sign of courtesy and integrity to cite the original source of whatever idea or concept that you wish to include in your research.
It is a way of acknowledging the contributor of an important part of your research.

In-Text Citation and Referencing Styles

Other people’s ideas/concepts that you include in the main body of your research should be cited. This citation is what you call as In-Text Citation.

Example of an APA In-Text Citation

Baraceros (2016) stated that as a sign of respect to the owners of these various knowledge, and as being grateful for their contribution, it is but right to cite
them in the main body of your research.

On the other hand, it is in the Bibliography or References where you indicate the sources of the ideas/concepts that you borrowed, usually located at
the end of your research paper.

Example of an APA Reference or Bibliography

Baraceros, E. L. (2016). Learning from Others and Reviewing the Literature Practical Research 2. Manila: Rex Book Store Inc.

Take note that the in-text citation is necessary under the following condition:

When the researcher

1) paraphrases statements of another source;

2) summarizes the ideas of another source;

3) quotes the exact statements of another source;

4) makes reference to ideas of another source

There are several referencing styles like the Chicago/Turabian Referencing Guide that are used. But for our course, we will just focus on the two most
commonly used referencing styles:

1) American Psychological Association (APA) – Over time, they have developed a generally accepted style of writing papers and citing sources used
throughout the scientific and social scientific worlds. This is usually used in the social sciences, especially in sociology, psychology, anthropology and
even in education and business and other similar fields.

This is what we are going to use for our research since this is the most commonly used style in the Philippines.

2) Modern Language Association (MLA) - is used in most academic settings, usually in the humanities, particularly in literature, liberal arts, and language

The difference in using both styles is summarized in the following table:

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To know more about the difference in using the two styles, please refer to this link:

Calltutors. (2019, November 5) A Comprehensive Guide On The Comparison Between MLA Vs APA Format. Retrieved
from [Link]

Below is the link which you can view as another reference.

Lone Star College- CYFair Library Homework Help Global. (2018, December 17). MLA vs APA: Works Cited and References. Retrieved from

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You may click the link to know more about how to cite social media sources you can click:

[Link]. (posted in Chicago Citation website (2012, December 18). Social Media Citation Guide

Retrieved from [Link]

For more examples of APA citation of web page example for Twitter, Facebook, and blog posts, you may refer to:

Easybib. Updated 2020, July 28). Web Citation Examples. Retrieved from [Link]
website-apa/

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3. Lesson 3: Synthesizing Related Literature

This is the description from the Harvard Graduate School of Education Gutman Library

on how to synthesize related literature

Synthesize

Definition:

To synthesize is to combine two or more elements to form a new whole. In the literature review, the “elements” are the
findings of the literature you gather and read; the “new whole” is the conclusion you draw from those findings.

Purpose:

Synthesize to draw conclusions about the findings in the literature so that you can identify how the literature
addresses your research question.

Process:

Gather literature that addresses your research question

Review literature and take notes: describe, summarize, analyze, and identify key concepts
Synthesize literature: compare & contrast, critically evaluate, interpret so that you can draw a conclusion

Remember: the literature review is an iterative process!

Harvard Graduate School of Education Gutman Library. (2020, Aug 27). The Literature Review: A Research Journey. Retrieved from

[Link]

You may read this link to learn the steps in synthesizing a paper:

Henning, T.B. ( 2011,February). Literature Review: Synthesizing Multiple Sources. University Writing Center Indiana University. Retrieved from
[Link]

If you want to see a sample of a successful and unsuccessful synthesis of related literature, please click this link:

Taylor, C., What is “synthesis”??? Faculty of Nursing, University of Manitoba. Retrieved

from [Link]

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4. Lesson 4: Making a Coherent Review of Literature

It is important that your literature review has a logical and coherent structure. So the following structural approaches (Serrano, 2016) are important to
consider in organizing your review of the available literature:

1. Chronological Organization

The discussion of the researches can be organized orderly according to historical or developmental context.

2. The “Classic” studies organization

A discussion or outline of the major writings regarded as significant in your area of study. Remember that in nearly all research there are
“benchmark” studies or articles that should be acknowledged.

3. Topical or Thematic Organization

The discussion can be organized in categories or conceptual subjects for your topics.

4. Inverted Pyramid Organization

The literature review may begin with a discussion of more specific localized studies that focus increasingly on the specific questions at hand.

Conjunctions are used to organize discourse with the logical relations mentioned in the table below. Conjunctions can help fragment the texts, give logical
connection, and coherence.

BASIC OPTIONS FOR CONJUNCTIONS

LOGICAL RELATION MEANING EXAMPLES

addition addition; alteration and, in addition, besides, moreover or, if, otherwise, alternatively

comparison similarity; contrast like, as if, similarly, but, however, whereas, on the other hand

time successive; simultaneous then, after, subsequently, next, while, meanwhile, at the same time

consequence cause; means; purpose; condition so, because, since, as, therefore, by, thus, by this means, so as to, in
order to, for, lest, if, provided that, given, unless

Reference:
Serrano, A.O.C. (2016). Learning from Others and Reviewing the Literature Practical Research 2 on Quantitative Research. Manila: Unlimited Books Library
Services & Publishing Inc.

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5. Lesson 5: Ethical Standards in Writing the Related Literature

Ethics is defined as norms that delineate the boundary between acceptable and unacceptable behavior. It is also defined as an approach, process, or
perspective for choosing how to act on certain issues or situations, and for probing complicated problems and issues. It provides a meaningful guide in
deciding who or what to prioritize.

Please take note of the following ethical standards stated by Serrano (2016) in doing research:

1. Honesty – Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data. Do not deceive colleagues, research
sponsors, or the public.

2. Objectivity - Strive to avoid bias in any part of your research where objectivity is required. Disclose personal or financial interests that may affect
research.

3. Integrity - Keep your promises and agreements, act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought and action

4. Carefulness – Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work and the work of your peers

5. Openness – Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas

6. Respect for intellectual property – Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of from the original source. Give proper acknowledgment or credit for all
contributions to research. Never plagiarize.

7. Confidentiality – Protect confidential communication, such as papers for publication, or personnel records

8. Responsible publication – Publish to advance research and not to advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.

9. Responsible Mentoring – Help to educate, mentor, and advise students

10. Respect for colleagues - Respect and treat your colleagues fairly

11. Social Responsibility – Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms

through research, public education, and advocacy

12. Non-discrimination – Avoid discrimination among colleagues or students on the basis of

sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors not related to scientific competence and integrity

13. Competence – Improve your own personal competence and expertise through life-long

education and learning

14. Legality – Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies

15. Animal care – Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research.

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16. Human subjects protection – Minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits among human subjects. Respect the privacy of your human subjects
from physical, emotional, economic, legal, or professional injury. The safekeeping of data for a prescriptive period (usually 5 years) averts the disclosure of
the personal or professional information of the participants.

