18

Superposition and Standing Waves

CHAPTER OUTLINE

18.1 Analysis Model: Waves in Interference

18.2 Standing Waves
18.3 Analysis Model: Waves Under Boundary Conditions
18.4 Resonance
18.5 Standing Waves in Air Columns
18.6 Standing Waves in Rods and Membranes
18.7 Beats: Interference in Time
18.8 Nonsinusoidal Wave Patterns

* An asterisk indicates a question or problem new to this edition.

ANSWERS TO OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

OQ18.1 The ranking is (d) > (a) = (c) > (b). In the starting situation, the waves
interfere constructively. When the sliding section is moved out by
0.1 m, the wave going through it has an extra path length of
0.2 m = λ/4, to show partial interference. When the slide has come out
0.2 m from the starting configuration, the extra path length is
0.4 m = λ /2, for destructive interference. Another 0.1 m and we are at
r2 – r1 = 3λ /4 for partial interference as before. At last, another equal
step of sliding and one wave travels one wavelength farther to
interfere constructively.
OQ18.2 The fundamental frequency is described by
12
v ⎛T⎞
f1 = , where v = ⎜ ⎟
2L ⎝ µ⎠
(i) Answer (e). If L is doubled, then the wavelength of the

934
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 Chapter 18 935

fundamental frequency is doubled, then f = v/λ will be reduced

1
by a factor of .
2
(ii) Answer (d). If µ is doubled, then the speed is reduced by a
1 1
factor of , so f = v/λ will be reduced by a factor of .
2 2
(iii) Answer (b). If T is doubled, then the speed is increased by a
factor of 2 , so f = v/λ will increase by a factor of 2.
OQ18.3 Answer (c). The two waves must have slightly different amplitudes
at P because of their different distances, so they cannot cancel each
other exactly.
OQ18.4 (i) Answer (e). If the end is fixed, there is inversion of the pulse
upon reflection. Thus, when they meet, they cancel and the
amplitude is zero.
(ii) Answer (c). If the end is free, there is no inversion on reflection.
When they meet, the amplitude is 2A = 2(0.1 m) = 0.2 m.
OQ18.5 Answer (a). At resonance, a tube closed at one end and open at the
other forms a standing wave pattern with a node at the closed end
and antinode at the open end. In the fundamental mode (or first
harmonic), the length of the tube closed at one end is a quarter
wavelength (L = λ1/4 or λ1 = 4L). Therefore, for the given tube,
λ1 = 4(0.580 m) = 2.32 m and the fundamental frequency is
v 343 m s
f1 = = = 148 Hz
λ1 2.32 m
OQ18.6 Answer (e). The number of beats per second (the beat frequency)
equals the difference in the frequencies of the two tuning forks. Thus,
if the beat frequency is 5 Hz and one fork is known to have a
frequency of 245 Hz, the frequency of the second fork could be either
f2 = 245 Hz – 5 Hz = 240 Hz or f2 = 245 Hz + 5 Hz = 250 Hz. This
means that the best answer for the question is choice (e), since
choices (a) and (d) are both possibly correct.
OQ18.7 Answer (d). The tape will reduce the frequency of the fork, leaving
the string frequency unchanged. If the bit of tape is small, the fork
must have started with a frequency 4 Hz below that of the string, to
end up with a frequency 5 Hz below that of the string. The string
frequency is 262 + 4 = 266 Hz.
OQ18.8 Answer (c). The bow string is pulled away from equilibrium and
released, similar to the way that a guitar string is pulled and released

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 936 Superposition and Standing Waves

when it is plucked. Thus, standing waves will be excited in the bow

string. If the arrow leaves from the exact center of the string, then a
series of odd harmonics will be excited. Even harmonics will not be
excited because they have a node at the point where the string
exhibits its maximum displacement.
OQ18.9 Answer (d). The energy has not disappeared, but is still carried by
the wave pulses. Each element of the string still has kinetic energy.
This is similar to the motion of a simple pedulum. The pendulum
does not stop at its equilibrium position during oscillation—likewise
the elements of the string do not stop at the equilibrium position of
the string when these two waves superimpose.
OQ18.10 Answer (c). On a string fixed at both ends, a standing wave with
three nodes is the second harmonic: there is a node on each end and
one in the middle, so it has two antinodes because there is an
antinode between each pair of nodes. The number of antinodes is the
same as the harmonic number. Doubling the frequency gives the
fourth harmonic, therefore four antinodes.
OQ18.11 Answers (b) and (e). The strings have different linear densities and
are stretched to different tensions, so they carry string waves with
different speeds and vibrate with different fundamental frequencies.
They are all equally long, so the string waves have equal
fundamental wavelengths. They all radiate sound into air, where the
sound moves with the same speed for different sound wavelengths.
OQ18.12 Answer (d). The resultant amplitude is greater than either individual
amplitude, wherever the two waves are nearly enough in phase that
2Acos(φ/2) is greater than A. This condition is satisfied whenever the
absolute value of the phase difference φ between the two waves is
less than 120°.

ANSWERS TO CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS

CQ18.1 The resonant frequency depends on the length of the pipe. Thus,
changing the length of the pipe will cause different frequencies to be
emphasized in the resulting sound.
CQ18.2 No. The total energy of the pair of waves remains the same. Energy
missing from zones of destructive interference appears in zones of
constructive interference.
CQ18.3 What is needed is a tuning fork—or other pure-tone generator—of
the desired frequency. Strike the tuning fork and pluck the
corresponding string on the piano at the same time. If they are

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 Chapter 18 937

precisely in tune, you will hear a single pitch with no amplitude

modulation. If the two frequences are a bit off, you will hear beats.
As they vibrate, retune the piano string until the beat frequency goes
to zero.
CQ18.4 Damping, and nonlinear effects in the vibration, transform the
energy of vibration into internal energy.
CQ18.5 (a) The tuning fork hits the paper repetitively to make a sound like
a buzzer, and the paper efficiently moves the surrounding air.
The tuning fork will vibrate audibly for a shorter time.
(b) Instead of just radiating sound very softly into the surrounding
air, the tuning fork makes the chalkboard vibrate. With its large
area this stiff sounding board radiates sound into the air with
higher power. So it drains away the fork’s energy of vibration
faster and the fork stops vibrating sooner.
(c) The tuning fork in resonance makes the column of air vibrate,
especially at the antinode of displacement at the top of the tube.
Its area is larger than that of the fork tines, so it radiates louder
sound into the environment. The tuning fork will not vibrate for
so long.
(d) The cardboard acts to cut off the path of air flow from the front
to the back of a single tine. When a tine moves forward, the high
pressure air in front of the tine can simply move to fill in the
lower pressure area behind the tine. This “sloshing” of the air
back and forth does not contribute to sound radiation and
results in low intensity of sound actually leaving the tine. By
cutting off this “sloshing” path by bringing the cardboard near,
the tine becomes a more efficient radiator. This is the same
theory as that involved with placing loudspeakers on baffles. A
speaker enclosure for a loudspeaker is equivalent to an infinite
baffle because there is no path the high pressure air can find to
cancel the lower pressure air on the other side of the speaker.
CQ18.6 The loudness varies because of beats. The propellers are rotating at
slightly different frequencies.
CQ18.7 Walking makes the person’s hand vibrate a little. If the frequency of
this motion is equal to the natural frequency of coffee sloshing from
side to side in the cup, then a large-amplitude vibration of the coffee
will build up in resonance. To get off resonance and back to the
normal case of a small-amplitude disturbance producing a small-
amplitude result, the person can walk faster, walk slower, or get a
larger or smaller cup. You do not need a cover on your cup.

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 938 Superposition and Standing Waves

CQ18.8 Consider the level of fluid in the bottle to be adjusted so that the air
column above it resonates at the first harmonic. This is given by
v
f= . This equation indicates that as the length L of the column
4L
increases (fluid level decreases), the resonant frequency decreases.
CQ18.9 No. Waves with all waveforms interfere. Waves with other wave
shapes are also trains of disturbance that add together when waves
from different sources move through the same medium at the same
time.

SOLUTIONS TO END-OF-CHAPTER PROBLEMS

Section 18.1 Analysis Model: Waves in Interference

P18.1 Suppose the waves are sinusoidal. The sum is
( 4.00 cm ) sin ( kx − ω t ) + ( 4.00 cm ) sin ( kx − ω t + 90.0°)
= 2 ( 4.00 cm ) sin ( kx − ω t + 45.0° ) cos 45.0°
So the amplitude of the resultant wave is
( 8.00 cm ) cos 45.0° = 5.66 cm
P18.2 ANS. FIG. P18.2 shows the sketches at each of the times.

ANS. FIG. P18.2

P18.3 The superposition of the waves is given by
y = y1 + y 2 = 3.00cos ( 4.00x − 1.60t ) + 4.00sin ( 5.00x − 2.00t )

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 Chapter 18 939

evaluated at the given x values.

(a) At x = 1.00, t = 1.00, the superposition of the two waves gives
y = 3.00cos [ 4.00 ( 1.00 ) − 1.60 ( 1.00 )]
+ 4.00sin [ 5.00 ( 1.00 ) − 2.00 ( 1.00 )]
= 3.00cos ( 2.40 rad ) + 4.00sin ( 3.00 rad ) = −1.65 cm

(b) At x = 1.00, t = 0.500, the superposition of the two waves gives

y = 3.00cos [ 4.00 ( 1.00 ) − 1.60 ( 0.500 )]
+ 4.00sin [ 5.00 ( 1.00 ) − 2.00 ( 0.500 )]
= 3.00cos ( 3.20 rad ) + 4.00sin ( 4.00 rad ) = −6.02 cm

(c) At x = 0.500, t = 0, the superposition of the two waves gives

y = 3.00cos [ 4.00 ( 1.00 ) − 1.60 ( 0 )]
+ 4.00sin [ 5.00 ( 1.00 ) − 2.00 ( 0 )]
= 3.00cos ( 2.00 rad ) + 4.00sin ( 2.50 rad ) = +1.15 cm

P18.4 (a) The graph at time t = 0.00 seconds is shown in ANS. FIG. P18.4(a)

ANS. FIG. P18.4(a)

The pulse initially on the left will move to the right at 1.00 m/s,
and the one initially at the right will move toward the left at the
same rate, as follows:
ANS. FIG. P18.4(b) shows the pulses at time t = 2.00 seconds

ANS. FIG. P18.4(b)

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 940 Superposition and Standing Waves

ANS. FIG. P18.4(c) shows the waves at time t = 4.00 seconds,

immediately before they overlap.

ANS. FIG. P18.4(c)

ANS. FIG. P18.4(d) shows the pulses at time t = 5.00 seconds,
while the two pulses are fully overlapped. The two pulses are
shown as dashed lines.

ANS. FIG. P18.4(d)

ANS. FIG. P18.4(e) shows the pulses at time At time t = 6.00
seconds, immediately after they completely pass.

ANS. FIG. P18.4(e)

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 Chapter 18 941

(b) If the pulse to the right is inverted, ANS. FIG. P18.4(f) shows the
pulses at time t = 0.00 seconds.

ANS. FIG. P18.4(f)

The pulse initially on the left will move to the right at 1.00 m/s,
and the one initially at the right will move toward the left at the
same rate, as follows:
ANS. FIG. P18.4(g) shows the two pulses at time t = 2.00 seconds

ANS. FIG. P18.4(g)

ANS. FIG. P18.4(h) shows the two pulses at time t = 4.00 seconds,
immediately before they overlap.

ANS. FIG. P18.4(h)

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 942 Superposition and Standing Waves

ANS. FIG. P18.4(i) shows the two pulses at time t = 5.00 seconds,
while the two pulses are fully overlapped. The two pulses are
shown as dashed lines.

ANS. FIG. P18.4(i)

ANS. FIG. P18.4(j) shows the two pulses at time t = 6.00 seconds,
immediately after they completely pass.

