Design and Construction of Stone Masonry Retaining Walls – A Quick Guide

Foreword
The Department of Engineering Services is pleased to bring out the
“Design and Construction of Gravity Stone Masonry Retaining
Walls: A Quick Guide” for the benefit of all engineers and builders.

Though stone masonry retaining walls are simple structures and

commonly built in every nook and corner of the country for various
earth retaining purposes, yet many problems are encountered in the
field as a result of either improper design or poor quality
constructions. These problems arise mainly due to the fact that
engineers in the field are bogged down with numerous
responsibilities and often do not find time to carry out proper design.
Also during execution, negligence of some important aspects such as
drainage and use of inferior materials add to the issues.

This Quick Guide is aimed at providing guidance to designers so that

site specific design calculations can be done. Further standard
designs are also provided which can be followed for normal soil
conditions. For all important projects, site spe
specific
cific designs sho
should
uld be
carried out and the standard designs shall o only
nly be used as a
reference.
I hope this guideline would be of some benefit to all our engineers.

Tenzin

Director

Department
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Design and Construction of Stone Masonry Retaining Walls – A Quick Guide

Table of Contents
1. Introduction
Introduction ..................
.....................................
.....................................
.....................................
................................
............. 1

2. Scope ..................
.....................................
.....................................
.....................................
.....................................
.........................
....... 2

3. Typical Failure Modes Of Retaining Walls .................

....................................
................... 2

4. Bearing Capaci
Capacity
ty Of Soil .............
...............................
.....................................
...................................
................ 3

5. Design Criteria.................
....................................
.....................................
.....................................
.............................
.......... 5

6. Preliminary
Preliminary Design Of Cement Masonry Walls .............................
............................. 6

7. Standard Designs ...........

.............................
....................................
.....................................
................................
............. 8

8. Other Consider
Considerations
ations ...................
......................................
.....................................
..................................
................ 9

8.1 DEPTH OF FOUNDATION .....................................

.......................................................
............................
.......... 9
8.2 DRAINAGE ..................
.....................................
.....................................
.....................................
................................
............. 9
8.3 DIP OF FOUNDATION BASE .................
....................................
.....................................
.......................
..... 11
8.4 LENGTH OF WALL................
...................................
.....................................
.....................................
..................... 11
8.5 STEPPING OF WALL BASE ................
...................................
.....................................
..........................
........ 11
8.6 THROUGH-STONES / BONDING ELEMENT ....................................
...................................... 12

8.7 CEMENT MORTAR ................

...................................
.....................................
.....................................
..................... 13
8.8 CURING ................
...................................
.....................................
.....................................
....................................
................. 13
8.9 AESTHETICS ..................
.....................................
.....................................
.....................................
...........................
........ 14

9. Sample Calculatio
Calculations
ns ...........................
..............................................
......................................
..........................
....... 16

10. References ..................

.....................................
.....................................
.....................................
.................................
.............. 22

11. Technicall Commit

Technica Committee
tee Composit
Composition
ion..................
.....................................
..............................
........... 23

Department
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Design and Construction of Stone Masonry Retaining Walls – A Quick Guide

1. Introduction

Stone masonry retaining walls are gravity type retaining walls

commonly used to retain earth or fill materials and basically retains
earth pressures by virtue of its self-weight.

Gravity type stone masonry retaining walls are basic and simple
structures which are commonly built with locally available stones. It
can be built to varying shapes and sizes, provided proper design
procedure is followed. However, beyond 6m height, stone masonry
walls becomes un-economical
un-economical as it requires large base widths.
Most often retaining walls are designed for static loads and not for
seismic forces as it is easier to repair failed walls. In this guideline,
standard designs have been provided for static loads only. It is
expected to provide quick guidance to engineers in the field both in
terms of design and construction. However, it should be noted that
engineers should verify design based on actual site conditions and
the standard designs provided in this guide should be used only as a
reference. Further, other considerations such as drainage, foundation

requirements, through stones etc. improves the functioning of the

wall and appropriate provisions shall be specified in the design.

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Design and Construction of Stone Masonry Retaining Walls – A Quick Guide

2. Scope

This guideline provides the fundamentals of design of stone masonry

retaining walls. The main purpose is to provide standard designs of
stone masonry retaining wall that can be easily followed by

engineers in the field. It should be noted that the standard d

engineers designs
esigns
are provided only for heights up to 6m as it becomes uneconomical
beyond this
this height.
However, these standard designs should be adopted with caution
depending on actual site conditions. For all important projects,
engineers are required to carry out site specific design calculations.