Reference:

Serrano, A.O.C. (2016). Learning from Others and Reviewing the Literature Practical Research 2 on Quantitative Research. Manila: Unlimited Books Library
Services & Publishing Inc.

Here is a video on these ethical standards:

Alcazar, K.P. (2017, Dec 1). CHAPTER 4.5 - Ethical Standards in Writing Related Literature. Retrieved from

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6. Lesson 6: The Conceptual Framework

What is a Conceptual Framework?

A conceptual framework is a structure that the researcher believes can best explain the natural progression of the phenomenon to be studied (Camp, 2001/
ResearchGate).

It is linked with the concepts, empirical research, and important theories used in promoting and systemizing the knowledge espoused by the researcher
(Peshkin, 1993/ResearchGate).

A conceptual framework is used to illustrate what you expect to find through your research, including how the variables you are considering might relate to
each other.

(Bas Swaen, 2020) [Link]

Below is Swaen’s example of a conceptual framework:

Swaen, B. ( 2015, Dec 7) Conceptual framework. Retrieved from [Link]

According to Serrano (2016), a conceptual framework is an analytical tool with several variations and contexts. It is used to make conceptual
distinctions and organize ideas. It provides an outline of how you plan to conduct the research for your study. As you can see in the framework above, you
can 1) identify the research variables and 2) clarify relationships among the variables.

Linked to the problem statement, the conceptual framework sets the stage for the presentation of the specific research question that drives the
investigation being reported. It is important to note that your conceptual framework is that it is primarily a conception or model of what is out there that you
plan to study, and of what is going on with these things and why a tentative theory of the phenomena that you are investigating.

Purpose of Conceptual Framework

Conceptual Framework shows the organization, order, and direction of your research study. It is an essential initial activity of your research because,
by means of a schematic diagram, it enables the readers to obtain a general understanding of the research. It also serves the purpose of clarifying
concepts/variables and their relationships with one another in a research study. (Baraceros,2016)

References:

Baraceros, E. L. (2016). Learning from Others and Reviewing the Literature Practical Research 2. Manila: Rex Book Store Inc.

Serrano, A.O.C. (2016). Learning from Others and Reviewing the Literature Practical Research 2 on Quantitative Research. Manila: Unlimited Books Library
Services & Publishing Inc.

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To explain more about Conceptual Framework, you may view this Youtube video by the University of Amsterdam. Just click this link:

Onderzoeksmethoden UvA (2017, July 7) University of Amsterdam. Retrieved from

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6.1. Conceptual Framework Models

The result of a clear understanding of the conceptual framework is a diagrammatic presentation of the research study called the paradigm. (Cristobal,
2017)

I am giving you samples of common paradigms used in conceptual frameworks of research.

Below is the most commonly used conceptual paradigm/model which is the IPO Model. The other models or paradigms can be viewed through the link
below.

The Input-Process-Output Model

The Input-Process-Output Model (IPO) is a conceptual paradigm that shows the inputs, required processing of tasks, and the output. The model will
transform the input into an output. This approach is rooted in its definition of evaluation as the process of delimiting, obtaining, and providing useful
information for judging decision alternatives. The IPO Model is also referred to as a functional model that is commonly used in action research where
intervention or solution is necessary to solve the identified problem.

The Input is usually the independent variable of the study. Meanwhile, the Process is consists of the instruments and analysis used to acquire the result.
Lastly, the Output is the intervention or solution to solve the identified problem.

For example:

[Link]

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7. Lesson 7: Writing the Theoretical Framework

According to Ruth Hubbard, "Every theory is a self-fulfilling prophecy that orders experience into the framework it provides". There is a need to show the
basis of the decisions- including the selection of the problem- on how to provide solutions to the problem through the literature review. A researcher needs
to lay out what needs to be proven in the research through the conceptual framework and how the researcher can go about it through the theoretical
framework. The frameworks serve as guides in the conduct of the study.

The THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK serves as a basis as to how the study will be investigated. It refers to the theory, principle, or model that the researcher
chooses to guide him in the conduct of the study. Therefore, it involves the application of the theory, principle, or model, to offer an explanation of an event,
or shed some light on a particular phenomenon or research problem. This could refer to, for example, Newton's laws of motion, gas laws, that could be
applied to a given research problem.

Importance of a Theory

A theoretical framework consists of concepts- with their definitions and reference to the relevant scholarly literature and existing theory that is used for a
particular study.

The theoretical framework must demonstrate an understanding of theories and concepts that are relevant to the topic of your research paper and relate to
the broader areas of knowledges being considered.

The theoretical framework strengthens the study in the following ways:

An explicit statement of theoretical assumptions permits the reader to evaluate the research critically.
The theoretical framework connects the researcher to existing knowledge. Guided by a relevant theory, a researcher is given a basis for the
hypotheses and choice of research methods.
Articulating the theoretical assumptions of a research study forces a researcher to address questions of why and how. It helps you in the intellectual
transition from a simple description of a phenomenon the researcher has observed to a generalization about various aspects of that phenomenon.
Having a theory helps a researcher identify the limits to those generalizations. A theoretical framework specifies which key variables influence a
phenomenon of interest and highlights the need to examine how those key variables might differ and under what circumstances.

(Adopted from Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: Theoretical Framework.)

A good theory is of value precisely because it fulfills one primary purpose: to explain the meaning, nature, and challenges associated with a phenomenon,
often experienced but unexplained in the world in which we live, so that we may use that knowledge and understanding to act in more informed effective
ways.

DEVELOPING THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

A theory is selected on the basis of how best it can explain the relationships among the variables. There should be a connection between the theoretical
framework, conceptual framework, research method, and survey instrument.

Here are some steps that will guide you in your choice of theory to be used as a framework for your inquiry:

1. EXAMINE THE RESEARCH TOPIC, TITLE, STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS. In one statement, what is the concern of the
investigation?

Example: Minority students in urban high schools are not doing well in achievement tests in mathematics.

2. LIST DOWN THE KEYWORDS THAT SHOW THE FOCUS OF YOUR RESEARCH.

Example: Math anxiety, achievement tests, minority students, high school students

3. READ AND REVIEW RELATED LITERATURE ON THE TOPIC USING A KEYWORD SEARCH TO LOCATE RESEARCH ARTICLES RELATED TO THE TOPIC.