ANS. FIG. P18.4(j)

*P18.5 Waves reflecting from the near end travel 28.0 m (14.0 m down and
14.0 m back), while waves reflecting from the far end travel 66.0 m.
The path difference for the two waves is:
Δr = 66.0 m − 28.0 m = 38.0 m
v
Since λ = ,
f
Then
Δr ( Δr ) f ( 38.0 m ) ( 246 Hz )
= = = 27.254
λ v 343 m/s
or Δr = 27.254λ
The phase difference between the two reflected waves is then
φ = ( 0.254 ) ( 1 cycle ) = ( 0.254 ) ( 2π rad ) = 1.594 rad = 91.3°

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 Chapter 18 943

P18.6 The wavelength of the sound emitted by the speaker is

v 343 m s
λ= =  0.454 m
f 756 Hz
Raising the sliding section by Δh changes the path through that section
by 2Δh, because sound must travel up and down through the addition
distance.
(a) If constructive interference currently exists, this can be changed to
destructive interference by increasing the path distance through
the sliding section by λ/2, which means raising it by
λ 4 = 0.113 m .

(b) To move from constructive interference to the next occurrence of

constructive interference, one should increase the path distance
through the sliding section by λ, which means raising it by
λ / 2 = 0.227 m .

φ + 4t
P18.7 (a) At constant phase, φ = 3x – 4t will be constant. Then x =
3
will change: the wave moves. As t increases in this equation, x
increases, so the first wave moves to the right, in the
+x direction .

φ – 4t + 6
In the same way, in the second case x = . As t
3
increases, x must decrease, so the second wave moves to the left,
in the −x direction .

(b) We require that y1 + y2 = 0.

5 –5
+ =0
(3x – 4t) + 2 (3x + 4t – 6)2 + 2
2

This can be written as

(3x − 4t)2 = (3x + 4t − 6)2
Solving for the positive root, 8t = 6, or
t = 0.750 s

(c) The negative root yields

(3x − 4t) = –(3x + 4t − 6)
The time terms cancel, leaving x = 1.00 m . At this point, the
waves always cancel.
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 944 Superposition and Standing Waves

P18.8 (a) Δx = 9.00 m 2 + 4.00 m 2 − 3.00 m = 13 m 2 − 3.00 m = 0.606 m

v 343 m s
The wavelength is λ = = = 1.14 m.
f 300 Hz
Δx 0.606
Thus, = = 0.530 of a waves,
λ 1.14
or Δφ = 2π ( 0.530 ) = 3.33 rad .
(b) For destructive interference, we want
Δx Δx
= 0.500 → λ = = 2Δx
λ 0.500
v v 343 m/s
The frequency is f = = = = 283 Hz .
λ 2Δx 2 ( 0.606 m )
P18.9 The sum of two waves traveling in the same direction that have the
same amplitude A0, angular frequency ω, and wave number k but are
different in phase φ have the resultant wave function in the form
⎛φ⎞ ⎛ φ⎞
y = 2A0 cos ⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ kx − ω t + ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠

⎛φ⎞ ⎡ −π 4 ⎤
(a) A = 2A0 cos ⎜ ⎟ = 2 ( 5.00 m ) cos ⎢ = 9.24 m
⎝ 2⎠ ⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
ω 1 200π rad/s
(b) f = = = 600 Hz
2π 2π
P18.10 Consider the geometry of the situation
shown on the right. The path difference for
the sound waves at the location of the man is

Δr = d2 + x2 − x
For a minimum, this path difference must
equal a half-integral number of wavelengths:

d2 + x2 − x = n + ( 1
2 )λ
n = 0, 1, 2,...
Solve for x:
ANS. FIG. P18.10
( )
2
d 2 − ⎡⎣ n + 21 λ ⎤⎦
x=
(
2 n + 21 λ )

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 Chapter 18 945

In order for x to be positive, we must have

2
⎡⎛ 1⎞ ⎤ d 1 df 1
+ ⎟⎠ λ ⎥ < d → n< − = −
2
⎢⎝⎜ n
⎣ 2 ⎦ λ 2 v 2
Substitute numerical values:

n<
( 4.00 m ) ( 200 Hz ) −
1
= 1.83
343 m/s 2
The only values of n that satisfy this requirement are n = 0 and n = 1.
Therefore,
the man walks through only two minima;
a third minimum is impossible

*P18.11 At any time and place, the phase shift between the waves is found by
subtracting the phases of the two waves, Δφ = φ1 − φ2.
Δφ = (20.0 rad/cm)x − (32.0 rad/s)t
− [(25.0 rad/cm)x − (40.0 rad/s)t]
Collecting terms,
Δφ = −(5.00 rad/cm)x + (8.00 rad/s)t
(a) At x = 5.00 cm and t = 2.00 s, the phase difference is
Δφ = (−5.00 rad/cm)(5.00 cm) + (8.00 rad/s)(2.00 s)
Δφ = 9.00 radians = 516° = 156°
(b) The sine functions repeat whenever their arguments change by an
integer number of cycles, an integer multiple of 2π radians. Then
the phase shift equals ±π whenever Δφ = π + 2nπ, for all integer
values of n. Substituting this into the phase equation, we have
π + 2nπ = −(5.00 rad/cm)x + (8.00 rad/s)t
At t = 2.00 s,
π + 2nπ = −(5.00 rad/cm)x + (8.00 rad/s)(2.00 s)
or (5.00 rad/cm)x = (16.0 − π − 2nπ) rad
The smallest positive value of x is found when n = 2:
(16.0 – 5π ) rad
x= = 0.058 4 cm
5.00 rad/cm

*P18.12 2A0 cos ()

φ
2
φ
= A0 so = cos −1
2
1
2
= 60.0° =
π
3 ()
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 946 Superposition and Standing Waves

Thus, the phase difference is

2π
φ = 120° =
3
This phase difference results if the time delay is
T 1 λ
= =
3 3 f 3v
3.00 m
Time delay = = 0.500 s
3 ( 2.00 m/s )
v 344 m s
P18.13 (a) First we calculate the wavelength: λ = = = 16.0 m
f 21.5 Hz
Then we note that the path difference equals
1
9.00 m − 1.00 m = λ
2
Point A is one-half wavelength farther from one speaker
than from the other. The waves from the two sources
interfere destructively, so the receiver records a minimum
in sound intensity.

(b) We choose the origin at the midpoint between the speakers. If the
receiver is located at point (x, y), then we must solve:
1
( x + 5.00)2 + y 2 − ( x − 5.00)2 + y 2 = λ
2
Then,
1
( x + 5.00)2 + y 2 = ( x − 5.00)2 + y 2 + λ
2
Square both sides and simplify to get
λ2
20.0x − =λ ( x − 5.00)2 + y 2
4
Upon squaring again, this reduces to
λ4
= λ 2 ( x − 5.00 ) + λ 2 y 2
2
400x − 10.0λ x +
2 2

16.0
Substituting, λ = 16.0 m, and reducing,
9.00x 2 − 16.0y 2 = 144

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 Chapter 18 947

Note that the equation 9.00x2 – 16.0y2 = 144 represents two

hyperbolas: one passes through the x axis at x = +4.00 m; the
second, which is the mirror image of the first, passes through
x = –4.00 m to the left of the y axis.
(c) Solve for y in terms of x:
9x 2 − 16y 2 = 144
Then
9 2 3 16
y=± x − 9 = ± x 1− 2
16 4 x
3 16
y = ± x 1− 2
4 x
For very large x, the square root term approaches 1:
3 16 3
y = ± x 1− 2 → y=± x
4 x 4
To the right of the origin, for large x the hyperbola approaches the
shape of a straight line above and below the x axis.
Yes; the limiting form of the path is two straight lines through
the origin with slope ±0.75.

Section 18.2 Standing Waves

⎛ φ⎞ ⎛ φ⎞
P18.14 (a) From the resultant wave y = 2A sin ⎜ kx + ⎟ cos ⎜ ω t − ⎟ ,
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
the shape of the wave form is determined by the term
⎛ φ⎞
sin ⎜ kx + ⎟ .
⎝ 2⎠
φ nπ φ
The nodes are located at kx + = nπ , or where x = − .
2 k 2k
The separation of adjacent nodes is
π φ nπ φ ⎤ π λ
Δx = ⎡⎢( n + 1) − ⎤⎥ − ⎡⎢ − = =
⎣ k 2k ⎦ ⎣ k 2k ⎥⎦ k 2
The nodes are still separated by half a wavelength.

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 948 Superposition and Standing Waves

φ nπ φ
(b) Yes. The nodes are located at kx + = nπ , so that x = − ,
2 k 2k
φ
which means that each node is shifted to the left by the phase
2r
difference between the traveling waves in comparison to the case
in which φ = 0.

P18.15 y = ( 1.50 m ) sin ( 0.400x ) cos ( 200t ) = 2A0 sin kx cos ω t

Compare corresponding parts:
2π
(a) k= = 0.400 rad m
λ
2π
λ= = 15.7 m
0.400 rad m
ω 200 rad s
(b) ω = 2π f so f = = = 31.8 Hz
2π 2π rad
(c) The speed of waves in the medium is
λ ω 200 rad s
v=λf = 2π kf = = = 500 m s
2π k 0.400 rad m
P18.16 From y = 2A0 sin kx cos ω t, we find
∂y ∂y
= 2A0 k cos kx cos ω t = −2A0ω sin kx sin ω t
∂x ∂t
∂2 y
= −2A0 k 2 sin kx cos ω t
∂x 2
∂2 y
= −2A0ω 2 sin kx cos ω t
∂t 2

Substitution into the wave equation gives

⎛ 1⎞
−2A0 k 2 sin kx cos ω t = ⎜ 2 ⎟ ( −2A0ω 2 sin kx cos ω t )
⎝v ⎠
ω
This is satisfied, provided that v = . But this is true, because
k
λ ω
v=λf = 2π f =
2π k

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 Chapter 18 949

P18.17 y1 = 3.00 sin [π ( x + 0.600t )] ; y 2 = 3.00 sin [π ( x − 0.600t )]

y = y1 + y 2 = ⎡⎣ 3.00 sin (π x ) cos ( 0.600π t ) + 3.00 sin (π x ) cos ( 0.600π t ) ⎤⎦

y = ( 6.00 cm ) sin (π x ) cos ( 0.600π t )

We can take cos ( 0.600π t ) = 1 to get the maximum y.

(a) At x = 0.250 cm, y max = ( 6.00 cm ) sin ( 0.250π ) = 4.24 cm

(b) At x = 0.500 cm, y max = ( 6.00 cm ) sin ( 0.500π ) = 6.00 cm

(c) At x = 1.50 cm, y max = ( 6.00 cm ) sin ( 1.50π ) = 6.00 cm

(d) The antinodes occur where
π
sin (π x ) = ±1 → π x = n
2
n
or where x = , where n = 1, 3, 5, 7,... and x is in centimeters.
2
1
n = 1: x1 = = 0.500 cm as in (b)
2
3
n = 3: x2 = = 1.50 cm as in (c)
2
5
n = 5: x3 = = 2.50 cm
2
P18.18 (a) ANS. FIG. P18.18 shows the graphs for t = 0, t = 5 ms, t =10 ms,
t = 15 ms, and t = 20 ms. The units of the x and y axes are
meters.

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 950 Superposition and Standing Waves

ANS. FIG. P18.18

(b) In any one picture, the wavelength is the smallest distance
along the x axis that contains a nonrepeating shape. The
wavelength is λ = 4 m.

(c) The frequency is the inverse of the period. The period is the
time the wave takes to go from a full amplitude starting
shape to the inversion of that shape and then back to the
original shape. The period is the time interval between the
top and bottom graphs: 20 ms. The frequency is
1/0.020 s = 50 Hz.

(d) 4 m. By comparison with the wave function

y = (2A sin kx) cos ω t,
we identify k = π /2, and then compute λ = 2π /k.

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 Chapter 18 951

(e) 50 Hz. By comparison with the wave function

y = (2A sin kx)cos ω t,
we identify ω = 2π f = 100π .

P18.19 The facing speakers produce a standing wave in the space between
them, with the spacing between nodes being
λ v 343 m s
dNN = = = = 0.214 m
2 2 f 2 ( 800 s −1 )

If the speakers vibrate in phase, the point halfway between them is an

antinode of pressure at a distance from either speaker of
1.25 m
= 0.625 m
2
Then there is a node one-quarter of a wavelength away at
0.214
0.625 − = 0.518 m
2
from either speaker, after which, there is a node every half-
wavelength:
a node at 0.518 m − 0.214 m = 0.303 m

a node at 0.303 m − 0.214 m = 0.089 1 m

a node at 0.518 m + 0.214 m = 0.732 m

a node at 0.732 m + 0.214 m = 0.947 m

and a node at 0.947 m + 0.214 m = 1.16 m from either

speaker.

