56 cunerer 4 Teaching by Principles The Principle of Automaticity may be stated as follows: Efficient second language learning involves a timely movement of the control of a few language forms into the automatic processing of a relatively unlimited number of language forms. Overanalyzing language, thinking too much about its forms, and consciously lingering on rules of language all tend to impede this graduation to automaticity. Notice that this principle does not say that focus on language forms is neces- sarily harmful. In fact adults, especially, can benefit greatly from certain focal pro- cessing of rules, definitions, and other formal aspects of language. What the principle docs say is that adults can take a lesson from children by speedily over- coming our propensity to pay too much focal attention to the bits and pieces of lan- guage and to move language forms quickly to the periphery by using language in authentic contexts for meaningful purposes. In so doing, automaticity is built more cfficiently. ‘What does this principle, which ordinarily applies to adult instruction, mean to you as a teacher? Here are some possibilities: 1, Because classroom learning normally begins with controlled, focal processing, there is no mandate to entirely avoid overt attention to language systems (grammar, phonology, discourse, ctc.), That attention, however, should stop well short of blocking students from achieving a more automatic, fluent grasp of the language. Therefore, grammatical explanations or exercises dealing with what is sometimes called “usage” have a place in the adult classroom (sec Principle 12), but you could overwhelm your students with grammar. If they become too heavily centered on the formal aspects of language, such processes can block pathways to fluency. 2. Make sure that a large proportion of your lessons are focused on the “use” of language for purposes that are as genuine as a classroom context will permit. Students will gain more language competence in the long run if the func- tional purposes of language are the focal point. 3. Automaticity isn’t gained overnight; therefore, you need to exercise patience with students as you slowly help them to achieve fluency. Principle 2: Meaningful Learning Closely related to the Principle of Automaticity are cognitive theories of learning (PLET, Chapter 4), which convincingly argue the strength of meaningful as opposed to rote learning (Ausubel 1963). Meaningful learning “subsumes” new é ‘ ‘ ‘ 6 ‘ ‘ « ‘ < ‘ < « 4 « ‘ < ‘ « ‘ é ‘ ‘ é « ‘ ‘ { ( 1 ( { { ( { 1 ‘ ‘Harter 4 Teaching by Principles 57 information into existing structures and memory systems, and the resulting associa- tive links create stronger retention. Rote learning—taking in isolated bits and pieces of information that are not connected with one’s existing cognitive struc- tures—has little chance of creating long-term retention. Children are good mean- ingful acquirers of language (sce Principle 1) because they associate sounds, words, structures, and discourse elements with that which is relevant and important in their daily quest for knowledge and survival. The Principle of Meaningful Learning is quite simply stated: Meaningful learning will lead toward better long-term retention than rote learning. The language classroom has not always been the best place for meaningful learning. In the days when the Audiolingual Method (see PLLT, Chapter 4) was pop- ular, rote learning occupied too much of the class hour as students were drilled and drilled in an attempt to “overlearn” language forms. The Principle of Meaningful Learning tells us that some auraloral drilling is appropriate; selected phonological elements like phonemes, rhythm, stress, and intonation, for example, can indeed be taught effectively through pattern repetition, But drilling ad nauseam easily lends itself to rote learning. Some classroom implications of the Principle of Meaningful Learning: 1. Capitalize on the power of meaningful learning by appealing to students’ interests, academic goals, and career goals. 2. Whenever a new topic or concept is introduced, attempt to anchor it in stu- dents’ existing knowledge and background so that it becomes associated with something they already know. 3. Avoid the pitfalls of rote learning: too much grammar explanation . too many abstract principles and theories -. too much drilling and/or memorization |. activities whose purposes are not clear . activities that do not contribute to accomplishing the goals of the lesson, unit, or course techniques that are so mechanical or tricky that Ss focus on the mechanics instead of on the language or meanings. peanop ®=mxcipke 3: The Anticipation of Reward Siiener and others have clearly demonstrated the strength of rewards in both zen=il and human behavior (see PLLT, Chapter 4). Virtually everything we do is58 craprer4 Teaching by Principles inspired and driven by a sense of purpose or goal, and, according to Skinner, the anticipation of reward is the most powerful factor in directing one’s behavior. The principle behind Skinner's operant conditioning paradigm, which I term the Reward Principle, can be stated as follows: Human beings are universally driven to act, or “behave,” by the anticipation of some sort of reward—tangible or intangible, short term or long term—that will ensue as a result of the behavior. ‘The implications for the classroom ace obvious. At one end of the spectrum, you can perceive the importance of the immediate administration of such rewards as praise for correct responses (“Very good, Maria!"