4. IDENTIFY PROMINENT AUTHORS WHO HAVE ADVANCED THE SAME AREA OF INQUIRY.

5. LIST DOWN VARIABLES RELEVANT IN THE STUDY AND LABEL THEM AS DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT VARIABLES.

Example:

Independent variables- math anxiety, self-efficacy, socio-economic status, ethnicity, race, teaching strategies, learning styles

Dependent variables- Math achievement test scores

6. SELECT A THEORY IN YOUR FIELD OR IN OTHER FIELDS THAT CAN HELP EXPLAIN HOW THE IDENTIFIED VARIABLES BEHAVE AND SERVE AS BASIS
FOR THE CONDUCT OF THE RESEARCH.

Example: critical race theory, constructivism, social cognitive theory.

[Link] THE ASSUMPTIONS OR PROPOSITIONS OF EACH THEORY TAKING INTO CONSIDERATION ITS RELEVANCE IN THE RESEARCH INVESTIGATION.

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ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

1. DESCRIPTION OF THE THEORY. State the chosen theory, who is/are the proponent(s) behind it and the year it was developed. Describe what the theory is
all about including its historical background and the assumptions or propositions it was able to prove.

2. RELEVANCE OF THE THEORY TO THE INVESTIGATION. The chosen theory/ies will be of no use if it could not be related to the current investigation. This
portion of the theoretical framework discusses the relevance of the theory to the current study. It provides the basis as to how the situation will be
investigated.

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8. Lesson 8: Definition of Terms

It is best to define keywords used in a research paper so that everyone could have a shared understanding of the whole research.

In research, the following are the two ways of defining terms:

1. Conceptual Definition – scientifically defining a specific concept or variable or construct, so it can be systematically measured. This is usually the
dictionary definition of terms.

According to Kirkpatrick (2017), a conceptual definition “describes a thing in terms of its abstract characteristics and relationships to other conceptual
entities. For instance, “a sales administrator ensures that management has up-to-date information that accurately reflects the performance of the sales
department by processing sales orders in a timely fashion.” In this case, the concepts are “management”, “performance”, “timely fashion”, and so on.

2. Operational Definition – defines a concept solely in terms of the operations (or methods) used to produce and measure it. It is defining the terms of how
they are used in the research itself.

An operational definition “describes a thing in terms of the actual physical actions it takes, almost like a recipe. For instance, “a sales administrator reviews
each sales order when it is submitted to ensure it is complete and then assigns it to the proper sales account based on the product or service sold according
to the current product account listing. The sales administrator reviews and processes each order by the end of the day it was submitted.” (Kirkpatrick, 2017).

To have a clearer understanding of Definition of Terms in research, please view these presentations by just clicking the links:

[Link]

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9. Lesson 9: Research Hypothesis

What is a hypothesis?

A hypothesis is an educated prediction that can be tested. It describes in concrete terms what you expect will happen in a certain circumstance.

It is used in an experiment to define the relationship between/among two or more variables, especially in quantitative research.

As a review, (as you have already studied this is Chapter 1), the variables that we are talking about here are the independent variable/s and the
dependent variable/s. The independent variable (IV) is the factor in quantitative research that can be changed, tested, and measured. This is usually the
cause of any changes in the outcome. The outcome is the dependent variable (DV) of the research.

Examples of a simple hypothesis are:

Students who sleep early will perform better on a mathematics exam than students who sleep late
Students who experience test anxiety prior to a Math exam will get higher scores than students who do not experience test anxiety

Qualities of a Research Hypothesis

1. Well defined – A Research hypothesis should be well-defined so that it will be clear and easy to understand. The variables should be explained clearly
and simply so as not to imply double meanings.

2. Relevant - The hypothesis should be relevant to the problem being studied as well as the objectives of the study.

3. Measurable – The hypothesis should be testable and measurable.

4. Verifiable – in hypothesizing, the variables must be verifiable. The factors or variables should be in a situation that permits one to assess if it is true or
false.

5. Specific – All the operations and predictions indicated in the hypothesis must be specific if

they measure differences, relationships, or effects.

Types of hypothesis

We will focus on the two conventional types of hypothesis:

1. Null Hypothesis or (Ho) – states that there is no relationship between or among the variables being studied. One variable does not affect the other. It
states that results are due to chance and are not significant in terms of supporting the variable being investigated.

Example: There is no significant relationship between the number of hours of sleep of

students and their academic performance.

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2. Alternative Hypothesis or (Ha) – states that there is a relationship between or among the variables being studied. One or more variables may have an
effect on the other one or more variables. It states that results are not due to chance and are significant in terms of supporting the theory being
investigated.

Example: Taking a development program has an effect on the employees’ work

performance.

To learn more about the research hypothesis, please click the following links:

Nalzaro, L (Jun 9, 2012) Chapter 4-Research Hypothesis and Defining Variables Retrieved from [Link]
hypothesis-and-defining-variables

Patidar,J. V. (May 7, 2013) Research Hypothesis. Retrieved from [Link]

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10. SAMPLE REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Click this sample Review of Related Literature for your reference. When you click the link, the file will automatically be downloaded in your device.

Lucanas, R. A Tracer Study on the Employment Status of BUCAL AB Journalism Graduates 2010-2012 downloaded in [Link]

Retrieved from

[Link]
OR

[Link]

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11. DISCUSSION FORUM

Click HERE

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12. QUIZ

Are you ready to take the quiz?

Click here to take the quiz.

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13. ASSIGNMENT

Click HERE

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14. Module References

BOOK REFERENCES

Baraceros, E. L. (2016). Learning from Others and Reviewing the Literature Practical Research 2. Manila: Rex Book Store Inc.

Cristobal, A.P Jr. and Cristobal MC. Dc. (2017). Review of Literature Practical Research 2 for Senior High School. Quezon City: C & E Publishing Inc.

Serrano, A.O.C. (2016). Learning from Others and Reviewing the Literature Practical Research 2 on Quantitative Research. Manila: Unlimited Books Library
Services & Publishing Inc.

Uy, C. [Link]. (2016). Practical Research 2. Vibal Group, Inc: 1253 Gregorio Araneta Avenue, Quezon City.

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10/24/23, 11:13 PM Learning Guide No. 4 - Understanding and Ways to Collect Data

Learning Guide No. 4 - Understanding and Ways to Collect Data

Site: New Era University Printed by: Jacon D. Estrella

Course: Practical Research 2 (Quantitative Research) Date: Tuesday, 24 October 2023, 11:13 PM
Book: Learning Guide No. 4 - Understanding and Ways to Collect Data

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Description

"You can use all the quantitative data you can get, but you still have to distrust it and use your own intelligence and judgment" (Toffler, n.d.). This module
aims to explore the various ways to design research studies depending on its ontology (ideology), epistemology (reasons and grounds for knowledge), and
logical reasoning (sequence and relevance of inquiry).