3. Typical Failure Modes of Retaining Walls

Retaining walls normally fail due to any of the following failure

modes.
i. Overturning – when the overturning moments exceed the
resisting moment offered by the components of the wall, it
fails due to overturning.
ii. Sliding – when the frictional resistance offered by the wall
components is less than the lateral earth pressure, wall will be
moved from its original position and it fails due to sliding.
iii. Bearing pressure- when the base pressure exerted, exceeds
the safe bearing capacity of the soil, the wall fails due to
bearing pressure.
pressure.

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Design and Construction of Stone Masonry Retaining Walls – A Quick Guide

Figure 1: Typical Retaining Wall Section

4. Bearing Capacity of Soil

The type of soil and its bearing capacity plays a vital role in the
stability of the retaining walls. It is recommended that proper soil
tests be carried out before designing of any retaining wall. However
in the absence of soil data for design, the safe bearing capacity may
be assumed as p
per
er ttable
able 1 of IS 14458 (part 2): 1997 which is given
below:

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Design and Construction of Stone Masonry Retaining Walls – A Quick Guide

Table 1: Safe Bearing Capacity of Different Types of Soil

Type of Bearing Material Symbol Consistency of Recommended

place value of SBC
(ton/m2)
Well graded mixture of fine GW-GC, Very Compact 100
and coarse grained soil, GC, SC
glacial till, hard pan,
boulder clay
clay
Gravel, gravel-sand GW, GP Very compact 80
mixtures, boulder gravel SW, SP Medium to compact 60
mixtures Loose 40
Coarse to medium sand, SW, SP Very compact 40
sand with little gravel Medium to compact 30
Loose 30
Fine to medium sand, silty SW, SM, Very compact 30
or clayey medium to coarse SC Medium to compact 25
sand Loose 15
Homogeneous inorganic CL, CH Very stiff to hard 40

clay, sandy or silty clay Medium to stiff 20

Soft 5
Inorganic silt, sandy or ML, MH Very stiff to hard 30
clayey silt, varied silt-clay- Medium to stiff 15
fine sand Soft 5

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Design and Construction of Stone Masonry Retaining Walls – A Quick Guide

5. Design Criteria

In design of stone masonry retaining walls, first the anticipated

loads on the structure should be considered and then evaluate
the safety of the structure based on standard criteria.

The loads to be considered in the design are:

 Self-weight of the structure;

 Imposed dead loads and live loads if any;

 Earth pressures

 Seismic loads if it is to be designed for earthquakes forces

 Pore-water pressure

 Surcharge loads if any

 Special loads if any

The structure then should be evaluated for safety using following

criteria:
a) Factor of Safety aagainst
gainst over
overturning
turning > 2.0 ffor
or static load
loadss
>1.5 with seismic forces
b) Factor of safety against sliding >1.5 for static loads

>1.0 with seismic forces

c) Maximum base pressure ≤ qa(allowable bearing capacity)
≤ 1.33 qa(during earthquakes)
d) Minimum base pressure > 0 (zero)
e) Factory of safety against floatation > 1.25
f) for steep hills, factor of safety for slip surface > 1.5 static

> 1.0 seismic

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Design and Construction of Stone Masonry Retaining Walls – A Quick Guide

Notes:
1. Retaining walls are generally designed for static loads without
considering seismic loads. The reason being, the failed retaining
walls are easy to repair than going for heavy and costly walls

considering seismic forces.

2. For checking overturning and sliding, live and imposed loads
adding to the stability of the structure shall not be considered.

6. Preliminary Design of Cement Masonry Walls

As per table 1 of IS 14458 (Part 1):1998, preliminary dimensions

shall be calculated as follows:

Table 2: Preliminary Design of Wall

Top Width (Tw) 0.5m to 1.0m

Base width (Bw) 0.6H to 0.65H

Front Batter 10:1

Inward dip of foundation Horizontal or 1:6

Foundation depth below drain 0.5m to 1.0m

Range of Height 1m to 10m

Hill slope angle 350 to 600

Toe protection in case of soft soil Boulder pitching

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Design and Construction of Stone Masonry Retaining Walls – A Quick Guide

Figure 2: Pressure Distribution at the base

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Design and Construction of Stone Masonry Retaining Walls – A Quick Guide

