Module – 5

ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS

 Principle and working of Analog instruments

 PMMC and MI instruments

 Single-phase and three- phase wattmeters and energy

meters

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 Analog Instruments
 An analog device is one in which the output or display is a
continuous function of time and bears a constant relation to
its input.

Classification
 Based upon the quantity they measure (ammeter, voltmeter)
 According to the current that can be measured by them. (DC, AC,
both)
 According to the effects used for working.
 Indicating, Recording, Integrating.
 On the basis of method used for comparing the unknown
quantity. (Direct / Indirect)

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 Operating Forces
 Deflecting Force.
 Controlling Force.
 Damping Force.

Supporting the moving element

 Suspension
o Taut Suspension
o Pivot and jewel bearings.

Control Systems
 Gravity Control.
 Spring Control.
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 MOVING IRON(M.I.) INSTRUMENTS
 Current or voltage is determined by the force of attraction on a bar
of soft iron pivoted within the magnetic field of a fixed coil or by the
repulsion between the poles induced in two soft iron rods within the
coil.

 As the deflection caused by the passage of a current through the coil

does not depend on the direction of the current, moving-iron
instruments can be used with either d.c. or a.c.
TYPES:
 Attraction type (or single iron type)
 Repulsion type (or double iron type)
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ATTRACTION TYPE:
CONSTRUCTION:

This instrument consists of a few

soft iron discs (B) that are fixed to
the spindle (D), pivoted in
jeweled bearings. The special
shape of the moving-iron discs is
for obtaining a scale of suitable
form.

The spindle (D) also carries a

pointer (P), a balance weight
(W1), a controlling weight (W2)
and a damping piston (E), which
moves in a curved fixed cylinder
(F).

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 WORKING:

When current flows through the coil, a magnetic field is

produced and the moving iron moves from the weaker field
outside to the stronger field inside or in other words, the
moving iron is attracted in.

Controlling torque is produced by springs but gravity control

can be used for panel type of instruments which are vertically
mounted.

Damping is provided by air friction with the help of a light

aluminum piston which moves in a fixed chamber closed at
one end or with the help of a vane which moves in a fixed sector
shaped chamber.

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ERRORS:
BOTH
A.C AND D.C

STRAY
HYSTERESIS TEMPERATURE
MAGNETIC
ERROR ERROR
FIELDS

HYSTERESIS ERROR:

This occurs as the value of flux density is different for the

same current for ascending and descending values.

It may produce 2-3% error.

By using nickel iron alloys with narrow hysteresis loops, the
error may be brought down to less than 0.05%
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TEMPERATURE ERRORS:

 The effect of temperature changes on moving iron instruments chiefly arises

from the temperature co-efficient of spring.

 The error may be 0.02% per degree rise in temperature.

 In voltmeters, errors are causes due to self-heating of coil and self resistance.

 The temperature of coil may increase by 10 to 20% for a power consumption

of [Link] the resistance increases by 4 to 8% thus causing a decrease in
current for a given voltage. This produces decreased deflection.

 Therefore series resistance should be made of materials like Manganin which

has small temperature co-efficient.
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STRAY MAGNETIC FIELDS:

 The errors due to stray magnetic fields may be appreciable as the operating
magnetic field is large.

 Such errors depend upon the direction of the stray magnetic field relative
to the field of the instrument.

 Can be minimized by using an iron case or a thin shield over the working
parts.

WITH A.C ALONE:

 Frequency error: Changes in frequency may cause errors due to changes of

reactance of the working coil and also due to magnitude of eddy currents
set up in the metal parts of instrument.

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ADVANTAGES:

• Universal in use : can be used both in a.c and d.c circuits.

• The instruments are robust, owing to the simple construction of
the moving parts and the fact that there are no current carrying
moving parts.
• The stationary parts of the instruments are also simple.
• Cost of the Instrument is low compared to moving coil
instrument.
• Torque/weight ratio is high, thus less frictional error.
• They are very accurate.
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DISADVANTAGES:

 These instruments have non-linear scales. These are crowded at

the lower end and therefore accurate readings are not possible at
this end.
 Cannot be calibrated with a high degree of precision for d.c on
account of the effect of hysteresis in the iron vanes.
 Deflection upto 240 degrees only can be obtained
 Must be kept in vertical position if it uses gravity control.
 The non-linearity of B-H curve of iron means that the deflecting
torque is not exactly proportional to the square of the current.