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Table of contents

1. Introduction

2. Lesson 1 - Guidelines in Writing Research Methodology

3. Lesson 2 - Quantitative Research Designs

4. Lesson 3 - Description of the Respondents

5. Lesson 4 - Types of Sampling

6. Lesson 5 - Data Collection and Analysis Procedures

7. Lesson 6 - Statistical Treatment

8. Lesson 7 - Hypothesis and Statistical Test

9. Lesson 8 - The Application of Art/ Design Fundamentals for Execution

10. Assessment 4

11. References for this module

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1. Introduction

This Module aims to explore the various ways to design a research studies depending on its ontology (ideology), epistemology (reasons and grounds for
knowledge) and logical reasoning (sequence and relevance of inquiry). A detailed discussion of the characteristics, approaches, strengths, and limitation,
internal validity and external validity of the data gathering procedures are intact to create the appropriate research design and methods. It is important that
the 21st century students are equip with research knowledge, attitude and skills to approach issues and concerns in their chosen fields in a scientific and
systematic way of thinking. Senior High School students are expected to design, develop and create a design for their research proposal.

At the end of the Module, you will be able to:

1. Identify and differentiate characteristics of the different quantitative studies

2. Describe the various approaches to conduct a quantitative research such as survey research, correlational, causal comparative, quasi-experimental,
and experimental.
3. Discuss the strength and limitations of various approaches to conducting quantitative research designs.
4. Determine the possible threats to both internal validity and external validity of the design in conducting quantitative research
5. Distinguish sampling procedure and the sample size
6. Construct an instrument and establish its validity and reliability
7. Demonstrate data collection procedure
8. Evaluate data using statistics and hypothesis testing (if appropriate)
9. Create a design based on the principles to produce creative artwork.
10. Presentation of a well well-planned research methodology

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2. Lesson 1 - Guidelines in Writing Research Methodology

This lesson attempts to summarize approach to develop a comprehensive, logical, self-contained research design for the purpose of guiding research in
duplicating the study and make clear, concise, coherent, relevant, and doable research procedure.

1. Identify and determine the purpose of the study. The purpose has a specific research design models that fit to convey appropriate results.
2. Establish the needed variables aligned to the theory, principles used in the study, either to argue, confirm it is right or wrong and, or, to explore
possible advance discovery.
3. Articulate the purpose and theory to the statement of the problem.
4. Set specific parameter or indicators to measure variables enabling it to answer your research questions right.
5. Identify specific inclusion criteria to qualify the characteristics and attributes of the target population.
6. Distinguish good sampling techniques based on the purpose, methods and feasibility for the target population to have reliable and valid number of
respondents.
7. Select appropriate methods to undertake the process of administration of the research instrument and collection of data to secure valid result.

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In writing a research paper, specific design must be structured to obtain reliable and valid result. it is like designing a dress to wear for specific purpose. The
CONCEPT is the ocassion and the DESIGN for the dress is how you want

The Research design is like a blueprint of a model house that must have a specifc methods, process, location, character, and sample size.

From the many research designs available, select one that fits your topic, purpose, objectives, and theory (framework).

The research design must have specific "methods" to guide others in understanding the way you conducted the study, enabling other researchers to
duplicate the study either to test validity , confirm, argue and, or obtained the same result in a different context.

Methods must be procedural in nature to explicitly describe and justify the reliability and validity of the result. It is step-by-step and answers all the "WH"
Questions.

Be guided by the following questions:

1. Does the problem statement precedes the research design?

2. Does the hypothesis fits the design model to obtain specific results?
3. Does theoretical framework and conceptual framework have connection to the research design
4. Does research design include the variables of the study and it intended measurement?
5. Does research design articulate the steps needed to describe its methodology?
6. Does the research design fit the sample size it requires to obtain consistent, valid and reliable result?

Yes should be the answer to all these questions, if not there is a problem. Failure to select appropriate design for a study could lead to errors in the entire
research paper, worse makes the study invalid.

To further understand research, follow this link for better understanding:

[Link]

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3. Lesson 2 - Quantitative Research Designs

Lesson 2 - Quantitative Research Designs

This lesson aims to guide student researcher to carefully plan and decide in identifying and determining the types of research design to use as pre-
requisite in development of research tools, collection of data and interpret data.

Watch this video:

Types of Research Based on Purpose in Education

1. Descriptive Research - determine, describe or identify what is. It is “aimed at explaining current issues or problems through a process of data
collection that enables them to describe the situation.
2. Exploratory Research – as the name implies “exploratory” generally provides an information and insight to researchers as they prepare for larger
research efforts such as surveys and experiments. The study does not offer final and conclusive solutions to existing problem but rather uncovers
possible avenues for reaching decision makers’ objectives. This help to form basis of many research topics that can be conclusive and specific. The
research assists the researchers in finding possible causes to the symptoms
3. Empirical Research is based on observed and measured phenomena and derives knowledge from actual experience rather than from theory or belief.
It uses data derived from actual observation or experimentation. Reports of empirical studies are articles summarizing original research. Empirical
research articles are examples of primary research.
4. Developmental Research – refers to a research focus on the assessment and evaluation of existing model and technique used to further
enhancement or improvement. Studies that focus on the evaluation on the use of instructional materials, tests, curricular programs and activities, etc.
It can also be used in the administration which includes: policies, design, management, utilization, and evaluation. etc. The primary purpose of this
research is to examine the focus, techniques, and tools of the system.
5. Cohort Study – is characterized as a longitudinal study analyzing development over time. The research question to be addressed focuses whether
there is an increase or decrease on a certain outcome variable Y is associated with an increase or decrease in one or more predictor variables (X).
This phenomenon is known as tracking or trending behavior patterns.

Types of Research Based on Methods

1. Correlational Research – refers to the determination of the degree of relationship between two or more variables. The variables are examined to
determine whether they are related and direction of the magnitude of the relationship is measured to infer. Researchers can make predictions based
on the relationship through a quantitative statistical analysis.

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To illustrate:

The independent variable (Computer gaming) is causing changes to the dependent variable (Student Performance), and or vice versa.

2. Causal-Comparative Research – is a research approach that seeks to explain differences between groups by examining differences in the experiences of
group of respondents. This examines the effect of an independent variable (past experience) to a dependent variable. The results suggest a possible causal
relationship but cause-and-effect relationship is avoided. For example:

The independent variables and its relationship to the dependent variables are measured and compared from the different groups of respondents (Grade
levels) to establish variability.