7. Standard Designs

Table 3: Soil Properties considered/assumed for standard

designs

Soil Properties considered/Assumed

Unit Weight of Soil γm
17 KN/
KN/m
m3
Unit Weight of Masonry γs
24 KN/
KN/m
m3
Angle of Repose φ 30 °
Angle of internal friction φi 30 °
Coefficient of friction μ 0.6

Table 4: Standard Design without Surcharge

Standard Designs

SBC 80 KN/m2 SBC 100 KN/m2 SBC 150 KN/m2

sl nnoo Heigh
Heightt ((m
m) Bas
Basee Wi
Widt
dthh (m
(m)) Top W
Wid
idth
th ((m
m) Bas
Basee Wi
Widt
dthh (m
(m)) Top Widt
Widthh (m
(m)) Base
Bas e Widt
Widthh (m
(m)) Top Wid
Width
th ((m
m)
1 1 0.5 0.45 0.5 0.45 0.5 0.45
2 2 0.9 0.5 0.9 0.5 0.9 0.5
3 3 1.5 0.5 1.4 0.6 1.4 0.6
4 4 2.3 0.6 2.1 0.6 2 0.6
5 5 3.2 0.75 2.9 0.75 2.5 0.75

6 6 4.3 1 3.8 1 3.1 1

Note:
i) SBC= Safe Bearing Capacity of soil
ii) All dimensions are in meters

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Design and Construction of Stone Masonry Retaining Walls – A Quick Guide

Table 5: Standard Design with soil surcharge load

Surccharg
Sur hargee angle upto 15 0
upto
SBC 80 SBC 100 SBC 150
eigght Bas
sl no Hei Basee wid
idth
th Top wid
idth
th Base
Bas e wid
idth
th Top wid
idth
th Base
Bas e wid
idth
th Top wid
idth
th
1 1 0.5 0.45 0.5 0.45 0.5 0.45
2 2 0.9 0.5 0.9 0.5 0.9 0.5
3 3 1.55 0.5 1.55 0.5 1.55 0.5
4 4 2.2 0.6 2.2 0.6 2.2 0.6
5 5 3.85 0.8 3.5 0.8 2.65 0.8
6 6 4.9 1 4.7 1 4.1 1

Note:
i) surcharge load implies load from the soil surcharge which
is assumed as a sloping angle as shown in figure 1.
ii) All dimensions are in meters

8. Other Considerations

8.1 Depth of Foundation

Depth of foundation shall be at least 500mm below the firm ground

level. For unusual soil conditions, foundation shall be designed as
per IS 1080 and
and IS 1904.

8.2 Drainage

Drainage is an important aspect of retaining wall construction. For

proper functioning of the wall, following drainage provisions shall

be provided:
provided:

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Design and Construction of Stone Masonry Retaining Walls – A Quick Guide

i. weep holes of 100x100

100x100mm
mm open
opening
ing shall be provided
at 1.5m interval and should be staggered both horizontally
and vertically. Alternatively pipes of equivalent area may be
used.

Figure 3: Picture Showing Weep Holes, Separation Gap and

Bonding Element

ii. 400-500mm width of filter media composed of good quality

stones (50mm – 100mm) shall be provided. And in addition to

above filtration media, geo-textile or bamboo mats are

recommended.

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Design and Construction of Stone Masonry Retaining Walls – A Quick Guide

8.3 Dip of foundation base

The dip of foundation base towards hill side increases

the factor of safety against sliding significantly and
therefore it is recommended to provide a dip of 6: 1

(horizontal : vertical) as shown in figure 1.

8.4 Length of Wall

A separation gap of 50-100mm shall be provided at

maximum of 10m length of wall. Also gaps shall be
provided at bends
bends and junctions.

8.5 Stepping of wall base

The wall base shall not be stepped except when the wall
rests on rock foundation. When foundation rests on rock,
the foundation may be stepped as per the clause 6.2 of IS
14458 (part 2) as shown in figure 4:

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Design and Construction of Stone Masonry Retaining Walls – A Quick Guide

Figure 4: Stepping of Wall base on Rocks

8.6 Through-Stones / Bonding Element

Through stones shall be provided at every 1.0m interval both

horizontally and vertically throughout the length and height
of the wall. In the absence of through stones, reinforced
concrete blocks of 100mmx100mm shall be used as shown in
[Link] through-stones or bonding element shall be
staggered both horizontally and vertically. Figure 3 shows the
front elevation of wall with bonding elemen
element.
t.