Section 18.3 Analysis Model: Waves Under

Boundary Conditions
*P18.20 We are given L = 120 cm, f = 120 Hz.
(a) For four segments, L = 2 λ or λ = 60.0 cm = 0.600 m .
v 72.0 m/s
(b) v = λ f = 72.0 m/s, f1 = = = 30.0 Hz
2L 2 ( 1.20 m )

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 952 Superposition and Standing Waves

P18.21 Using Lv for the vibrating portion of the string of total length L,
v 1 T 1 MgL
f = = =
2Lv 2Lv µ 2Lv m

1 ( 4.00 kg )( 9.80 m/s2 )( 5.00 m )

= = 19.6 Hz
2 ( 4.00 m ) 0.008 00 kg
P18.22 The frequency of vibration of a string is determined by the wave speed
and the wavelength of the standing wave on the string. The length of
the string and mode number n determines the size of the allowed
wavelengths:
λ = 2L/n
v v v
f = = =n
λ 2L n 2L
As long as the wave speed does not change,
n
f ∝
L
and so we may compare frequencies of vibrations for different modes
and lengths of string:
f2 n2 L1
=
f1 n1L2
When the string is pressed down on the fret, the wave speed on the
string remains the same, but the length of the vibrating string is
smaller. When the string is plucked, it vibrates at the fundamental
frequency (n = 1) corresponding to the shorter length of the string. We
can compare frequencies and length of vibrating string thus:
f2 n2 L1
=
f1 n1L2
For the original length of string, L1 = L = 0.640 m, n1 = 1, and
f1 = 330 Hz.
(a) When the string is stopped at the fret,
2
L2 = L1 , and n1 = n2 = 1.
3
f2 n2 L1 ( 1) L1 3
= = =
2
f1 n1L2
( 1)⎛⎝ L1 ⎞⎠ 2
3
3 ANS. FIG. P18.22(a)
f2 = f1 = 495 Hz
2

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 Chapter 18 953

(b) The light touch at a point one-third of

the way along the string forces the
point of contact to be a node while
still allowing the entire string to vibrate.
The whole string vibrates in three loops;
therefore, the string vibrates in its third ANS. FIG. P18.22(b)
resonance possibility (n = 3):
f2 n2 L1
=
f1 n1L2
f2 ( 3 ) L1
= → f2 = 3 f1 = 990 Hz
f1 ( 1) L1
P18.23 When the string vibrates in the lowest
frequency mode, the length of string
forms a standing wave where L = λ/2,
so the fundamental harmonic
wavelength is
λ = 2L = 2 ( 0.700 m )
= 1.40 m
and the speed is
v = λ f = ( 220 s −1 )( 1.40 m )
= 308 m/s
(a) From the tension equation ANS. FIG. P18.23

T T
v= =
µ m/ L

we get T = v2m/L,
(308 m/s)2 ( 1.20 × 10 –3 kg )
or T= = 163 N
0.700 m
(b) For the third harmonic, the tension, linear density, and speed
are the same, but the string vibrates in three segments. Thus,
the wavelength is one third as long as in the fundamental.
λ3 = λ1/3
From the equation v = f λ, we find the frequency is three times as
high.
v v
f3 = = 3 = 3 f1 = 660 Hz
λ3 λ1

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 954 Superposition and Standing Waves

P18.24 (a) Because the string is taut and is fixed at both ends, any standing
waves will have nodes (which are multiples of λ/2 apart). The
wavelengths of all possible modes on the string are:
2L
λn = , where n = 1, 2, 3,…
n
The fundamental (n = 1) wavelength must then have a
wavelength λ exactly twice the string length, or
2L
λ1 = = 2 ( 2.60 m ) = 5.20 m
1
(b) No. We do not know the speed of waves on the string. To obtain
the frequencies on the string,
v 1 T
fn = n =
2L 2L µ
it is necessary to have either the wave velocity v or the tension T
and mass density µ of the string. We do not know these; therefore,
it is not possible to find the frequency of this mode on the string.
P18.25 Because the piano string is fixed at both end, it will have nodes at each
end, and also a node between the two antinodes. Thus, this standing
wave pattern represents one full wavelength.
(a) Thus, this is second harmonic .
2L
(b) And, because λn = , where n = 1, 2, 3,…
n
2L 2 ( 74.0 cm )
The wavelength is λ2 = = = 74.0 cm .
n 2
(c) Because nodes are at both ends and in the middle, the number of
nodes is 3 .
P18.26 The wave speed is
T 20.0 N
v= = = 47.1 m/s
µ 9.00 × 10−3 kg/m
For a vibrating string of length L fixed at both ends, there are nodes at
both ends. The wavelength of the fundamental is λ = 2dNN = 2L =
0.600 m, and the frequency is
v v 47.1 m/s
f1 = = = = 78.6 Hz
λ 2L 0.600 m

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 Chapter 18 955

After NAN, the next three vibration possibilities read NANAN,

NANANAN, and NANANANAN. Each has just one more node and
one more antinode than the one before. Respectively, these string
waves have wavelengths of one-half, one-third, and one-quarter of
60.0 cm. The harmonic frequencies are
f2 = 2 f1 = 157 Hz

f3 = 3 f1 = 236 Hz

f 4 = 4 f1 = 314 Hz
P18.27 (a) Let n be the number of nodes in the standing wave resulting from
the 25.0-kg mass. Then n + 1 is the number of nodes for the
standing wave resulting from the 16.0-kg mass. For standing
2L v
waves, λ = and the frequency is f = . The frequency does
n λ
not change as the masses are changed.
n Tn n + 1 Tn+1
Thus, f = and also f = .
2L µ 2L µ
Equating the expressions for f, we have

n+1
=
Tn
=
( 25.0 kg ) g = 5
n Tn+1 (16.0 kg ) g 4
Therefore, 4n + 4 = 5n, or n = 4. Using either expression for f, we
find

4 ( 25.0 kg )( 9.80 m s2 )
f = = 350 Hz
2 ( 2.00 m ) 0.002 00 kg m

(b) For tension Tn = mg, we write

n Tn n mg 4L2 f 2 µ
f = = → m=
2L µ 2L µ n2 g
We solve for m for n = 1:
4 ( 2.00 m ) ( 350 Hz ) ( 0.002 00 kg/m )
2 2

m= = 400 kg
(1)2 ( 9.80 m/s 2 )
*P18.28 (a) For a standing wave of 6 loops, 6 ( λ / 2 ) = L, or

λ = L/ 3 = ( 2.00 m ) / 3

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 956 Superposition and Standing Waves

The speed of the waves in the string is then

⎛ 2.00 m ⎞
⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ (
v=λf =⎜ 150 Hz −1 ) = 1.00 × 102 m/s

Since the tension in the string is

F = mg = ( 5.00 kg ) ( 9.80 m/s 2 ) = 49.0 N

F
v= gives
µ
F 49.0 N −3
µ= = 2 = 4.90 × 10 kg/m
v 2
(1.00 × 10 m/s )
2

(b) If m = 45.0 kg, then

F = mg = ( 45.0 kg ) ( 9.80 m/s 2 ) = 4.41 × 102 N
and
4.41 × 102 N
v= = 3.00 × 102 m/s
4.90 × 10−3 kg/m
Thus, the wavelength will be
v 3.00 × 102 m/s
λ= = = 2.00 m
f 150 Hz
and the number of loops is
L 2.00 m
n= = = 2
λ / 2 1.00 m
(c) If m = 10.0 kg, the tension is
F = mg = ( 10.0 kg ) ( 9.80 m/s 2 ) = 98.0 N
and
98.0 N
v= = 1.41 × 102 m/s
4.90 × 10−3 kg/m
Then,
v 1.41 × 102 m/s
λ= = = 0.943 m
f 150 Hz
L 2.00 m
and n = = is not an integer,
λ / 2 0.471 m
so no standing wave will form .

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 Chapter 18 957

P18.29 In the fundamental mode, the string above the rod has only two nodes,
at A and B, with an antinode halfway between A and B. Thus,
λ L 2L
= AB = or λ =
2 cos θ cos θ
Since the fundamental frequency is f, the wave speed in this segment
of string is
2Lf
v=λf =
cos θ
Because of the pulley, the string has tension T = Mg.
Also,
T Mg MgL
v= = =
µ m AB m cos θ
Thus,
2Lf MgL 4L2 f 2 MgL
= or =
cos θ m cos θ cos θ m cos θ
2

and the mass of string above the rod is:

Mg cos θ ( 1.00 kg ) ( 9.80 m/s ) cos 35.0°
2

m= = = 1.86 g
4 ( 60.0 Hz ) ( 0.300 m )
2
4 f 2L
P18.30 In the fundamental mode, the string above the rod has only two nodes,
at A and B, with an anti-node halfway between A and B. Thus,
λ L 2L
= AB = or λ=
2 cos θ cos θ
Since the fundamental frequency is f, the wave speed in this segment
of string is
2Lf
v=λf =
cos θ
Because of the pulley, the string has tension T = Mg.
Also,
T Mg MgL
v= = =
µ m AB m cos θ
Thus,
2Lf MgL 4L2 f 2 MgL
= or =
cos θ m cos θ cos θ m cos θ
2

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 958 Superposition and Standing Waves

and the mass of string above the rod is:

Mg cos θ
m=
4 f 2L

P18.31 When the open string vibrates in its fundamental mode it produces
concert G. When concert A is played, the shorter length of string
vibrates in its fundamental mode also.
v v LA f
(a) λG = 2LG = ; λ A = 2LA = , and = G
fG fA LG fA

⎛L ⎞ ⎛ f ⎞ ⎛ f ⎞
LG − LA = LG − ⎜ A ⎟ LG = LG − ⎜ G ⎟ LG = LG ⎜ 1 − G ⎟
⎝ LG ⎠ ⎝ fA ⎠ ⎝ fA ⎠
⎛ 392 ⎞
LG − LA = ( 0.350 m ) ⎜ 1 − ⎟ = 0.038 2 m
⎝ 440 ⎠
Thus, LA = LG − 0.038 2 m = 0.350 m − 0.038 2 m = 0.312 m,

or the finger should be placed 31.2 cm from the bridge .

(b) If the position of the finger is correct within dL = 0.600 cm when

the note is played, by how much can the tension be off so that the
note is the same? We want to find the maximum allowable
percentage change in tension, dT/T, that will compensate for a
small percentage change in position, dL/L, so that the change in
the fundamental frequency, df, is zero.
From the expression for the fundamental frequency,
v 1 T
f = = , we require df = 0.
2L 2L µ

−dL T 1 1 dT dL T 1 dT
df = + =0 → =
2L µ 2L 2 T µ
2
2L2 µ 4L T µ
dL T 1 T dT dT dL
→ = → =2
L µ 2 µ T T L
⎛ 0.600 cm ⎞
= 2⎜ → 3.85%
⎝ 31.2 cm ⎟⎠

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 Chapter 18 959

P18.32 Let m = ρV represent the mass of the copper cylinder. The original
tension in the wire is T1 = mg = ρVg. The water exerts a buoyant force
⎛V⎞
ρwater ⎜ ⎟ g on the cylinder, to reduce the tension to
⎝ 2⎠

⎛V⎞ ⎛ ρ ⎞
T2 = ρVg − ρwater ⎜ ⎟ g = ⎜ ρ − water ⎟ Vg
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

T1 T2
The speed of a wave on the string changes from to . The
µ µ
frequency changes from
v1 T1 1 T2 1
f1 = = to f2 =
λ µ λ µ λ
where we assume λ = 2L is constant.
Then
f2 T2 ρ − ρwater 2 8.92 − 1.00 2
= = =
f1 T1 ρ 8.92
and
8.42
f2 = ( 300 Hz ) = 291 Hz
8.92
P18.33 Comparing y = 0.002 00 sin (π x ) cos ( 100π t ) with y = 2A sin kx cos ω t,
2π
we find k= = π m −1 → λ = 2.00 m, and
λ
ω = 2π f = 100π s −1 → f = 50.0 Hz
λ
(a) The distance between adjacent nodes is dNN = = 1.00 m,
2
L 3.00 m
and on the string there are = = 3 loops .
dNN 1.00 m

(b) For the speed we have v = ω k = 100π s –1 π m –1 = 100 m/s.