3. Survey Research – refers to a describe behavior pattern and gather people’s perception, opinions, attitudes, and beliefs about a current issue in
education. Descriptions are summarized by reporting the number or percentage of persons reporting each response. It requires thoughtful and careful
planning, contrary to what others believed that it is easy, simple questions and answers.

4. Action research – refers to a type of research that address specific question in the existing practice of teaching in the classroom. It offers opportunity for
continued reflection. In all professional fields, the goal of action research is to improve processes. Action research is also beneficial in areas of teaching
practice that need to be explored or settings in which continued improvement is the focus. It is very popular in the field of education because there is always
room for improvement when it comes to teaching and educating others.

4. Experimental Research- refers to a study of different treatment group administration of respondents. The experimental research must be a derivative or
spinoff of a statement that requires evidence.

For example, a theory that needs to be proven will be translated into an experiment to probe validity.

Theory of Gaming as Behavioral Addiction in Social learning:

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4. Lesson 3 - Description of the Respondents

Considerations in Choosing the Respondents

1. Population of the Study – is the number of people in a given group, it is popularly written as capital N in statistics. Example is the population of Senior
High School Student in the school with 6,000 as total number of students enrolled in Grade 11 only. That is a population. It can also include the total
number of Grade 11 students enrolled in other schools in a given area like the national Capital region or other regions.
2. Sampling – is a strategy used to select a representative respondent from a population. Example is the population of Senior High School Student in the
school of New Era University with 6000 enrolled student. Studying the 6,000 SHS students will be impossible to complete. So a researcher will only
get a representative sample size from the population, 142 SHS students in particular.
3. Sample Size – refers to how many respondents will be selected in a population. The sample size must be carefully selected from a population.
4. Characteristics of the Respondents. The characteristics of those sampling must have parameters or measures why they were selected. The following
questions must be answered to characterize the respondents:
5. Who are your respondents? These refer to the profile of the respondents such as: age, gender, educational attainment, employment, position, salary,
etc.
6. What other attributes the respondents have in common? This refers to the other factors considered related to the topic being explored.

For Example: a research study need to investigate the cause of computer addiction among Grade 11 or Grade 12 students. After considering the profile, the
have to understand the nature of the topic to identify and determine the specific characteristics or parameter common across respondents. If computer
addiction (topic) is defined as students who has a significant impairment in personal, family, social, educational, occupational or other important areas of
functioning that have been evident for at least 12 months. Then, a respondent may be qualified to be part of the inclusion in the study as respondent.
Characteristics are indicators or parameters to explain why a respondent must be included in a sample size.

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5. Lesson 4 - Types of Sampling

1 Probability Sampling

Random Sampling – this is a commonly used sampling technique because of its nature and ease. Every individual observation has equal probability
to be selected into a sample. There is no specific pattern when drawing a sample.

Systematic Random Sampling – refers to a statistical procedure that is concerned with the selection of the individual respondents that will be
included in the study. It uses a list of population assumed to have been randomly listed and set an interval to select the respondents. In the
example provided earlier, the population was 6000 and the sample size was n = 142, divide the number 6000 by 142 = .02 or 2. This means that from
the identified population the research will give a questionnaire to every 2 passing SHS students as interval to select respondents. This will give the
population an equal chance to be selected.

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Stratified Random Sampling – refers to a proportion from strata of the population is selected using simple random sampling.

For example, a teacher is handling 6 sections of Grade 11 student with a Total student population = 320 at XYZ Elementary School, where:

Grade 11 = 6 sections:

Grade 11 Section A = 58/320 = 18% x 58 = 11 students

Grade 11 Section B = 62/320 = 19% x 62 = 12 students

Grade 11 Section C = 48/320 = 15% x 48 = 8 students

Grade 11 Section D = 41/320 = 13% x 41 = 6 students

Grade 11 Section E = 56/320 = 18% x 56 = 10 students

Grade 11 Section F = 63/320 = 20% x 63 = 13 students

N = 320; n 60

N = Population = 320

n = Sample Size = 60 The desired sample size is 60.

Cluster Sampling – refers to sampling that is randomly selected from either very large population or one that is geographically diverse. The objective
is to reduce costs by increasing sampling efficiency.

2. Non-probability – refers to the respondents of the population have unknown chance of being chosen because of the unknown number of the population
that risk nonrepresentative sample of the population.

Availability Sampling or convenience sampling – refers to respondents that are selected because of their accessibility to the researcher. Critics
claimed that this techniques have bias because the representative might not be a re representative sample of the population.
Purposive Sampling- refers to a specific population in terms of its research goals. Respondents are selected based on the researcher’s
judgment that the person can provide access to the desired information.
Quota Sampling – is a version of stratified random sampling. Representative is believed to have the characteristic in proportion to their frequency in
the population.
Snowball Sampling – refers to a sampling from a known network, it identifies a respondents with specific characteristics that is difficult to locate and
request to have referrals of the same attributes of their population.

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6. Lesson 5 - Data Collection and Analysis Procedures

This lesson discusses how data can be collected to obtain desired result of a study. There are many data collection and measurement process, the most
popular and commonly used are:

1. Survey- is a way of collecting information by asking people questions which constitute the data to be analysed. It measures public opinion and
perceptions about certain things which provide numerous facts about the behaviours and trends to produce patterns to explore or investigate.

2 Interview – is a straightforward process to solicit information from interviewees, who, in turn respond to the interviewers questions about specific
topics. This method of data collection is often being used in quantitative research to clarify issues to support the data collected from the survey. Questions
are carefully planned and based on the principles, philosophy and theories of utilized by the researcher. Contrary to what is believed that it is spontaneous
and unstructured.

3 Observation - is a systematic data collection approach. Researchers use all of their senses to examine people in natural settings or naturally occurring
situations. Observation of a field setting involves: prolonged engagement in a setting or social situation.

There are three types of Observation:

a) Controlled Observation – refers to a structured observation that takes place in a laboratory doing experiment. The researcher has a question in mind and
controls many of the variables, including participants, observation location, time of the study, circumstances surrounding the research, and more. During
this type of study, the researcher will often create codes that represent different types of behaviors. That way, instead of writing a detailed report, they can
classify behavior into different categories and analyze the data with more ease.