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 MOVING IRON (M.I) REPULSION TYPE:

 Repulsion type moving–iron instrument is the more commonly

used
 It consists of two cylindrical soft iron vanes mounted within a fixed
current- carrying coil.
 One iron vane is held fixed to the coil frame and other is free to
rotate, carrying with it the pointer shaft
 Two irons lie in the magnetic field produced by the coil that
consists of
only few turns  ammeter
many turns  voltmeter

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 Current in the coil induces both vanes to become
magnetized and repulsion between the similarly magnetised
vanes produces a proportional rotation.

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 MOVING IRON REPULSION TYPE WHICH
FURTHER CLASSIFIED AS

 RADIAL VANE REPULSION TYPE

 CO-AXIAL VANE REPULSION TYPE

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 RADIAL VANE REPULSION TYPE

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 FIXED VANE
 MOVABLE VANE

THESE ARE RADIAL STRIPS OF IRON

 FIXED VANE AND MOVING VANE ARE ATTACHED

TO THE COIL AND SPINDLE RESPECTIVELY

EVEN THOUGH THE CURRENT THRU THE COIL

IS ALTERNATING THERE IS ALWAYS A REPULSION
BETWEEN LIKE POLES OF FIXED AND MOVABLE
VANE
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 CONCENTRIC VANE REPULSION TYPE

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CONCENTRIC VANE REPULSION TYPE
 IN THIS VANES ARE MAGNETISED TO THE SAME POLARITY
DUE TO THE CURRENT IN THE [Link] THE MOVABLE
VANE ROTATES UNDER THE REPULSIVE FORCE.

 THUS THE REPULSION RESULTS THE POINTER DEFLECTION

IS PROPOTIONAL TO THE CURRENT IN THE COIL

 THIS INSTRUMENT IS MODERATELY SENSITIVE AND

DEFLECTION IS PROPOTIONAL TO SQUARE OF THE
[Link] THE INSTRUMENT IS SAID TO HAVE
SQUARE LAW RESPONSE

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 ADVANTAGES
USED FOR A.C AND D.C MEASUREMENTS

AS TORQUE TO WEIGHT RATIO IS HIGH,ERRORS

DUE TO FRICTION ARE VERY LESS

CAPABLE OF GIVING GOOD ACCURACY

THE RANGE OF INSTRUMENTS CAN BE

EXTENDED

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 DISADVANTAGES

 SCALE OF THE INSTRUMENTS IS NOT

UNIFORM AND IS CRAMPED AT LOWER END.

THERE ARE SERIOUS ERROR DUE TO

HYSTERSIS,FREQUENCY CHANGES AND STRAY
MAGNETIC FIELD

POWER CONSUMPTION IS ON HIGHER SIDE

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 PMMC - PERMENANT MAGNET
MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT
 Most accurate instrument for D.C

 Parameters Are Directly Measured Through Pointer And Scale.

 PMMC can be used as both ammeter and voltmeter based on

how it is connected.

 Works on D’ARSONVAL PRINCIPLE

(Passage of current through coil under the magnetic field produce
deflection)

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Construction:
a)MovingCoil:
* It is wounded with many turns of
enameled or silk covered copper
wire.
* Coil is wounded over rectangular
aluminum former
* Coil moves freely in the field of
permanent magnet.

Note: In voltmeter, coil are wounded on

magnetic former. In ammeter coil is
wounded on non-magnetic former.
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CONSTRUCTION:
b)MAGNETIC SYSTEM:
U-shaped magnets were used
in olden days.
Nowadays, ALNICO &
ALCOMAX magnets are
used.
This reduce volume and
weight.

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CONSTRUCTION:
c)Control System:
* Coil may be supported
between two jewel
bearings.
* Control torque is provided
by two phosphor bronze
hair spring.

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CONSTRUCTION:
d)Damping System:
* Provided by permanent
magnet to aluminum
former.

e)Display system:
*Light weight pointer moves
over a graduated scale.