λb
In the simplest standing wave vibration, dNN = 3.00 m = ,
2
va 100 m s
λb = 6.00 m, and fb = = = 16.7 Hz .
λb 6.00 m

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 960 Superposition and Standing Waves

T0
(c) In v0 = , if the tension increases to Tc = 9T0 and the string
µ
does not stretch, the speed increases to
9T0 T
vc = = 3 0 = 3v0 = 3 ( 100 m s ) = 300 m s
µ µ
vc 300 m s λc
Then λc = = = 6.00 m, dNN = = 3.00 m,
fa 50 Hz 2

and one loop fits onto the string.

Section 18.4 Resonance

P18.34 The wave speed is v = gd = ( 9.80 m s )( 36.1 m ) = 18.8 m s.
2

The bay has one end open and one closed. Its simplest resonance is
with a node of horizontal velocity, which is also an antinode of vertical
displacement, at the head of the bay and an antinode of velocity, which
is a node of displacement, at the mouth.
λ
Then, dNA = 210 × 103 m =
4
and λ = 840 × 103 m.
Therefore, the period is
1 λ 840 × 103 m
T= = = = 4.47 × 10 4 s = 12 h, 24 min
f v 18.8 m s

The natural frequency of the water sloshing in the bay agrees precisely
with that of lunar excitation, so we identify the extra-high tides as
amplified by resonance.

9.15 m
P18.35 (a) The wave speed is v = = 3.66 m/s .
2.50 s
(b) There are antinodes at both ends of the pond, so the distance
λ
between adjacent antinodes is dAA = = 9.15 m and the
2
wavelength is λ = 18.3 m

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 Chapter 18 961

v 3.66 m/s
The frequency is then f = = = 0.200 Hz .
λ 18.3 m
We have assumed the wave speed on water is the same for all
wavelengths.
P18.36 The distance between adjacent nodes is one-quarter of the
circumference.
λ 20.0 cm
dNN = dAA = = = 5.00 cm
2 4
so λ = 10.0 cm
v 900 m/s
and f= = = 9 000 Hz = 9.00 kHz
λ 0.100 m
The singer must match this frequency quite precisely for some interval
of time to feed enough energy into the glass to crack it.

Section 18.5 Standing Waves in Air Columns

*P18.37 Assuming an air temperature of T = 37.0°C = 310 K, the speed of sound
inside the pipe is
v = 331 m s + ( 0.600 m/s ⋅ °C ) ( 37.0°C ) = 353 m/s
In the fundamental resonant mode, the wavelength of sound waves in
a pipe closed at one end is λ = 4L. Thus, for the whooping crane,
λ = 4 ( 5.00 ft ) = 2.00 × 101 ft
and

f =
v
=
( 353 m s ) 3.281 ft =
λ ( 2.00 × 101 ft ) 1 m (
57.9 Hz )
18.38 At T = 37.0°C = 310 K, the speed of sound in air is
TC 37.0
v = (331 m/s) 1 + = (331 m/s) 1 + = 353 m/s
273 273
Thus, the wavelength of 3 000-Hz sound is
v 353 m/s
λ= = = 0.118 m
f 3 000 Hz

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 962 Superposition and Standing Waves

For the fundamental resonant mode in a pipe closed at one end, the
length required is
λ 0.118 m
L= = = 0.029 4 m = 2.94 cm
4 4
P18.39 (a) For the fundamental mode in a closed
pipe, λ = 4L, as in the diagram.
v
But v = fλ, therefore L = .
4f
343 m s
so, L= = 0.357 m
4 ( 240 s −1 )

(b) For an open pipe, λ = 2L, as in the

diagram. ANS. FIG. P18.39
v 343 m/s
So, L = = = 0.715 m
2f 2 ( 240 s −1 )

P18.40 The 32.0-cm length corresponds to dAA = 0.320 m, which gives a

wavelength of
λ = 2dAA = 2 ( 0.320 m ) = 0.640 m
(a) The frequency of the lowest note is
v 343 m/s
f = = = 536 Hz
λ 0.640 m
(b) For a 4 000 Hz high note,
λ v 343 m/s
dAA = = = = 0.042 9 m = 42.9 mm
2 2 f 8 000 Hz
v 343 m/s
P18.41 (a) The wavelength is λ = = = 1.31 m,
f 261.6/s

ANS. FIG. P18.41

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 Chapter 18 963

so the length of the open pipe vibrating in its simplest (ANA)

mode is
1
dA to A = λ = 0.656 m
2
(b) A closed pipe has (NA) for its simplest resonance, (NANA) for
the second, and (NANANA) for the third, equal to 5/4
wavelengths.
5λ 5
Here, the pipe length is 5dN to A = = ( 1.31 m ) = 1.64 m
4 4
P18.42 At TC = 0.00°C, the speed of sound is

TC
v = 331 m s 1 + = 331 m s
273
(a) For a pipe closed at one end,
v 331 m/s
f1 = = = 17.0 Hz
4L 4 ( 4.88 m )
(b) For a pipe open at each end,
v 331 m/s
f1 = = = 33.9 Hz
2L 2 ( 4.88 m )
(c) At TC = 20.0°C, the speed of sound is v = 343 m/s.
closed at one end:
v 343 m/s
f1 = = = 17.6 Hz
4L 4 ( 4.88 m )
open at each end:
v 343 m/s
f1 = = = 35.1 Hz
2L 2 ( 4.88 m )
P18.43 For resonance in a narrow tube open at one end,
v
f =n
4L
( n = 1, 3, 5, …)
(a) The node–node distance is
dNN = 68.3 cm – 22.8 cm = 45.5 cm

ANS. FIG. P18.43

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 964 Superposition and Standing Waves

This distance is equal to half the wavelength, so,

v = λ f = 2dNN f
= 2 ( 0.455 m ) ( 384 Hz )
= 349 m/s

(b) Resonance will be established when the tube length has increased
by another half wavelength: 68.3 cm + 45.5 = 113.8 = 1.14 m
P18.44 The tube acts as a pipe open at one end and closed at the other.
Resonance frequencies are odd harmonics. The length corresponding
to the fundamental satisfies
v v 343 m/s
f1 = : L1 = = = 0.167 m
4L 4 f1 4 ( 512 s −1 )

Since L > 20.0 cm, the next two modes will be observed,
3v 5v
corresponding to f2 = and f3 = ,
4L2 4L3
3v 5v
or L2 = = 3 f1 = 0.502 m and L3 = = 5 f1 = 0.837 m .
4 f2 4 f3
P18.45 (a) For the fundamental mode of an open tube,
λ1 v 343 m s
L= = = = 0.195 m
2 2 f1 2 ( 880 s −1 )

(b) v = 331 m s 1 +
( −5.00) = 328 ms
273
We ignore the thermal expansion of the metal.
v v 328 m s
f1 = = = = 841 Hz
λ1 2L 2 ( 0.195 m )
The flute is flat by a semitone.
P18.46 For a closed box, the resonant frequencies will have nodes at both
2L
sides, so the permitted wavelengths will be λ = , (n = 1, 2, 3, …),
n
nλ nv nv
i.e., L= = and f = .
2 2f 2L

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 Chapter 18 965

Therefore, with L = 0.860 m, L′ = 2.10 m, and v = 355 m/s, the resonant

frequencies are
fn = n ( 206 Hz ) for L = 0.860 m for each n from 1 to 9

and fn′ = n ( 84.5 Hz ) for L′ = 2.10 m for each n from 2 to 23.

λ L nλ
*P18.47 = dAA = or L = for n = 1, 2, 3, …
2 n 2
v ⎛ v ⎞
Since λ = , L = n⎜ for n = 1, 2, 3, …
f ⎝ 2 f ⎟⎠
With v = 343 m/s and f = 680 Hz,
⎛ 343 m s ⎞
L = n⎜ = n ( 0.252 m ) for n = 1, 2, 3, …
⎝ 2 ( 680 Hz ) ⎟⎠
Possible lengths for resonance are:
L = 0.252 m, 0.504 m, 0.757 m, …, n ( 0.252 ) m

P18.48 (a) The open ends of the tunnel are antinodes, so dAA = 2 000 m/n,
with n = 1, 2, 3,…
Then
λ = 2dAA = 4 000 m/n
and
v 343 m/s
f= = = 0.085 8n Hz, with n = 1, 2, 3,...
λ 4 000 m/n
(b) It is a good rule. Any car horn would produce several or many
of the closely-spaced resonance frequencies of the air in the
tunnel, so it would be greatly amplified. Other drivers might be
frightened directly into dangerous behavior, or might blow their
horns also.

v
P18.49 The wavelength of the sound from the tuning fork is λ = . The
f
cylinder is a pipe open at the top and closed at the water surface; its
resonance patterns are AN, ANAN, ANANAN, etc. Resonance occurs
each time the height of the air column changes by half a wavelength:
v
Δh = . The volume of the pipe between these two water levels is
2f
π r 2 Δh, which is also equal to the amount of water that has entered the
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 966 Superposition and Standing Waves

pipe at rate R in a time interval Δt and has filled this volume.

Therefore,
π r2v π r2v
RΔt = π r 2 Δh = → Δt =
2f 2Rf

π r 2 v π ( 0.050 0 m ) ( 343 m/s ) ⎛ 1 L ⎞ ⎛ 100 cm ⎞

2 3

Δt = = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
2Rf 2 ( 1.00 L/min ) ( 512 Hz ) ⎝ 103 cm 3 ⎠ ⎝ m ⎠
⎛ 60 s ⎞
= ( 2.63 min ) ⎜ = 158 s
⎝ 1 min ⎟⎠
v
P18.50 The wavelength of the sound from the tuning fork is λ = . The
f
cylinder is a pipe open at the top and closed at the water surface; its
resonance patterns are AN, ANAN, ANANAN, etc. Resonance occurs
each time the height of the air column changes by half a wavelength:
v
Δh = . The volume of the pipe between these two water levels is
2f
π r 2 Δh, which is also equal to the amount of water that has entered the
pipe at rate R in a time interval ∆t and has filled this volume.
Therefore,

π r2v π r2v
RΔt = π r Δh = 2
→ Δt =
2f 2Rf

P18.51 For both open and closed pipes, resonant frequencies are equally
spaced as numbers. The set of resonant frequencies then must be
650 Hz, 550 Hz, 450 Hz, 350 Hz, 250 Hz, 150 Hz, 50 Hz. These are odd-
integer multipliers of the fundamental frequency of 50.0 Hz . Then
λ v 343 m s
the pipe length is dNA = = = = 1.72 m .
4 4 f 4 ( 50.0 s −1 )
P18.52 For an air column of length 0.730 m, the column may be open ended or
closed at one end. For a column open at both ends:
v
fn = n where n = 1, 2, 3,…
2L
v 343 m/s
fn = n =n = n ( 235 Hz ) where n = 1, 2, 3,…
2L 2 ( 0.730 m )

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 Chapter 18 967

And thus 235 Hz belongs to the harmonic series of an open column

(with n = 1), but 587 Hz does not match this harmonic series.
Similarly, for a column open only at one end:
v
fn = n , where n = 1, 3, 5,… (only odd harmonics)
4L
v 343 m/s
fn = n =n = n( 117.5 Hz ) , where n = 1, 3, 5,...
4L 4 ( 0.730 m )
and 587 Hz belongs to the harmonic series of a column open at only
one end (for n = 5), but 235 Hz does not match this harmonic series.
Therefore, it is impossible because a single column could not produce
both frequencies.
P18.53 (a) The well acts like a pipe open at one end and closed at the other.
The normal modes of vibrations of such a pipe are odd harmonics
of a fundamental. Call L the depth of the well and v the speed of
sound.
Then for some integer n,
λ1 v ( 2n − 1) ( 343 m s )
L = ( 2n − 1) = ( 2n − 1) =
4 4 f1 4 ( 51.87 s −1 )
and for the next resonance
λ v ( 2n + 1) ( 343 m s )
L = [ 2 ( n + 1) − 1] 2 = ( 2n + 1) =
4 4 f2 4 ( 59.85 s −1 )
Thus,
( 2n − 1) ( 343 m s) ( 2n + 1) ( 343 m s)
=
4 ( 51.87 s −1
) 4 ( 59.85 s −1
)
2n + 1 2n − 1
and we require an integer solution to = .
59.85 51.87
The equation gives n = 7, which gives us

L=
[ 2 (7 ) − 1]( 343 m s ) = [ 2 (7 ) + 1]( 343 m s )
= 21.5 m
4 ( 51.87 s ) −1
4 ( 59.85 s ) −1

(b) The first harmonic (fundamental frequency) of the well is f1 =

v/4L = (343 m/s)/[4(21.5 m)] = 3.99 Hz; its pattern is AN. The 3rd
harmonic pattern is ANAN, the 5th is ANANAN, etc. We can see
that a pattern with n antinodes is the (2n – 1)th harmonic. The
frequency 51.87 Hz = 13(3.99 Hz) is the 13th harmonic: 13 = 2(7) –
1, so the standing wave has 7 antinodes.