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Design and Construction of Stone Masonry Retaining Walls – A Quick Guide

Figure 5: Reinforced Concrete Bonding Element

8.7 Cement Mortar

Cement mortar ratio of 1:5(cement : Sand) or richer shall be

provided.

8.8 Curing

When cementer mortar is used, the wall shall be properly

cured for a minimum of two weeks to attain good bonding

strength.

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Design and Construction of Stone Masonry Retaining Walls – A Quick Guide

8.9 Aesthetics

The stability and safety are of primary concerns. However,

depending on site conditions and location, retaining walls
shall be aesthetically appealing as well.

Figure 6: Sample Picture of Retaining Wall with Weep holes and

separation gap

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Design and Construction of Stone Masonry Retaining Walls – A Quick Guide

Figure 7: Sample wall with PVC pipes as weep holes

Figure 8: Sample Pictures with neat stone face

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Design and Construction of Stone Masonry Retaining Walls – A Quick Guide

9. Sample Calculations

a) Sample calculation for 4 m high stone masonry retaining wall

without surcharge load with following data. Refer figure 9 for
pressure distribution diagram. The dimensions of walls can be

taken from preliminary design and check for standard

criterion.
Table 6: Input Data for Sample Calculation (a)

Sl No Component Symbol Value Unit

1 Height H 4 m

2 Base Width Bw or b 2.1 m

3 Top Width Tw 0.6 m

4 Unit Weight of Soil  17 KN/m3

5 Unit Weight of Masonry  24 KN/m3

6 Angle of Repose ∅ 30 degrees

7 Coefficient of friction  0.6

8 Safe bearing capacity SBC 150 KN/m2

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Design and Construction of Stone Masonry Retaining Walls – A Quick Guide

Figure 9: Distribution of Forces- Sample calculation (a)

Active earth pressure coefficient without surcharge

(1 − 
∅)
∅)
 =
(1 + 
∅)
∅)

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 Design and Construction of Stone Masonry Retaining Walls – A Quick Guide

Design Calculation for Stone Masonry in Cement Mortar

s l no L
Lo
oad M agnitud
agnitudee (KN) D is tance from Toe (m) B.M about Toe (KN-m) R e marks
1 W1 0.0.6*4*24 57.60 1.80 103.68
2 W2 0.5*(2.1- 0.6)*4*24 72.00 1.00 72.00
∑W 129.60 175.68 ∑M R

3 Ph Ph= Ka*γ*H /2 45.33 1.33 60.44 M O

a) Ch
Chec
eck
k Agai
Again
nst Over
Overtu
turn
rniing:
∑M R /Mo ≥2.0 2.91 Safe

b) Check
Check A
Ag
gai
ain
nst Sli
Slidin
ding:
μ∑W/Ph ≥1.55 1.72 Safe

c) Chec
Check
k ffor
or Bea
Beari
rin
ng Pres
Pressu
sure
re::
x = (Resultant Moment at toe)/∑W 0.89
e = (Bw/2- x) 0.16

=
  1 + 
33.35 Safe

= 1 − 


90.07 Safe
2
Horizontal Earth Pressure Ph= Ka*γ*H /2 act at H/3 from wall base
∑W is the total vertical load
∑M R is the total restoring moment
M O is the total overturning moment
μ is the coeff. Of friction between wall and soil interface taken as 0.6

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Design and Construction of Stone Masonry Retaining Walls – A Quick Guide

b) Sample calculation for 5m high stone masonry retaining wall

with soil surcharge of 15ᶿ.
15ᶿ. Refer figure 10 for pressure
distribution diagram. The dimensions of wall can be obtained
from preliminary design and check for standard criterion.

Table 7: Input Data for sample calculation (b)

Sl No Component Symbol Value Unit
1 Height H 5 m
2 Base Width Bw or b 2.65 m
3 Top Width Tw 0.8 m
4 Unit Weight of Soil  17 KN/m3
5 Unit Weight of Masonry  24 KN/m3
6 Angle of Repose  30 degrees
7 Coefficient of friction  0.6
8 Safe bearing capacity SBC 150 KN/m2
9 angle of surcharge  15 degrees

Active earth pressure coefficient with sloping surcharge

 − (√ 2  −  2 ∅)

 = cos 2 2
 + (√  −  ∅)

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Design and Construction of Stone Masonry Retaining Walls – A Quick Guide