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TORQUE EQUATION:
Td=NBIA Tc=Kθ

Where, Where,
Td - deflecting torque Tc - Controling torque
N - [Link] in coil K - spring constant
I - current in moving coil Θ - Anguar deflection
B - flux density in air gap
A - effective area of coil

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TORQUE EQUATION

For final steady state condition……………

Td=Tc
NBIA=Kθ
θ=NBIA
K
θ=GI where G=NBA
K

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ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
 Uniform in scale • Only for d.c
 Sensitivity is high • Ageing of magnets lead to
 High accuracy error.
 Low power consumption • Cost is high
• Friction due to jewel-pivot
setting.

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PMMC as AMMETER

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33
Let, Ish Im
I
I be the current to be measured
Ish be the shunt current
Im be the full scale deflection
Rsh be the resistance of the shunt
Rm be the internal resistance
*Since Rsh is parallel with Rm,voltage drop
across these two are same
IshRsh=ImRm
Rsh=ImRm ………(1)
Ish

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 From ckt=> I=Ish+Im
Ish=I-Im …………(2)
Sub(2) in (1)
Rsh= ImRm
I-Im
I-Im=ImRm
Rsh
Im(I/Im-1)=Im(Rm/Rsh)

Rsh= Rm
(I/Im-1)

m=(I/Im) where m-Multiplying factor of shunt

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 PMMC as VOLTMETER

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 LET
V be the voltage to be measured
Im be the full scale deflection
Rs be the multiplier resistance
Rm be the internal resistance
v be voltage across meter
Since the multiplier resistance is in series with the meter
V=Im(Rs+Rm)
Rs
Rs=V-ImRm Im
Rm
Im
Current sensitivity of PMMC is defined as the
DEFLECTION PER UNIT CURRENT

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 Errors in PMMC:
 Weakening of permanent magnet due to ageing at temperature
 Weakening of springs due to ageing and temperature
 Change of resistance of moving coil with temperature

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 GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
ATTRACTION
TYPE
MOVING IRON
REPULSION
TYPE
ELECTRO
DYNAMOMETER
TYPE

ELECTROSTATIC
AC
TYPE

INDUCTION
TYPE
VOLTMETERS
AND
AMMETERS
RECTIFIER
TYPE

DC PMMC
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 ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS OF AN INDICATING INSTRUMENT:

[Link] system

[Link] system

[Link] system

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 DYNAMOMETER TYPE WATTMETER
 WATTMETER is an indicating
or integrating instrument used
to measure power in an
electric circuit.
 The Electrodynamic wattmeter
is used to measure power taken
from ac or dc power sources.
 The Electrodynamic wattmeter,
shown in figure uses the reaction
between the magnetic fields of
two current-carrying coils (or
sets of coils), one fixed and the
other movable.
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 CONSTRUCTION
 Consists of two coils
 Fixed coils(2).
 Movable coil.

• The fixed coil is splitted in to

two equal parts- parallel to
each other as shown in fig(1)

• The two air cored fixed coils

connected series to load carries
circuit current

• Hence it is also known as

CURRENT COIL.
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  The moving coil is pivoted
between the two parts of
fixed coils.
 Connected parallel to the
load.
 Carries current proportional
to the voltage.
 Hence it is called as
POTENTIAL COIL.
 A high resistance connected
in SERIES – to limit the
current that increases the
sensitivity of wattmeter.

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working
 The fixed coil produces a
field Fm and moving coil
produces a field Fr tries to
come in the line with main field
Fm .
 It produces a deflecting
torque on the moving coil.
 The pointer attached to the
spindle of the moving coil
deflects.

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DEFLECTING TORQUE
FOR D.C SYSTEM:
V - voltage across load.
I - load current.
Current through fixed coil I1 α I.
Current through moving coil I2 α v

Td α I1 I2
α IV
α POWER

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 FOR A.C. SYSTEM:
Instantaneous value of current through fixed coil:
i1 α i.
Instantaneous value of current through moving coil:
i2 α e.
Deflecting torque : T d α i2 i1.
α ei.
αVIcosØ.
αTRUEPOWER.

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Wattmeter errors
 Electrodynamic wattmeters are subject to errors arising from
such factors as temperature and frequency

 For example, heat through the coils eventually causes the small
springs attached to the pointer to lengthen and lose tension,
which produces deflection errors.

 Large currents through the wattmeter also produce a noticeable

deflection error.

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 Therefore, a low power-factor circuit will provide a very low
reading on the wattmeter.