Example:

The theory of classical condition is a very good model of Pavlov which predicted the dogs would salivate in response to the food placed in front of them,
but he noticed that his dogs would begin to salivate whenever they heard the footsteps of his assistant who was bringing them the food. (Read:
[Link]

b) Naturalistic Observation – refers to a research observation is when a researchers study the behaviours of participants in a natural surroundings. There
are typically no predetermined behavioural codes. Instead, the researcher will take rigorous notes and code the data later. An example of this type is the
demand supply study. In the study, situation is observed in both high or low demand and high or low supply of consumer goods situations. How the people
behave as response to the situations will be recorded and reported.

c) Participant Observation - is a type of naturalistic observation when researchers will observe participants in their natural habitat. The researcher will be
part of the scenario and observed the natural setting as participant in the environment of the study. For example, you wanted to know how student respond
to computer gaming, the researcher will involve himself to computer gaming to feel the environment and see what is felt, why it felt and how it felt the way
students feel towards the situation.

4. Trending Analysis is comparing available data from a reliable source. For example: passing rate of students among Senior High School, licensure
examination, entrance examination, sales revenues, population, employment, etc.

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5. Forecasting Analysis is a research that predicts the likelihood of future outcome of a research topic. For example; analysing the trend in the licensure
examination gives a specific trend that can predict the possible result that is not happening yet but likely to happen because of the trend.

Instrument Development

Guide in Developing an Instrument

1. Variables to be assessed must be clear to the researcher.

2. Review existing instrument that measure the same variables
3. Decide on the format for each variables
4. Make sure that what is written is logically arrange
5. Align the statement to the variables of the study, how it will answer research questions, and how it will be measured.
6. Let the experts validate the content (Content validity)
7. Select identified respondents to answer the instrument to validate the consistency of the dispersion (statistical validity) to at least 30 people only.
Respondents who were included in the pilot test must not be part of the number of respondents in the study.

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7. Lesson 6 - Statistical Treatment

This Lesson aims to equip you with you with knowledge, skills and attitude towards a decision making based on scientific method. Scientific decision
making rely on scientific decision-making involves the use of: data mining to source relevant data to inform decisions. Application of software logic and
predictive models to analyze scenarios. This Lesson will guide you how to do it using application software called the Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (SPSS). The SPSS is utilized by market researchers, health researchers, survey companies, government, education researchers, marketing
organizations, data miners, and more.

In particular, there are Certificate Programs that offer training and workshops that are very costly, ranging from Php 8,000 -Php 20,000. So please value the
opportunity to have this lesson included in your course. This can be useful as you move forward your education in college and graduate studies in the near
future.

Meanwhile, let us proceed to what you need to know. All questions need an answer. All responses must be validated to check and establish its reliability,
consistency, and relationships tto each words used to establish valid grounds for decision making. remember, good and honest researchers do not accept
falsified data, disseminate wrong information and biased knowledge. Good researchers. do not use personal opinions that can be limited and might gear
towards possible biased in the analysis, interpretation and generalization of the findings or results of the study.

Statement of the Problem and Statistical Treatment

Please be guided by the following:

Research paper must have specific purpose and objectives to address.

Each objective must be converted to a statement of the problem.
Every statement need specific data to inform decision - the inclusion criteria for the respondents, the population, and sample size.
This data must be validated, therefore, must undergo a process of reliability and consistency.
The process of reliability and consistency should establish relationship.
The relationship must be determined by cross examination.
Cross tabulation confirms the type of data.
The type of data determines specific statistical tools to be used to answer speciifc questions.
Specific questions answered allow generalizability of the conclusions.
Generalizability of the conclusion leads to specific recommendations for the study.

Checklist to be observed:
1. The statement of the problem must be aligned with the items in the questionnaire;
2. Responses on the instrument must have corresponding numbers For example if you measure
satisfaction, correct Likert scale must be used: Very Satisfied = 5, Satisfied = 4, Moderately Satisfied = 3, Slightly Satisfied = 2 and Not
Satisfied = 1.
3. These responses must be encoded in excel or SPSS software.
4. Download an SPSS software application to continue in this lesson (any version can be useful).
5. Responses have specific statistical treatment

5.1 When the question requires Frequency and percentage this is how we use the SPSS:

To ease facilitation and calculations, you may download an SPSS software (FREE version - any version) to compute for the answer.

The SPSS is a leading statistical software designed to solve business and research problems through ad hoc analysis, hypothesis testing, analysis and
predictive analytics.

It is delivers tables and visualizations to communicate results effectively for your research papers.

For Example:

Profile of the Respondents

1. Frequency
2. Percentage

After the data has been coded in the SPSS, you are now ready to process.
CLICK Analyze
CLICLK Descriptive Statistics
CLICK Frequency

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You will be prompted with a dialougue box as illustrated below:

CLICK the desired variables, for example: AGE, EDUCATION and EMPLOYMENT.
CLICK the arrow to transfer the data to be processed.

Notice that the items (variables) clicked are now transferred in the variables bin
Now the variables are ready for processing.

click "OK"

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The SPSS provide you with the Frequency Table.

The result is now ready to be transferred in a table prescribed.

Levels of Measurement

All research questions need to measure "something" about a topic. Your chosen topic is not in isolation.

What do we need to measure? It depends on the problem you need to explore. Measures are the items in a research study to which the respondents answer
in a survey or interview. Research measures include survey questions, interview questions, or existing situations. When constructing survey questionnaire, it
is important that the questions directly related to the research questions.

For example:

Statement of the Problem 1 (SOP 1) : How is COVID 19 Adjustment Measures Program implemented in the community?

To answer this research question, there are things you need to consider:

What is COVID 19 Adjustment Measures Program? To know, you have to READ the COVID 19 Adjustment Measures Program.

Answer: It is about 1) protection of labor, 2) promotion of labor, and, 3) employment opportunity

If your statement of the problem (SOP 1) asked, "how it is implementated, then you need to know from your respondents the answer to "HOW"

The question "HOW" need to have an answer that requires either a "process" or a "procedure"
With a "how" question, you need to explain how things work in the reply, or give a comment with words like"excellent","good", "highly implemented"
or "not implemented?"
We need to prepare statements in the questionaire that are answerable by these responses.

So let us proceed to our example:

Instructions: Based on your observation and experience, please rate how the local government in the commuity (barangay) implement the
following: protection of labor, 2) promotion of labor, and, 3) employment opportunity using the following the responses below:

4 = Highly Implemented 3 = Moderately Implemented 2 = Slightly Implemented 1 = Not Implemented

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To illustrate:

Please observe that the statement of the problem (SOP 1), the variable and the items are closely associated.
The responses are indicated too in the survey questionnaire. Notice that responses describe here answer the SOP 1 as the respondents
answer each items in the survey questionnaire.

The response measurement is called Likert Scale.

Likert Scale

A Likert scale is a measure which contains choices that has a range from 1-4, 1-5, 1-7 or 1-10 so the researcher can get a holistic view of people's opinions
and, or their level of agreement. There are various responses available which solely depends on what the researcher needs to know.