Figure 10: Distribution of Forces - sample calculation (b)

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Design and Construction of Stone Masonry Retaining Walls – A Quick Guide

Design Calculation for Stone Masonry in Cement Mortar with surcharge angle of 15 ᶿ
Distance from B.M abouaboutt
sl no
no Loa
oad
d Magnitude (KN) Toe (m) Toe ((K
KN-
N-mm) Re
Rem
marks
1 W1 0 0..8x5x24 96.00 2.25 216.00
2 W2 0.5x(2.65- 0.8)x5x24 111.00 1.23 136.90
∑W 207.00 352.90 ∑ M R

2
3 Ph Ph= Ka*γ*H *Cos(β)/2 79.25 1.67 132.
132.09
09 M O

a) Check
Chec k Agai
Against
nst O
Overturni
verturning:
ng:
∑M R /Mo ≥2.0 2.67 Safe

b) Check Against Sliding:

μ∑W/Ph ≥1.55 1.57 Safe
c) Check for Bearing Pressure:
x = (Resultant Moment at toe)/∑W 1.07
e = (b/2- x) 0.26

 =   1 −  
 
31.48 Safe
  
 = 1+
 
134.12 Safe
2
Horizontal Earth Pressure Ph= Ka*γ*H /2 act at
H/3 from wall base
∑W is the total vertical load
∑M R is the total restoring moment
M O is the total overturning moment

μ is the coeff. Of friction between wall and soil interface taken as 0.6

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Design and Construction of Stone Masonry Retaining Walls – A Quick Guide

10. References

 IS 14458:Part 1: Guidelines for Retaining Wall for hilly area:

Part 1: Selection of Type of Walls

 IS 14458:Part 2: Guidelines for Retaining Wall for hilly area:

Part 2: Design of retaining/breast walls

 IS 14458:Part 3: Guidelines for Retaining Wall for hilly area:

Part 3: Construction of Dry stone walls

 Guidelines on use of Standard Work Items for Common

Road Works 2010, Department of Roads, MoWHS

 Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics, Gopal Ranjan& A.S.R

Rao
 Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures, S. Ramamrutha
Ramamrutham
m

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Design and Construction of Stone Masonry Retaining Walls – A Quick Guide

11. Technical Committee Composition

Technical Working Core Group members

1. Mr. Palden Khandu, Executive Engineer,
Engineer, Thimphu T
Thromde
hromde
2. Mr. Karchung,
Karchung, G
General
eneral Manager,
Manager, NH
NHDCL
DCL
3. Mr. Dillip Thapa,
Thapa, Ex
Executive
ecutive Eng
Engineer,
ineer, D
DoR,
oR, MoWHS
MoWHS
4. Ms. Kezang
Kezang Deki, Executive
Executive Eng
Engineer,
ineer, DES,
DES, MoWHS
MoWHS
5. Mr. Sonam
Sonam Yangdhen,
Yangdhen, Dy. Exe
Executive
cutive Eng
Engineer,
ineer, DES, MoWH
MoWHS
S
6. Mr. Dechen Norbu
Norbu,, Dy. Executive
Executive Engin
Engineer,
eer, DES, MoW
MoWHS
HS
7. Mr. Choki Tashi, Dy. Executive Engineer
Engineer,, DES, MoWHS – T eam
MoWHS
L eader

Technical Review Group

1. Mr. Tenzin,
Tenzin, Director,
Director, DES, MoWHS
2. Mr. Phub
Phub Rinzin, Chief Eng
Engineer,
ineer, ESD, DES, MoW
MoWHS
HS
3. Mr. Karma
Karma Namgyel,
Namgyel, Chief En
Engineer,
gineer, EAR
EARRD,
RD, MoW
MoWHS
HS
4. Mr. Karma
Karma Jamtsho,
Jamtsho, District E
Engineer,
ngineer, T
Thimphu
himphu D
Dzongk
zongkhag
hag
5. Mr. Jigme Dorji,
Dorji, Executive
Executive Eng
Engineer,
ineer, Th
Thimphu
imphu Th
Thromde
romde
6. Ms. Dago Zangmo, Executive
Executive Engineer,
Engineer, EARR
EARRD,
D, DES, MoWHS

Cover page design and graphic editing by Mr. Tshering Norbu,

Architectt and Mr. Tempa Gyeltshen, Architec
Architec Architect,
t, DES, MoWHS

Department
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