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 968 Superposition and Standing Waves

Section 18.6 Standing Waves in Rods and Membranes

P18.54 When the rod is clamped at one-quarter of its length, the vibration
pattern reads ANANA and the rod length is L = 2dAA = λ .
v 5 100 m s
Therefore, L= = = 1.16 m
f 4 400 Hz
P18.55 (a) The mode pattern is ANA, corresponding to the fundamental
mode. The length of the rod is one wavelength:
v 5 100
f = = = 1.59 kHz
2L ( 2 ) ( 1.60 )
(b) Since it is held in the center, there must be a node in the center
as well as antinodes at the ends. The even harmonics have an
antinode at the center so only the odd harmonics are present.

(c) The wavelength is the same as in (a):

v′ 3 560
f = = = 1.11 kHz
2L ( 2 ) ( 1.60 )

Section 18.7 Beats: Interference in Time

P18.56 (a) The string could be tuned to either 521 Hz or 525 Hz from this
evidence.
(b) Tightening the string raises the wave speed and frequency. If the
frequency were originally 521 Hz, the beats would slow down.
Instead, the frequency must have started at 525 Hz to become
526 Hz .

v T µ 1 T
(c) From f = = = ,
λ 2L 2L µ
2
f2 T2 ⎛ f ⎞
= and T2 = ⎜ 2 ⎟ T1 .
f1 T1 ⎝ f1 ⎠

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 Chapter 18 969

The fractional change that should be made in the tension is then

2
T − T1 T2 ⎛ f ⎞
fractional change = 2 = − 1 = T2 = ⎜ 2 ⎟ − 1
T1 T1 ⎝ f1 ⎠
2
⎛ 523 ⎞
=⎜ − 1 = −0.011 4 = −1.14%
⎝ 526 ⎟⎠

The tension should be reduced by 1.14% .

P18.57 Combining the velocity and the tension equations v = f λ and

v = T/µ , we find that the frequency is

T
f =
µλ 2
Since μ and λ are constant, we can apply that equation to both
frequencies, and then divide the two equations to get the proportion

f1 T1
=
f2 T2

With f1 = 110 Hz, T1 = 600 N, and T2 = 540 N we have

540 N
f2 = (110 Hz) = 104.4 Hz
600 N
The beat frequency is

fb = f1 − f2 = 110 Hz − 104.4 Hz = 5.64 beats s

⎛ v + vO ⎞
P18.58 We use f ′ = ⎜ ⎟ f . The observer is stationary, so v0 = 0.
⎝ v − vS ⎠
For the approaching train vs = +8.00 m/s; the frequency arriving at the
observer is
⎛ v ⎞ ⎛ 343 m/s ⎞ ⎛ 343 m/s ⎞
f1′ = ⎜ f =⎜ ⎟ f =⎜ f
⎟
⎝ v − vS ⎠ ⎝ 343 m/s − 8.00 m/s ⎠ ⎝ 335 m/s ⎟⎠

For the receding train is vs = –8.00 m/s; the frequency arriving at the
observer is
⎛ v ⎞ ⎛ 343 m/s ⎞ ⎛ 343 m/s ⎞
f2′ = ⎜ f = f =⎜ f
⎟
⎝ v − vS ⎠ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 343 m/s − ( −8.00 m/s ) ⎠ ⎝ 351 m/s ⎟⎠

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 970 Superposition and Standing Waves

The beat frequency between the waves emanating from the trains is
f beat = | f1 − f2 |
and, because the receding train produces a lower frequency,
⎛ 343 m/s ⎞ ⎛ 343 m/s ⎞
f1′ − f2′ = f beat → ⎜ ⎟ f −⎜ f = 4.00 Hz
⎝ 335 m/s ⎠ ⎝ 351 m/s ⎟⎠
⎡⎛ 343 m/s ⎞ ⎛ 343 m/s ⎞ ⎤
⎢⎜⎝ 335 m/s ⎟⎠ − ⎜⎝ 351 m/s ⎟⎠ ⎥ f = 4.00 Hz → f = 85.7 Hz
⎣ ⎦
P18.59 The source moves toward the wall:

vs = +vstudent, v0 = 0, and f′ = f
( v + vo ) = f v
.
( v − vs ) ( v − vstudent )
The wall acts as stationary source, reflecting the wave of frequency f ′.
The observe moves toward the source: vs = 0, v0 = +vstudent, and

f ′′ = f ′
( v + vo ) = f ′ ( v + vs ) = f v ( v + vstudent )
( v − vs ) v ( v − vstudent ) v

= f
( v + vstudent )
( v − vstudent )
(a) When the student walks toward the wall f ′′ is larger than f; the
beat frequency is

fb = f ′′ − f = f
( v + vstudent ) − f = ⎡ ( v + vstudent )
f⎢
⎤
− 1⎥
( v − vstudent ) ⎣ ( v − vstudent ) ⎦
2vstudent
= f
( v − vstudent )
2 ( 1.33 m/s )
fb = ( 256 Hz ) = 1.99 Hz
( 343 m/s − 1.33 m/s )
(b) When he is moving away from the wall, the sign of vstudent changes
and f ′′ is smaller than f:

fb = f ′′ − f = f − f
( v − vstudent ) = ⎡ ( v − vstudent ) ⎤
f ⎢1 − ⎥
( v + vstudent ) ⎣ ( v + vstudent ) ⎦
2vstudent
= f
( v + vstudent )

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 Chapter 18 971

Solving for vstudent gives

vstudent =
fb v
=
( 5 Hz ) ( 343 m/s ) = 3.38 m/s
2 f − fb ( 2 ) ( 256 Hz ) − 5 Hz

Section 18.8 Nonsinusoidal Wave Patterns

*P18.60 We list the frequencies of the harmonics of each note in Hz:

Harmonic

Note 1 2 3 4 5

A 440.00 880.00 1 320.0 1 760.0 2 200.0

C# 554.37 1 108.7 1 663.1 2 217.5 2 771.9

E 659.26 1 318.5 1 977.8 2 637.0 3 296.3

The second harmonic of E is close the the third harmonic of A,

and the fourth harmonic of C# is close to the fifth harmonic of A.

P18.61 We evaluate
s = 100 sin θ + 157 sin 2θ + 62.9 sin 3θ + 105 sin 4θ
+ 51.9 sin 5θ + 29.5 sin 6θ + 25.3 sin 7θ
where s represents particle displacement in nanometers and θ
represents the phase of the wave in radians. As θ advances by 2π, time
advances by (1/523) s. The resultant waveform is shown below in
ANS. FIG. P18.61.

ANS. FIG. P18.61

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 972 Superposition and Standing Waves

Additional Problems
*P18.62 (a) The fundamental wavelength of the pipe open at both ends is
λ = 2L = v / f1 . Since the speed of sound is 331 m/s at 0°C, the
length of the pipe is
v 331 m/s
L= = = 0.552 m
2 f1 2 ( 300 Hz )
(b) At T = 30.0°C = 303 K,
TK 303
v = ( 331 m/s ) = ( 331 m/s ) = 349 m/s
273 273
and
v v 349 m/s
f1 = = = = 316 Hz
λ1 2L 2 ( 0.552 m )
*P18.63 The second standing wave mode of the air in the pipe reads ANAN,
λ 1.75 m
with dNA = = ,
4 3
so λ = 2.33 m
v 343 m/s
and f = = = 147 Hz.
λ 2.33 m
For the string, λ and v are different but f is the same.
λ 0.400 m
= dNN =
2 2
so λ = 0.400 m.
T
v = λ f = ( 0.400 m ) ( 147 Hz ) = 58.8 m/s =
µ
T = µ v 2 = ( 9.00 × 10−3 kg/m ) ( 58.8 m/s )2 = 31.1 N
P18.64 The beat frequency between the waves emanating from the two strings
is
fbeat =| f1 − f2 |
and, because the decrease in tension causes the second frequency to be
lower,
f2 = f1 − fbeat = ( 150 Hz ) − ( 4 Hz ) = 146 Hz

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 Chapter 18 973

P18.65 At point D, the distance of the ship from point A is

d1 = d22 + ( 800 m ) = ( 600 m ) + ( 800 m ) = 1 000 m

2 2 2

Since destructive interference occurs for the first time when the ship
reaches D, it is necessary that d1 − d2 = λ 2 or

λ = 2 ( d1 − d2 ) = 2 ( 1 000 m − 600 m ) = 800 m

P18.66 According to Equation 18.6, the natural frequencies of vibration of a

string fixed at both ends are given by
n T n 20.0 N
fn = = = n ( 5.00 Hz )
2L µ 2 ( 2.00 m ) ⎛ 0.100 kg ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟
2.00 m ⎠
where n = 1, 2, 3, ...
(a) f1 = 5.0 Hz , f2 = 10.0 Hz , f3 = 15.0 Hz
(b) This could be any mode that has a node 0.400 m from an end. If
D = 0.400 m is the distance between adjacent nodes (the distance
across a pair of nodes), dNN = D = λ/2, and its wavelength is
0.800 m:
λ
= D → λ = 2D = 2 ( 0.400 m )
2
2L 2L 2L L 2.00 m
λ= → n= = = = =5
n λ 2D D 0.400 m
This mode corresponds to the 5th harmonic: f5 = 5(5.00 Hz) =
25.0 Hz. But D could be the distance across two pairs of nodes
(from node to node to node), dNNN = D = 2 ( λ/2 ) , or three pairs,
dNNN, or across N pairs of nodes:
λ
N = D → λ = 2D N
2
then,
2L 2L L 2.00 m
n= = =N =N = 5N
λ ( 2D N ) D 0.400 m
and so on, corresponding to the 10th, or the 15th harmonic, etc.
The frequency could be the fifth state at 25.0 Hz or any integer
multiple, such as the tenth state at 50.0 Hz, the fifteenth state at
75.0 Hz, and so on.

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 974 Superposition and Standing Waves

P18.67 When the string is plucked, nodes occur on the ends because they are
fixed. The plucked guitar string vibrates in its fundamental mode with
a wavelength equal to twice the length of the string. For the 2 349-Hz
note, the length of the vibrating string is L = 21.4 cm. For the 2 217-Hz
note, the length of the vibrating string is L + x, where x is the distance
to the next fret. We wish to solve for x.
We assume the wave speed is the same on each string. Compare the
frequencies to the lengths of vibrating string:
v
f1 = 2349 Hz =
2L
v
f2 = 2217 Hz =
2(L + x)
Taking the ratio,
f1 L + x x
= = 1+
f2 L L

⎛ f ⎞ ⎛ 2 349 Hz ⎞
x = L ⎜ 1 − 1⎟ = ( 21.4 cm ) ⎜ − 1 = 1.27 cm
⎝ f2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 217 Hz ⎟⎠

P18.68 (a) The frequency of the normal mode produces a sound wave of the
same frequency. For the same frequency, wavelength is
proportional to wave speed. On the string, the wave speed is

v=
T
=
( 48.0 N ) = 141 m s
µ ⎛ 4.80 × 10−3 kg ⎞
⎜⎝ 2.00 m ⎟⎠

which is smaller than the speed of sound (343 m/s).

The wavelength in air of the sound produced by the string is
larger because the wave speed is larger.
λair v f v 343 m/s
(b) = air = air = = 2.43
λstring vstring f vstring 141 m/s
λ
P18.69 dAA = = 7.05 × 10−3 m is the distance between
2
antinodes. Then λ = 14.1 × 10−3 m,
v 3.70 × 103 m/s
and f = = = 2.62 × 105 Hz , ANS. FIG. P18.69
λ 14.1 × 10−3 m
18
The crystal can be tuned to vibrate at 2 Hz, so that binary counters
can derive from it a signal at precisely 1 Hz.