You can follow this link to explore other responses:

McLeod, S. A. (2019, August 03). Likert scale. Simply Psychology OR

[Link]

A Likert scale assumes that the strength/intensity of an attitude is linear, for example, on a continuum from strongly agree to strongly disagree, and makes
the assumption that attitudes can be measured.

The numerical value which would be used to measure the information under investigation.

The numerical value will provide you the Mean or the Median. You can only decide whether to use the Mean or the Median, if you have established the kind
of data you have. How would you know the type of data? You can only decide on what to use if you were able to check the

validity of the responses.

To simplify:

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Mean - is the average of a data set found by adding all numbers in the data set and then dividing by the number of values in the set.

Median is the middle value when a data set is ordered from least to greatest and is often skewed.

Further, to measure the Likert scale in SPSS, you need to follow the illustration below to get the mean, or the median.

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8. Lesson 7 - Hypothesis and Statistical Test

A research hypothesis is a question contemplated that question if, 'is Variable 1 affects Variable 2? Is it significant? is there a differemce between Variable
1 and Variable 2> is it significant?

These questions require a statistical analysis, not frequency, not percentage or not even a mean, median and , or mode. It requires an analytical toola to
probe cause and effect or ,a difference that is significant between variables measured among respondents'.

Characteristics of hypothesis:

1. Specify expected relationships among independent variables, dependents variables and control variables.
2. Present a statement in a form that is testable.
3. Exclude biases of the researcher.

Hypothesis as part of your research question must be treated by a statistical test that assist in the development of decision making.
Hypothesis Testing is a method for testing a claim about a parameter (example: satisfaction, student learning, flood risk, etc), using data measured in a
sample. In this method, we test some hypothesis by determining the likelihood that a sample statistic could have been selected, if the hypothesis regarding
the population parameter were true or not.

There are 2 types of hypothesis: null or H0 (a negative statement) and alternative hypothesis or Ha (vice versa). It can be written as follows:

The null hypothesis is subjected to a test to probe or explore further whether the value stated is likely to be true. When the result says "yes there is a
relationship," then we rejects the null hypothesis. However, if the result has proven that there is no relationship between variables, then we accept the null
hypothesis

The hypothesis assumes that data is equally distributed.

Correlational Studies

Correlation is an analysis that measures the strength of association between two variables and the direction of the relationship.

Remember:
the strength of relationship, the value of the correlation coefficient varies between shows +1 and -1. (example:.
a value of ± 1 indicates a perfect degree of association between the two variables.
as the correlation coefficient value goes towards 0, the relationship between the two variables will be weaker.
The direction of the relationship is indicated by the sign of the coefficient; a + sign indicates a positive relationship and a – sign indicates a negative
relationship.

Four types of correlations:

1. Pearson Correlation- is the most widely used correlation statistic to measure the degree of the relationship
rxy = Pearson r correlation coefficient between x and y
n = number of observations
xi = value of x (for ith observation)
yi = value of y (for ith observation)

Example 1: Is there a statistically significant relationship between age, as measured in years, and height, measured in inches?
Example 2: Is there a relationship between temperature, measured in degrees Fahrenheit, and ice cream sales, measured by income.

Example 3 : Is there a relationship between job satisfaction, as measured by the XYZ company, and income, measured in peso.

2. Kendall rank correlation - is a non-parametric test that measures the strength of dependence between two variables. If we consider two samples, a and
b, where each sample size is n, we know that the total number of pairings with a b is n (n-1)/2.
3. Spearman correlation is the nonparametric version of the Pearson Correlation. Spearman correlation measures the strength and direction of this
monotonic relationship , while Pearson Correlation looks for the "linear" relationship. In Spearman correlation, the data shows the value of variable 1
increases, so does the value of the variable 2; or as the value of one variable increases, the other variable value decreases.
4. Point-Biserial correlation - is conducted with the Pearson correlation formula except that one of the variables is dichotomous.

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To establish a relationship, cause and effect, influence, association, and the likes is a correlations studies using an independent variable and dependent
variable. Decision to establish relation or the Coefficient Determination.

The SPSS process is illustrated:

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Linear Regression

Another correlation that measures linear correlation other than Pearson Correlation is Linear Regression. If your data is parametric and you want to know
how much is the degree of relationship between variables, then we use used this statistical treatment. below is how you can analyse your data using SPSS
to measure the degree of relationship. relationship might be establish by Pearson correlation, that there is a relationship between variables, however, do not
measure how significant is the relationship and how much is the degree of the relationship or effect. This shows in the percentage of increase or decrease
of 1 unit of the independent variable to the dependent variable.

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Comparative Studies

A. T-test

it is a tool used as a hypothesis testing, which allows to compare the means of two groups. It is also a type of inferential statistic used to determine if
there is a significant difference between two groups, which may be related in certain features measured by a researcher.
A t-test can only be used when comparing the means of two groups (a.k.a. pairwise comparison).
The t-test assumes your data:

1. are independent
2. are (approximately) normally distributed.
3. have a similar amount of variance (difference) within each group being compared.
If your data do not fit these assumptions, you can try an alternative to the t-test, such as the Wilcoxon Signed-Rank test for data with unequal
variances. (non-parametric).

You can perform the t-test based on the data at hand:

One sample t-test

To understand, consider this example – if you want to determine the average eating time for a regular burger differs from 10 minutes which is the set
standard time. How do you think you can go about determining this?

You can follow the steps below:

Select a group of people

Record the individual eating time of a standard size burger
Calculate the average eating time for the group
Finally, compare that average value with the set value of 10

That, in a nutshell, is how we can perform a one-sample t-test. Here’s the formula to calculate this:

where,

t = t-statistic
m = mean of the group
µ = theoretical value or population mean
s = standard deviation of the group
n = group size or sample size

One-sample, two-sample, or paired t-test?

If the groups come from a single population (e.g. measuring before and after an experimental treatment), perform a paired t-test.
If the groups come from two different populations (e.g. two different species, or people from two separate cities), perform a two-sample t-
test (a.k.a. independent t-test).

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If there is one group being compared against a standard value (e.g. comparing the acidity of a liquid to a neutral pH of 7), perform a one-sample t-
test.

One-tailed or two-tailed t-test?

If you only care whether the two populations are different from one another, perform a two-tailed t-test.
If you want to know whether one population mean is greater than or less than the other, perform a one-tailed t-test.

Independent samples t-test is used to compare average scores of a measured variable between two distinct groups. For example, an independent samples
t-test could be used to test whether there is a statistically significant difference in the average reading speed between a group of 4th graders and a group of
5th graders.