 The reading will be low, even when the current and voltage
circuits are loaded to the maximum safe limit

 The safe rating for each wattmeter is always distinctly rated, not
in watts, but in volts and amperes.

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49
 ADVANTAGES:
Can be used on a.c and d.c circuits
Uniform scale
High accuracy
DISADVANTAGES
At low LPF, the inductance of the potential coil cause series
errors.

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 Energy meter
An electric meter or energy
meter is a device that
measures the amount of
electrical energy consumed by
a residence, business, or an
electrically powered device.

 Electric meters are typically

calibrated in billing units, the
most common one being the
kilowatt hour. Periodic readings
of electric meters establishes
billing cycles and energy used
during a cycle.
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 THEORY OF INDUCTION TYPE METERS
 In all induction instruments we have
two fluxes produced by currents
flowing in the windings of the
instrument.
 These fluxes are alternating in
nature and so they produce emfs in
a metallic disc or a drum provided
for the purpose.
 These emfs inturn circulate eddy
currents in the metallic disc or
drum.
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Mechanism of electromechanical
induction meter.

1 - Voltage coil - many turns of fine wire encased in

plastic, connected in parallel with load.
2 - Current coil - three turns of thick wire, connected
in series with load.
3 - Stator - concentrates and confines magnetic field.
4 - Aluminum rotor disc.
5 - rotor brake magnets.
6 - spindle with worm gear.
7 - display dials - note that the 1/10, 10 and 1000
dials rotate clockwise while the 1, 100 and 10000
dials rotate counter-clockwise.
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 CONSTRUCTION OF INDUCTION TYPE SINGLE PHASE
ENERGY METERS

DRIVING
SYSTEM

MOVING
SYSTEM
OPERATING
PARTS
BRAKING
SYSTEM

REGISTERING
SYSTEM

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 DRIVING SYSTEM
 The driving system of the meter consists of two electro-magnets.
 The core of these electromagnets is excited by the load current.
 The coil with less number of turns is called current coil while the other
is the pressure coil.
 These two electromagnets are series and shunt magnets.

MOVING SYSTEM
 Light aluminum disc mounted in a light alloy shaft is the main part of
moving system.
 This disc is positioned between series and shunt magnets.

BRAKING SYSTEM
 A permanent magnet is placed near the aluminum disc for braking
mechanism.
 The disc moves in the field of this magnet and a braking system.
 This magnet is called Braking system.
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 REGISTERING SYSTEM
 It records continuously a number which is proportional to the
revolutions made by the aluminum disc.
 It has a series of [Link] pointers rotate on round dials which
are equal divisions.

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 WORKING
 Pressure coil carries current proportional to voltage.
 Current coil carries the load current.
 Both these coils produce alternating fluxes .These fluxes are proportional to
the currents in the coils.
 These fluxes link with the disc and induces emf in it.
 Due to these emf’s eddy currents are induced in the disc.
 Thus each portion of the disc experiences a mechanical force and hence disc
rotates.
 Spindle is connected to the recording mechanism which records the energy
supplied.
NUMBER OF REVOLUTIONS IN TIME is directly proportional to the
ENERGY SUPPLIED

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 THREE PHASE ENERGY METER

 In a three phase, four wire

system, the measurement
of energy is to be carried
THREE PHASE
out by a three phase energy ENERGY METER
meter
 For a three phase, three THREE
TWO ELEMENT
ELEMENT
wire system the energy ENERGY METER
ENERGY METER

measurement can be
carried out by two element
energy meter.

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 ADJUSTMENTS IN ENERGY METER

 MAIN SPEED ADJUSTMENT

I. The measurement of energy is dependent on the speed of the rotating disc.
II. The speed of the disc is adjusted by means of changing the effective radius of the braking
magnet.
 CREEP ADJUSTMENT
I. When the disc rotates without any current through current coil due to the supply
voltage exciting its pressure [Link] is called creeping.
II. To eliminate this , two holes are drilled in the disc 180º opposite to each other.
Besides, there are certain other adjustments called
 power factor adjustment
 friction adjustment

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 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
 Its construction is simple and  It can be used only for ac circuits.
strong.  The creeping can cause errors.
 It is cheap in cost.  Lack of symmetry in magnetic
 It has more accuracy. circuit may cause errors.
 It requires less maintenance.
 It has high torque to weight ratio so
frictional errors are less.

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