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 Chapter 18 975

P18.70 (a) The particle under constant

acceleration model

(b) Waves under boundary conditions

model
ANS. FIG. P18.70
(c) For the block:
∑ Fx = T − Mg sin θ = 0
so T = Mg sin θ .

h
(d) The length of the section of string parallel to the incline is .
sin θ
The total length of the string is then

h h h sin θ ⎛ 1 + sin θ ⎞
L= +h= + = h⎜
sin θ sin θ sin θ ⎝ sin θ ⎟⎠

(e) The mass per unit length of the string is

m m m sin θ
µ= = =
L ⎛ 1 + sin θ ⎞ h ( 1 + sin θ )
h⎜
⎝ sin θ ⎟⎠
(f) The speed of waves in the string is

T Mg sin θ Mgh
v=
µ
=
⎡ m sin θ ⎤
=
m
(1 + sin θ )
⎢ ⎥
⎣ h ( 1 + sin θ ) ⎦
(g) The fundamental mode vibrates at the lowest frequency. In the
fundamental mode, the segment of length h vibrates as one loop.
λ
The distance between adjacent nodes is then dNN = = h, so the
2
wavelength is λ = 2h.

v 1 Mgh Mg
The frequency is f = =
λ 2h m
(1 + sin θ ) = 4mh
(1 + sin θ ) .

Mg (1.50 kg )( 9.80 m/s2 )

(h) f = (1 + sin θ ) = (1 + sin 30.0°)
4mh 4 ( 0.750 × 10−3 kg ) ( 0.500 m )

= 121 Hz

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 976 Superposition and Standing Waves

(i) The fundamental mode has a wavelength twice the length of the
h
sloped section of string, λ = 2 . Its frequency is
sin θ

v 1 Mgh Mg
f = =
λ ⎛
( 1 + sin θ ) = sin θ (1 + sin θ )
h ⎞ m 4mh
⎜⎝ 2 sin θ ⎟⎠

f = sin 30.0° ( 121 Hz ) = 60.6 Hz

0.010 0 kg
*P18.71 For the wire, µ = = 5.00 × 10−3 kg/m:
2.00 m

T 200 kg ⋅ m/s 2
v= = = 200 m/s
µ 5.00 × 10−3 kg/m
λ
If it vibrates in its simplest state, dNN = 2.00 m = :
2
v 200 m/s
f = = = 50.0 Hz
λ 4.00 m

(a) The tuning fork can have frequencies 45.0 Hz or 55.0 Hz.

(b) If f = 45.0 Hz, and v = f λ = ( 45.0 s −1 ) ( 4.00 m ) = 180 m/s, then

T = v 2 µ = ( 180 m/s )2 ( 5.00 × 10−3 kg/m ) = 162 N

or if f = 55.0 Hz,

T = v 2 µ = f 2 λ 2 µ = ( 55.0 s −1 ) ( 4.00 m )2 ( 5.00 × 10−3 kg/m )

2

= 242 N

*P18.72 We are told that the man’s ears are at the same level as the lower
speaker. Sound from the upper speaker is delayed by traveling the
extra distance Δr = L2 + d 2 − L.
λ
He hears a minimum when Δr = ( 2n − 1) ⎛ ⎞ , with n = 1, 2, 3, …
⎝ 2⎠
Then,

L2 + d 2 − L = n − ( ) 1 ⎛ v⎞
2 ⎜⎝ f ⎟⎠

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 Chapter 18 977

( )
L2 + d 2 = n −
1 ⎛ v⎞
2 ⎜⎝ f ⎟⎠
+L

( ) ( )
2
1 2⎛ v⎞ 1 ⎛ v⎞
L +d = n−
2 2
⎜ ⎟ + 2 n − ⎜ ⎟ L + L2
2 ⎝ f⎠ 2 ⎝ f⎠

( ) ( )
2
1 2⎛ v⎞ 1 ⎛ v⎞
d − n−
2
⎜ ⎟ = 2 n− ⎜ ⎟L [1]
2 ⎝ f⎠ 2 ⎝ f⎠
Equation [1] gives the distances from the lower speaker at which the
man will hear a minimum. The path difference Δr starts from nearly
zero when the man is very far away and increases to d when L = 0.
(a) The number of minima he hears is the greatest integer value for
which L ≥ 0. This is the same as the greatest integer solution to

d ≥ n−( ) 1 ⎛ v⎞
2 ⎜⎝ f ⎟⎠
or

number of minima heard = nmax

f 1
= greatest integer ≤ d ⎛ ⎞ +
⎝ v⎠ 2

(b) From equation [1], the distances at which minima occur are given
by

( )
2
1 2
⎛ v⎞
d − n−2
⎜⎝ f ⎟⎠
2
Ln = , where n = 1, 2, …, nmax
2 n−
1
2 ( ) ⎛ v⎞
⎜⎝ f ⎟⎠

P18.73 (a) The tension on the string defines the wave velocity on the string,
and thus also the frequencies, wavelengths, and number of nodes
of the standing waves. The tension on the string in Figure 18.11a
is:
T1 = mg, where m is the mass of the sphere.
The tension on the string in Figure 18.11b, must also include the
buoyant force on the sphere:
⎛4 ⎞
T2 = mg − B = mg − ρwater gVsphere = mg − ρwater g ⎜ π r 3 ⎟
⎝3 ⎠

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 978 Superposition and Standing Waves

Notice that the number of antinodes n is exactly the number of

half wavelengths of standing waves on the string (i.e. there are
two antinodes (and one full wavelength) on the string in Figure
18.11a, and there are five antinodes (and two and a half full
wavelengths) in Figure 18.11b). From Equations 18.5 and 18.6 we
have
v v n T
fn = =n = , n = 1, 2, 3, 4,...
λn 2L 2L µ
The frequency of oscillation is the same in both cases because it is
defined by the moving blade to the left. In addition, neither the
total length of the string L nor the string density µ changes
between the two cases:
n1 T1 n2 T2
f = and f =
2L µ 2L µ
therefore,
2Lf µ = n1 T1 = n2 T2
Or equivalently,
2 2
⎛n ⎞ ⎛n ⎞
T2 = ⎜ 1 ⎟ T1 = ⎜ 1 ⎟ mg
⎝ n2 ⎠ ⎝ n2 ⎠
But we have already obtained the value for tension above in
terms of the buoyant force and thus the radius of the sphere.
2 2
⎛n ⎞ ⎛n ⎞ ⎛4 ⎞
T2 = ⎜ 1 ⎟ T1 = ⎜ 1 ⎟ mg = mg − ρ water g ⎜ π r 3 ⎟
⎝ n2 ⎠ ⎝ n2 ⎠ ⎝3 ⎠
The radius of the sphere r may now be solved in terms of the
number of antinodes n2 (and the other parameters, n1, m, g, and
ρ water which are all constants, or already defined in the problem).

⎛4 ⎞ ⎛ n2 ⎞ 3m ⎛ n12 ⎞
ρ water g ⎜ π r 3 ⎟ = mg ⎜ 1 − 12 ⎟ → r3 = 1 −
⎝3 ⎠ ⎝ n2 ⎠ 4πρ water ⎜⎝ n22 ⎟⎠
solving for r gives
1/3
⎡⎛ 3m ⎞ ⎛ n12 ⎞ ⎤
r = ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 1 − n2 ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣⎝ 4πρ water ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎦
1/3
⎧⎪ ⎡ 3 ( 2.00 kg ) ⎤ ⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎫⎪ ⎛ 4⎞
1/3

= ⎨⎢ ⎥ ⎜ 1 − ⎟⎬ = 0.078 2 ⎜ 1 − 2 ⎟
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 4π ( 10 kg/m ) ⎥⎦ ⎝ n2 ⎠ ⎪ ⎝ n ⎠
3 3
⎭
where r is in meters.

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 Chapter 18 979

(b) Because the factor inside the cube root

1/3
⎛ 4⎞
⎜⎝ 1 − 2 ⎟⎠
n
will be either zero or negative, which are each meaningless
results, for n = 1 and 2, the minimum allowed value of n for a
sphere of nonzero size is n = 3 .
(c) Because the mass of the sphere is held constant, while its radius
(and thus also volume and density) is changed, there will reach a
point where the density of the sphere reaches the density of
water, and thus the sphere will float, so that it will no longer be
fully immersed in the water. After this point, the sphere will float
on the water, and will not produce further standing waves.
The limiting condition is ρsphere = ρ water = 1.00 × 103 kg/m 3 .
m m
But ρsphere = = which may be rearranged to solve for r.
V 4
π r3
3
1/3
4 3 m m ⎛ 3m ⎞
πr = = → r=⎜ ⎟⎠
3 ρsphere ρ water ⎝ 4πρ water

and substituting in numerically:

3 ( 2.00 kg )
1/3 1/3
⎛ 3m ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
r=⎜ =⎜ 3 ⎟
⎝ 4π ( 1.0 × 10 kg/m ) ⎠
⎝ 4πρ ⎟⎠ 3
water

= ( 4.766 × 10−4 m 3 )
1/3
= 0.078 2 m
is the limiting (maximum) radius for which the sphere will stay
totally immersed.
(d) The sphere floats on the water.
P18.74 (a) The wavelength is twice the length of string from the top end to
the yo-yo: λ = 2L. The length L changes in time because the yo-yo
1
is a particle under constant acceleration: L = L0 + at 2 , where L0 is
2
the length of the string at t = 0 and a is the acceleration of the yo-
yo. Therefore,

dλ d d⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
= ( 2L ) = ⎢ 2 ⎜ L0 + at 2 ⎟ ⎥ = 2at
dt dt dt ⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
= 2 ( 0.800 m/s 2 )( 1.20 s ) = 1.92 m/s

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 980 Superposition and Standing Waves

(b) For the second harmonic, the wavelength is equal to the length of
the string. Therefore,
dλ d d⎛ 1 ⎞
= L = ⎜ L0 + at 2 ⎟ = at
dt dt dt ⎝ 2 ⎠
= ( 0.800 m/s 2 )( 1.20 s )
= 0.960 m/s, half as much as for the first harmonic .

(c) Yes. A yo-yo of different mass will hold the string under
different tension to make each string wave vibrate with a
different frequency, but the geometrical argument given
in part (a) still applies to the wavelength.

(d) Yes, for the same reason as in (c): the geometrical argument
given in part (b) still applies to the wavelength.

P18.75 f = 87.0 Hz. The speed of sound in air is

va = 343 m/s.
(a) The pattern on the bar (see upper figure at
right) is ANANA, corresponding to the second
harmonic. The wavelength on the bar is λb = L,

v = f λb = ( 87.0 s −1 )( 0.400 m )
= 34.8 m s ANS. FIG. P18.75
(b) With λa = 4L and va = λa f ,
va 343 m/s
L= = = 0.986 m
4 f 4 ( 87.0 s −1 )

5.50 × 10−3 kg
P18.76 (a) µ= = 6.40 × 10−3 kg m
0.860 m

T 1.30 kg ⋅ m s 2
v= = = 14.3 m/s
µ 6.40 × 10−3 kg m
(b) The distance between a node and its adjacent antinode is one-
quarter of a wavelength. In order for there to be a node at the
bottom and an antinode at the top, the string can contain only an
odd number of node-antinode pairs.
The simplest pattern is (top to bottom) AN = one node-antinode
pair:

© 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Chapter 18 981

λ1
= L = 86.0 cm
4
The next simplest pattern is ANAN = AN + NA + AN = three
node-antinode pairs:
λ3 λ3 L
3 =L → = = 28.7 cm
4 4 3
The next simplest pattern is ANANAN = AN + NA + AN + NA +
AN = five node-antinode pairs:
λ5 λ5 L
5 =L → = = 17.2 cm
4 4 5
λ
(c) The distance between node and an antinode is . The
4
corresponding frequency is
⎧
⎪ v 14.3 m/s
⎪ f1 = = = 4.14 Hz
⎪ ⎛ λ1 ⎞ 4 ( 0.860 m )
4⎜ ⎟
⎪ ⎝ 4⎠
⎪
v ⎪ v 14.3 m/s
fn = : ⎨ f3 = = = 12.4 Hz
⎛ λn ⎞ ⎪ ⎛ λ3 ⎞ 4 ( 0.287 m )
4⎜ ⎟ 4⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4⎠ ⎪ ⎝ 4⎠
⎪ v 14.3 m/s
⎪ f5 = = = 20.7 Hz
⎪ ⎛ λ5 ⎞ 4 ( 0.172 m )
4⎜ ⎟
⎪⎩ ⎝ 4⎠
P18.77 We consider velocities of approach and of recession separately in the
Doppler equation, after we observe from our beat equation fb = |f1 − f2|
= |f − f’| that the moving train must have an apparent frequency of
either f’ = 182 Hz or f’ = 178 Hz.
We let vt represent the magnitude of the train’s velocity. If the train is
moving away from the station, the apparent frequency is 178 Hz,
lower, as described by
v
f′ =
v + vt
and the train is moving away at
⎛ f ⎞ ⎛ 180 Hz ⎞
vt = v ⎜ – 1⎟ = (343 m/s) ⎜ − 1⎟ = 3.85 m/s
⎝ f′ ⎠ ⎝ 178 Hz ⎠
If the train is pulling into the station, then the apparent frequency is
182 Hz. Again from the Doppler shift,
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 982 Superposition and Standing Waves

v
f′ =
v − vs
The train is approaching at
⎛ f ⎞ ⎛ 180 Hz ⎞
vs = v ⎜ 1 – ⎟ = (343 m/s) ⎜ 1 − ⎟
⎝ f ′⎠ ⎝ 182 Hz ⎠
vs = 3.77 m/s
The moving train has a velocity of either 3.85 m/s away from the
station or 3.77 m/s toward the station.
*P18.78 (a) Use the Doppler formula:

f′ = f
( v ± v0 )
( v  vs )
with f1′ = frequency of the speaker in front of student and
f2′ = frequency of the speaker behind the student.
( 343 m/s + 1.50 m/s )
f1′ = ( 456 Hz ) = 458 Hz
( 343 m/s − 0 )
( 343 m/s − 1.50 m/s )
f2′ = ( 456 Hz ) = 454 Hz
( 343 m/s + 0 )

Therefore, fb = f1′ − f2′ = 3.99 Hz .

(b) The waves broadcast by both speakers have
v 343 m/s
λ= = = 0.752 m
f 456 s −1
λ
The standing wave between them has dAA = = 0.376 m.
2
The student walks from one maximum to the next in time
0.376 m
Δt = = 0.251 s, so the frequency at which she hears
1.50 m/s
maxima is
1 1
f = = = 3.99 Hz
T 0.251 s

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 Chapter 18 983

*P18.79 As in Problem 32, we let m = ρV represent the mass of the copper

cylinder. The original tension in the wire is T1 = mg = ρVg. The water
exerts a buoyant force ρ water ( nV ) g on the copper object, where n is the
fraction of the object that is submerged, to reduce the tension to
T2 = ρVg − ρ water ( nV ) g = ( ρ − nρ water ) Vg

T1 T2
The speed of a wave on the string changes from to . The
µ µ
frequency changes from
v1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ T1 ⎛ 1⎞ T
f1 = =⎜ ⎟ to f2 = ⎜ ⎟ 2
λ ⎝ λ⎠ µ ⎝ λ⎠ µ

where we assume λ = 2L is constant.

Then
f2 T
= 2
f1 T1

and
ρ − nρ water
f 2 = f1
ρ
The frequency decreases as the fraction of the object that is submerged
increases, with the lowest frequency occurring when the object is
completely submerged, or n = 1:

ρ − nρ water 8.92 − ( 1.00 ) 1.00

f 2 = f1 = ( 300 Hz )
ρ 8.92
7.92
= ( 300 Hz ) = 283 Hz
8.92
P18.80 (a) Since the first node is at the weld, the wavelength in the thin wire
is 2L or 80.0 cm. The frequency and tension are the same in both
sections, so
1 T 1 4.60 N
f = = = 59.9 Hz
2L µ 2 ( 0.400 m ) 2.00 × 10−3 kg/m

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 984 Superposition and Standing Waves

(b) As the thick wire is twice the diameter, the linear density is 4
times that of the thin wire, or µ ′ = 8.00 g/m.
so
1 T
L′ =
2f µ′
⎡ 1 ⎤ 4.60 N
=⎢ −1 ⎥
= 20.0 cm
⎢⎣ ( 2 ) ( 59.9 s ) ⎥⎦ 8.00 × 10 kg/m
−3

or half the length of the thin wire.

P18.81 The wavelength stays constant at λ1 = 2L while the wavespeed rises
according to
v = (T/µ )1/2 = [(15.0 + 10.0t/3.50)/µ ]1/2

so the frequency rises as f = v/λ = [(15.0 + 10.0t/3.50) /µ ]1/2/2L.

The number of cycles is N = dt/T = f dt in each incremental bit of time,
or altogether
3.5 12
1 ⎛ 10.0 ⎞
N=
2L µ ∫0 ⎜⎝ 15.0 + 3.50 t⎟⎠ dt
3.5
1
∫ ( 52.5 + 10.0t )
12
= dt
2L 3.50 µ 0

1 1 3.5
N= ( 52.5 + 10.0t )3 2 0
2L 3.50 µ 10.0 ( 3 2 )
1 3.5
= ( 52.5 + 10.0t )3 2 0
30L 3.50 µ
1
N=
30.0 ( 0.480 m ) 3.50 ( 1.60 × 10−3 kg/m )

× ⎡⎣( 52.5 + 35.0 ) − ( 52.5 ) ⎤⎦

32 32

N = 407 cycles

n T
P18.82 We use the basic relationship f = .
2L µ
(a) Changing the length does not change the tension or the mass per
unit length, so the wave speed is the same.
f′ L L 1
= = =
f L′ 2L 2

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 Chapter 18 985

The frequency should be halved to get the same number of

antinodes for twice the length.
2 2
n′ T T′ ⎛ n ⎞ ⎡ n ⎤
(b) = so =⎜ ⎟ =⎢
n T′ T ⎝ n′ ⎠ ⎣ n + 1 ⎥⎦
2
⎡ n ⎤
The tension must be T ′ = ⎢ T .
⎣ n + 1 ⎥⎦
2 2
f ′ n′L T ′ T ′ ⎛ nf ′L′ ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ n ⎞ ⎛ f ′ ⎞ ⎛ L′ ⎞ ⎤
(c) = so =⎜ = ⎢⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎥
f nL′ T T ⎝ n′fL ⎟⎠ ⎣ n′ ⎝ f ⎠ L ⎦
2
T′ ⎛ 3 ⎞ T′ 9
=⎜ ⎟ → = to get twice as many antinodes.
T ⎝ 2 ⋅2⎠ T 16
P18.83 We look for a solution of the form
5.00 sin (2.00x – 10.0t) + 10.0 cos (2.00x – 10.0t)
= A sin (2.00x – 10.0t + φ)
= A sin (2.00x – 10.0t) cos φ + A cos (2.00x – 10.0t) sin φ
This will be true if both 5.00 = A cos φ and 10.0 = A sin φ,
requiring
( 5.00)2 + (10.0)2 = A2 → A = 11.2, and
10.0
tan φ = = 2.00 → φ = 63.4°
5.00
(a) From above, we were able to find values for A and φ ; therefore,
the resultant wave is sinusoidal.

(b) From above A = 11.2 and φ = 63.4° .

P18.84 The speed of sound at Celsius temperature TC is

TC
v = ( 331 m/s ) 1 +
273°C
At 20.0°C, the speed of sound is 343 m/s.
(a) For a pipe open at both ends, the fundamental frequency (n = 1) is
v v 343 m/s
f1 = → L= = = 0.656 m
2L 2 f1 2 ( 261.6 Hz )

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 986 Superposition and Standing Waves

(b) The speed of sound in the colder room is smaller because the
temperature is lower. The fundamental frequency of the pipe
played in that room, call it f ′1, is smaller because the frequency of
a standing wave is proportional to the wave speed. The beat
frequency is
f beat = f ′1 − f ′1 = f1 − f ′1

which gives
f1 = f1 − f beat = 261.6 − 3.00 = 258.6 Hz

because f1 = 261.6 Hz is larger than f ′1.

The lengths of the flutes are the same, so compare frequencies
and wave speeds:
v f ′ 1 v′
f1 = → =
2L f1 v
Solving for the wave speed gives
f ′1 ⎛ 258.6 Hz ⎞
v′ = v = ( 343 m/s ) ⎜ = 339 m/s
f1 ⎝ 261.6 Hz ⎟⎠

The wave speed depends on the temperature:

TC
v = ( 331 m/s ) 1 + = 339 m/s
273°
Solving for the temperature gives
⎡⎛ 339 m/s ⎞ 2 ⎤
TC = 273° ⎢⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ = 13.5°C
⎣⎝ 331 m/s ⎠ ⎦
P18.85 (a) Let θ represent the angle each
slanted rope makes with the
vertical. In the diagram,
observe that:
1.00 m 2
sin θ = =
1.50 m 3
or θ = 41.8°
Considering the mass,
ANS. FIG. P18.85
∑ Fy = 0: 2T cos θ = mg

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 Chapter 18 987

(12.0 kg )( 9.80 m/s2 )

or T= = 78.9 N
2 cos 41.8°
(b) The speed of transverse waves in the string is
T 78.9 N
v= = = 281 m/s
µ 0.001 00 kg m
3
For the standing wave pattern shown (3 loops), d = λ,
2
2 ( 2.00 m )
or λ= = 1.33 m.
3
v 281 m/s
Thus, the required frequency is f = = = 211 Hz .
λ 1.33 m
P18.86 (a) Let θ (refer to ANS. FIG. P18.85) represent the angle each slanted
rope makes with the vertical. In the diagram, observe that:
d2 d
sin θ = =
(L − d) 2 L − d
and
1
⎡ ⎛ d ⎞ 2 ⎤2
cos θ = 1 − sin θ = ⎢1 − ⎜
2
⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ L − d⎠ ⎦
1
⎡ ( L2 − 2dL + d 2 ) − d 2 ⎤ 2
cos θ = ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ ( L − d )2 ⎥⎦
L2 − 2dL
cos θ =
L−d
Considering the mass,
mg
∑ Fy = 0: 2T cos θ = mg → T =
2 cos θ

mg ( L − d )
or T= .
2 L2 − 2dL

T
(b) The speed of transverse waves in the string is v = .
µ
3
For the standing wave pattern shown (3 loops), d = λ,
2

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 988 Superposition and Standing Waves

2d
or λ= .
3

v 3 mg ( L − d )
Thus, the required frequency is f = = .
λ 2d 2 µ L2 − 2dL

Challenge Problems
P18.87 The idea is that the tension on
the string after the force is
applied is the vector sum of the

wind force F and the weight

Mg of the mass.
  
Tafter = F + Mg
Notice that this forms a right
triangle:

ANS. FIG. P18.87

The relationship between the driving frequency and the string tension
is
n T
f =
2L µ
Before and after the application of the wind force, the frequency f,
string mass density µ, and string length L are all held constant. Thus,
the string tension T is a function of only one variable, n.
n1 T1 n2 T2
f = , f = ; thus 2Lf µ = n1 T1 = n2 T2
2L µ 2L µ
where n1 = 2 and n2 = 1:
2 2 2
⎛n ⎞ ⎛n ⎞ ⎛ 2⎞
Tafter = T2 = T1 ⎜ 1 ⎟ = Mg ⎜ 1 ⎟ = Mg ⎜ ⎟ = 4Mg
⎝ n2 ⎠ ⎝ n2 ⎠ ⎝ 1⎠

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 Chapter 18 989

From the geometry of the right triangle,

T22 = F 2 + ( Mg )
2

( 4Mg )2 = F 2 + ( Mg )2 → F 2 = 16 ( Mg )2 − ( Mg )2 = 15 ( Mg )2
F= 15Mg

P18.88 Equation 18.13 is

y ( t ) = ∑ ( An sin 2π fnt + Bn cos 2π fnt )
= ∑ ( An sin nω t + Bn cos nω t )

(a) Multiplying by sin mωt gives:

y ( t ) sin mω t = ∑ sin mω t ( An sin nω t + Bn cos nω t )

Integrating over one period T gives:

T

∫0 y ( t ) sin mω tdt = ∑ ∫ An ( sin nω t )( sin mω t ) dt

T

0
T
+ ∑ ∫ Bn ( cos nω t )( sin mω t ) dt [1]
0

Inspecting the left-hand side of the equation, we note that y(t) is a

positive constant A for half of the period T, and an equal but
negative constant –A for the other half period:
T T/2 T
∫ y ( t ) sin mω tdt = ∫ A sin mω tdt + ∫ −A sin mω tdt
0 0 T/2

If we look at the first of the two integrals on the right:

T/2 A T/2

∫ 0
A sin mω tdt = −
mω
cos mω t
0

A ⎡ ⎛T⎞ ⎤
=−
mω ⎢⎣ cos mω ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ − cos mω ( 0 ) ⎥⎦

which gives different answers depending on whether m is even or

odd:
A 2A
If m is odd: = − ⎡⎣( −1) − ( 1) ⎤⎦ =
mω mω
A
If m is even: = − ⎡( 1) − ( 1) ⎤⎦ = 0
mω ⎣
(because we are integrating over half periods).