Paired sample t-test is used to compare the average scores on a measured variable between one group pre and post to their exposure to an experimental
treatment or intervention. For example, a paired sample t-test could be used to assess whether there is a statistically significant difference in people’s
average levels of anxiety before and after they participate in a meditation intervention.

It is important to understand the following terms:

1. Data is an explanation of what is being compared.

2. t-value: -33.719. Note that it’s negative; this is fine! In most cases, we only care about the absolute value of the difference, or the distance from 0. It
doesn’t matter which direction.
3. Degrees of freedom is related to your sample size, and shows how many ‘free’ data points are available in your test for making comparisons. The
greater the degrees of freedom, the better your statistical test will work.
4. p-value describes the probability = .05 is a standard p-value used.
5. Confidence interval is the range of numbers within which the true difference in means will be 95% of the time. This can be changed from 95% if you
want a larger or smaller interval, but 95% is very commonly used.

Illustration when SPSS is used to analyse the data:

Go to Data View
Click Analyse
Compare Means
Choose between One sample t-test, independent t-test, paired sample (depending on the data)

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If you choose One sample T-test, you select a variables to compare among your respondents. then, click OKAY.

See illustration below:

The answer can be viewed as shown:

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Significance level = .000 means the data is statistical significant.

B. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

The t-test is a method that determines whether two populations are statistically different from each other, whereas ANOVA determines whether three or
more groups of respondentsare statistically different from each other. The same steps shown above can be followed, except that mean age of the
respondents must be grouped for different places perhaps or geographical locations.

There are several ways to test hypothesis.

The statistical test mentioned in this lesson are the most common and popular in research for your level.
You can explore more of these kinds as you pursue higher education.

Sources:

[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

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9. Lesson 8 - The Application of Art/ Design Fundamentals for Execution

Research studies gives a nuanced understanding of the societies behaviour patterns, culture, and systems for whom they design while providing knowledge
that addresses some of the most fundamental questions face throughout the process. Research design also help designers of arts in multimedia, print and
digital posters , etc., generate some good and feasible ideas.

Some guide questions to get by in formulating and planning research design to execute arts and designs:

1. What is the correct illustration to design a research?

2. What characteristics should it have, and is it communicating as intended?
3. What variables needs to be included in the design to raise questions and motivate participation among targeted respondents?

Guide to Apply Art/ Design Fundamentals for Execution

According to John Freach (2011), applying art/design fundamentals are as follows:

1. Learning about people's behaviour – refers not only human behaviour, but systems behaviour: social, technical, environmental, political, and economic
systems. Increasingly, Long gone are isolated problems in these areas, through research studies brought light and opportunities to improve ill-defined
problems that are related to the workings of entire systems. Understanding behaviour gives designers at least two important kinds of insight.

it provides a sense of action in the world, which can lead to empathy, justice, quality, productivity, etc issues and concerns. For example, how does a
student go about finding his or her way to succeed in all her efforts and abilities, what is that way-finding experience like?
provides some clues about practices and patterns. For instance, many students at certain university or school memorize student number in order to
enroll , and those numbers can be tied to schedules, room number, and curricular and co-curricular plans.

Looking at the illustration convey that variables considered as independent variables can be influential to establish behaviour patterns of the customers
between different generation. that can be useful in designing research, art/design for multimedia or print media purposes. The example research design can
also have implications marketing strategies, policies and product designs to appropriate segment of the society.

2. Understanding and analysing culture - What is culture and why does it matter to research design? Culture is a kind of a complicated concept that is
always changing because of so many factors because of the changing demographics caused by migration, social media, etc. The elements of the culture
are so deeply familiar and obvious, but often people don't recognize them as contributing to "culture" at all.

Culture is another important system when it comes to understanding design because it deals with the relationships build between people, things, routines,
our view of the world, and our beliefs. Anthropologist Clifford Geertz defined culture as consisting of "Webs of significance that man himself has spun...and
the analysis of it [should] be not an experimental science in search of law, but an interpretive one in search of meaning." Asking simple questions about
obvious things can lead to unexpected answers and rich insights

3. Defining context/setting – refers to the interrelated variables that behaviour occurs in and that culture in organization/society shapes and emerges from.
Identifying aspect/areas/topics where it intersects --is an important part of defining context or setting of the design. By being a participant-observer, or
seeing it all in pictures or video "from the field," a designer can gain a first-hand understanding of the real context for his or her work instead of designing
from a distance.

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4. Setting focus - Ill-defined problems is a common condition in design, and this often lead to poor design. In doing research demands being comfortable
with ambiguity in the early stages of a project in order to attain eventual clarity. This usually occurs through a process of synthesis--cutting the raw data
down to size to find patterns and themes. It is this clarity that can enable a designer to focus on the right part of the problem at the right time in the right
way. This is where the review of literature comes to its value. The more readings and synthesis a research have at hand, the better design occur.

5. Design set boundaries for the topic of research. It has to be specific. Questions to reflect in designing research, art/design in to explore:

1. a) What should the topic focus on?

b) What are the characteristics of the problem to be explored?

c) What are the boundaries of the problem to be explored?

d) What are the methods needed to obtain to get specific answers/art/design to the problem being explored?

e) What parameters or indicators should be employed to set its boundaries?

These considerations can be explored in designing research, art and designs. A designer can reflect on these insights and use them to influence
certain nuances in their designs. For example, using the metadata associated with a certain topics could add meaning to a simple and common
interaction.

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10. Assessment 4

Instructions

1. To access the quiz, please CLICK the link below:

[Link]

2. Check the time limit as stated.

3. Before you take the test make sure that you are READY. Consider your internet speed, the place is conducive for your convenience. No interruption is
acceptable.

4. Please be reminded to check the time as displayed at the right upper corner of your screen.

5. When the time runs out, the test is submitted automatically.

Good luck!

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11. References for this module

Creswell, J.W & Creswell J.D (2018). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approach, SAGE Publication.

Dattalo, Patrick, (2008) Determining Sample Size: Balancing Power, Precision, and Practicality, Oxford University Press,

Freach, John (2012). The Art of Design Research (and Why It Matters). Retrieved at [Link]
design-research-and-why-it-matters/239561/ on june 23, 2020.

Gubrium, Holstein, Marvasti,& McKinney (2012).The SAGE Handbook of Interview Research: The Complexity of the Craft, Edition 2, SAGE Publications

Dorn, Madeja, & Sabol (2013). Assessing Expressive Learning: A Practical Guide for Teacher-Directed Authentic Assessment in K-12 Visual Arts Education,
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc. Publishers

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