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 990 Superposition and Standing Waves

(a) (b)
ANS. FIG. P18.88
The second of the two integrals on the right gives a similar result:
T
T ⎛ A ⎞
∫T/2 −A sin mω tdt = − ⎜⎝ − mω ⎟⎠ cos mω t T/2
⎡A ⎛T⎞⎤
=+ ⎢⎣ cos mω (T ) − cos mω ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
mω
⎧⎛ 2A ⎞ ⎫
⎪⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ odd ⎪
= ⎨ mω ⎬
⎪(0) even ⎪⎭
⎩
Thus,
T T/2 T
∫ y ( t ) sin mω tdt = ∫ A sin mω tdt + ∫ −A sin mω tdt
0 0 T/2

⎧ 2A ⎫ ⎧ 2A ⎫
⎪ m odd ⎪ ⎪ m odd ⎪
= ⎨ mω ⎬ + ⎨ mω ⎬
⎪⎩0 ⎪
m even ⎭ ⎩0⎪ m even ⎪⎭
Putting everything together, we have shown that
⎧ 4A
T ⎪ m odd
∫ y ( t ) sin mω tdt = ⎨ mω
0
⎪⎩0 m even
(b) We can analyze the terms involving Bn on the right hand side of
eqn. [1] above:
T
∑ ∫ Bn ( cos nω t )( sin mω t ) dt
0

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 Chapter 18 991

Using the trigonometric identity

1 1
cos α sin β = sin(α + β ) − sin(α − β )
2 2
we have
T
∑ ∫ Bn ( cos nω t )( sin mω t ) dt
0

1 T
= ∑ Bn ∫ ⎡⎣ sin(nω t + mω t) − sin(nω t − mω t)⎤⎦ dt
2 0
1 T
= ∑ Bn ∫ ⎡⎣ sin(n + m)ω t − sin(n − m)ω t ⎤⎦ dt
2 0
The sine function, whether the terms are (n + m) or (n – m), it
will always integrate to zero over any full multiple of a period:
1 T 1
= ∑ Bn ⎡⎣ sin(n + m)ω t − sin(n − m)ω t ⎤⎦ = ∑ Bn ( 0 ) = 0
2 0 2
Thus, all the terms involving Bn on the right hand side of eqn. [1]
are equal to zero:
T
∑ ∫ Bn ( cos nω t )( sin mω t ) dt = 0
0

(c) For all the terms on the right hand side of eqn.(1) with An:
T
∑ ∫ An ( sin nω t )( sin mω t ) dt
0

Using the trigonometric identity

1 1
sin α sin β = cos(α − β ) − cos(α + β )
2 2
we have
T
∑ ∫ An ( sin nω t )( sin mω t ) dt
0

1 T
= ∑ An ∫ [ cos(nω t − mω t) − cos(nω t + mω t)] dt
2 0
1 T
= ∑ An ∫ [ cos(n − m)ω t − cos(n + m)ω t ] dt
2 0
which can be integrated and evaluated at 0 and T:
1 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤T
= ∑ An ⎢ sin (n − m) ω t − sin (n + m)ω t ⎥ 0
2 ⎣ (n − m)ω (n + m)ω ⎦
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 992 Superposition and Standing Waves

The second term, when evaluated at 0 and T, always gives zero.

The same is true for the first term for all values of n except where
n = m. Thus, all the terms on the right hand side of eqn. (1) with
An are zero except when m = n.
(d) For n = m, we will do the integration separately:
T T
∑ ∫ An ( sin nω t )( sin mω t ) dt + ∑ ∫ Bn ( cos nω t )( sin mω t ) dt
0 0
T
= ∑ ∫ An ( sin nω t )( sin mω t ) dt + 0
0

1 T
1
An=m ∫ [cos(n − m)ω t]dt = ⎡⎣ Am ∫0 cos ( 0 ) dt ⎤⎦
T
=
2 0 2
1 A 1
= Am ∫0 ( 1) dt = m [T − 0 ] = AmT
T

2 2 2
1
Thus, the entire right side reduces to AmT.
2
(e) Starting with our original Equation 18.13:
y ( t ) = ∑ ( An sin nω t + Bn cos nω t )
notice that y(t) is an odd function of t: y(t) = –y(t), and the sine
function is also odd, but the cosine function is even. From these
observations, we can conclude that there are no cosine terms in
the Fourier series expansion of y(t); therefore, all the Bn = 0. Thus,
y ( t ) = ∑ An sin nω t
But we have shown in part (a) above that:
T 4A
∫ y (t ) sin mω tdt = mω
0

where m must be odd, and in part (d) that:

T

∫0 y ( t ) sin mω tdt = ∑ ∫ sin mω t ( An sin nω t + Bn cos nω t ) dt

T

1
= AmT
2
where n = m.
1 4A 2π
Thus, for each An term: AnT = . And because ω = ,
2 nω T
4A 1 8A 4A ⎛ 2π ⎞ 4A
= AnT → An = = ⎜ ⎟=
nω 2 nω T nπ ⎝ ω T ⎠ nπ
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 Chapter 18 993

which we substitute in to give:

4A
y (t ) = ∑ sin nω t
n nπ

where the summation is only over odd values of n.

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 994 Superposition and Standing Waves

ANSWERS TO EVEN-NUMBERED PROBLEMS

P18.2 See ANS. FIG. P18.2.

P18.4 (a) See ANS. FIG. P18.4 (a-e); (b) See ANS. FIG. P18.4 (f-j)
P18.6 (a) λ/4 = 0.113 m; (b) λ/2 = 0.227 m
P18.8 (a) 3.33 rad; (b) 283 Hz
P18.10 The man walks only through two minima; a third minimum is
impossible.
P18.12 0.500 s
π λ
P18.14 (a) The separation of adjacent nodes is Δx = = . The nodes are still
k 2
separated by half a wavelength; (b) Yes. The nodes are located at
φ nπ φ
kx + = nπ , so that x = − , which means that each node is
2 k 2k
φ
shifted to the left by the phase difference between the traveling
2k
waves in comparison to the case in which φ = 0.
P18.16 See P18.16 for full verification.
P18.18 (a) See ANS. FIG. P18.18; (b) In any one picture, the wavelength is the
smallest distance along the x axis that contains a nonrepeating shape.
The wavelength is λ = 4 m; (c) The frequency is the inverse of the
period. The period is the time the wave takes to go from a full
amplitude starting shape to the inversion of that shape and then back
to the original shape. The period is the time interval between the top
and bottom graphs: 20 ms. The frequency is 1/0.020 s = 50 Hz; (d) 4 m.
By comparison with the wave function y = ( 2A sin kx ) cos ω t , we
identify k = π / 2, and then compute λ = 2π / k; (e) 50 Hz. By
comparison with the wave function y = ( 2A sin kx ) cos ω t , we identify
ω = 2π f = 100π .
P18.20 (a) 0.600 m; (b) 30.0 Hz
P18.22 (a) 495 Hz; (b) 990 Hz
P18.24 (a) 5.20 m; (b) No. We do not know the speed of waves on the string.
P18.26 (a) 78.6 Hz; (b) 157 Hz, 236 Hz, 314 Hz
P18.28 (a) 4.90 × 10–3 kg/m; (b) 2; (c) no standing wave will form
Mg cos θ
P18.30 m=
4 f 2L

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 Chapter 18 995

P18.32 291 Hz
P18.34 12 h, 24 min. The natural frequency of the water sloshing in the bay
agrees precisely with that of lunar excitation, so we identify the extra-
high tides as amplified by resonance.
P18.36 9.00 Hz
P18.38 2.94 cm
P18.40 (a) 536 Hz; (b) 42.9 mm
P18.42 (a) 17.0 Hz; (b) 33.9 Hz; (c) 17.6 Hz, 35.1 Hz
P18.44 0.502 m and 0.837 m
P18.46 n(206 Hz) and n(84.5 Hz)
P18.48 (a) 0.085 8n Hz, with n = 1, 2, 3 . . . ; (b) It is a good rule. A car horn
would produce several or many of the closely-spaced resonance
frequencies of the air in the tunnel, so it would be great amplified.
π r2v
P18.50
2Rf
P18.52 It is impossible because a single column could not produce both
frequencies.
P18.54 1.16 m
P18.56 (a) 521 Hz or 525 Hz; (b) 526 Hz; (c) reduced by 1.14%
P18.58 85.7 Hz
P18.60 See P18.60 for a table of the frequencies of the harmonics of each note.
The second harmonic of E is close to the third harmonic of A, and the
fourth harmonic of C# is close to the fifth harmonic of A.
P18.62 (a) 0.522 m; (b) 316 Hz
P18.64 146 Hz
P18.66 (a) 5.0 Hz, 10.0 Hz, 15.0 Hz; (b) The frequency could be the fifth state at
25.0 Hz or any integer multiple, such as the tenth state at 50.0 Hz, the
fifteenth state at 75.0 Hz, and so on.
P18.68 (a) larger; (b) 2.43
P18.70 (a) the particle under constant acceleration model; (b) waves under
⎛ 1 + sin θ ⎞
boundary conditions model; (c) Mg sin θ ; (d) h ⎜ ;
⎝ sin θ ⎟⎠
m sin θ
Mgh Mg
(e) h ( 1 + sin θ ) ; (f)
m
(1 + sin θ ) ; (g) 4mh
(1 + sin θ ) ; (h) 121 Hz;
(i) 60.6 Hz
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 996 Superposition and Standing Waves

f 1
P18.72 (a) greatest integer ≤ d ⎛ ⎞ + ;
⎝ v⎠ 2

( )
2
1 2
⎛ v⎞
d − n− 2
⎜⎝ f ⎟⎠
2
(b) Ln = , where n = 1, 2, …, nmax
2 n−
1
2 ( ) ⎛ v⎞
⎜⎝ f ⎟⎠

dλ d d⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
P18.74 (a) = ( 2L ) = ⎢ 2 ⎜ L0 + at 2 ⎟ ⎥ = 2at = 2 ( 0.800 m/s 2 ) ( 1.20 s ) = 1.92
dt dt dt ⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
m/s; (b) 0.960 m/s, half as much as for the first harmonic; (c) Yes. A
yo-yo of different mass will hold the string under different tension to
make each string wave vibrate with a different frequency, but the
geometrical argument given in part (a) still applies to the wavelength;
(d) Yes, for the same reason as (c); the geometrical argument given in
part (b) still applies to the wavelength.
P18.76 (a) 14.3 m/s; (b) 86.0 cm, 28.7 cm, 17.2 cm; (c) 4.14 Hz, 12.4 Hz, 20.7 Hz
P18.78 (a) 3.99 Hz; (b) 3.99 Hz
P18.80 (a) 59.9 Hz; (b) 20.0 cm
2
n ⎤ T′ 9
P18.82 (a) frequency should be halved; (b) ⎡⎢ ⎥ T ; (c) =
⎣ n + 1⎦ T 16
P18.84 (a) 0.656 m; (b) 13.5° C

mg ( L − d ) 3 mg ( L − d )
P18.86 (a) ; (b)
2 L2 − 2dL 2d 2 µ L2 − 2dL

P18.88 (a) see P18.88(a) for full explanation; (b) see P18.88(b) for full
explanation; (c) See P18.88(c) for full explanation; (d) see P18.88(d) for
full explanation; (e) see P18.88(e) for full explanation.

© 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.