*Nice job!"), appropriate grades or scores to indicate success, or other public recognition. At the other end, it behooves you to help students to see clearly why they are doing something and its relevance to their long-term goals in learning English. On the other hand, a reward- driven, conditioning theory of learning has some shortcomings that ultimately have a high impact on classroom instcuction. These shortcomings are summarized under Principle 4, but for the moment, keep in mind that conditioning by rewards can (a) lead learners to hecome dependent on short-term rewards, (b) coax them into a habit of looking to teachers and others for their only rewards, and therefore (c) fore- stall the development of their own internally administered, intrinsic system of rewards. Considering all sides of the Reward Principle, the following constructive class- room implications may be drawn: them as a form of short-term reward (just enough to keep them confident in their ability but not so much that your praise simply becomes verbal gush). 2. Encourage students to reward each other with compliments and supportive action. 3. In classes with very low motivation, short-term reminders of progress may help students to perceive their development. Gold stars and stickers (espe- cially for young learners), issuing certain “privileges” for good work, and progress charts and graphs may spark some interest. 4. Display enthusiasm and excitement yourself in the classroom. If you are dul, life- less, bored, and have low energy, you can be almost sure that it will be contagious. 5. Try to get learners to see the long-term rewards in learning English by ing out what they can do with English where they live and around the poi world, the prestige in being able to use English, the academic benefits of knowing English, jobs that require English, and so on. ‘ ‘ 4 ‘ 4 4 ‘ ‘ < « ¢ « « « <4 « « « « « « « « « « 1. Provide an optimal degree of immediate verbal praise and encouragement to & « & © « S & < « < « « S & acuaprer 4 Teaching by Principles 59 Principle 4: Intrinsic Motivation ‘ ‘This principle is elaborated upon in detail in the next chapter as an example of how certain complex principles underlie a surprising number of our teaching practices. Simply stated, the Intrinsic Motivation Principle is: The most powerful rewards are those that are intrinsically motivated within the learner. Because the behavior stems from needs, wants, or desires within oneself, the behavior itself is self-rewarding; therefore, no externally administered reward is necessary. If all learners were intrinsically motivated to perform all classroom tasks, we might not even need teachers! But you can perform a great service to learners and to the overall learning process by first considering carefully the intrinsic motives of your students and then by designing classroom tasks that feed into those intrinsic drives. Classroom techniques have a much greater chance for success if they are selfrewarding in the perception of the learner. The learners perform the task because it is fun, interesting, useful, or challenging, and not because they anticipate some cognitive or affective rewards from the teacher. ‘You may be wondering why such a principle is listed among “cognitive” prin- ciples. The development of intrinsic motivation does indeed involve affective pro- cessing, as most of these first five principles do, and so the argument is appropriate. But reward-directed behavior in all organisms is complex to the point that cognitive, physical, and affective processing are all involved. In the specific case of second language acquisition, mental functions may actually occupy a greater proportion of the whole than the other two domains, as we shall see in Chapter 5. Principle 5: Strategic Investment ‘A few decades ago, the language-teaching profession largely concerned itself with the “delivery” of language to the student. Teaching methods, textbooks, or even grammatical paradigms were cited as the primary factors in successful learning. In more recent years, in the light of many studies of successful and unsuccessfut ieamers, language teachers are focusing more intently on the role of the learner in she process. The “methods” that the learner employs to internalize and to perform mm the language are as important as the teacher’s methods—or more so. I call this she Principle of Strategic Investment:60 cuarreR 4 Teaching by Principles Successful mastery of the second language will be due to a large extent to a learner’s own personal “investment” of time, effort, and attention to the second language in the form of an individualized battery of strategies for comprehending and producing the language. This principle is laid out in full detail in Chapter 14, where practical classroom applications are made. For the time being, however, ponder two major pedagogical implications of the principle: a) the importance of recognizing and dealing with the wide variety of styles and strategies that learners successfully bring to the learning process and, therefore, (b) the need for attention to each separate individual in the classroom. As research on successful language learners has dramatically shown, the varia- tion among learners poses a thorny pedagogical dilemma. Learning styles alone signal numerous learner preferences that a teacher needs to attend to (see PLIT, Chapter 5). For example, visual vs. auditory preference and individual vs. group work preference are highly significant factors in a classroom. In a related strain of research, we are finding that learners also employ a multiplicity of strategies for sending and receiving language and that one learner's strategies for success may differ markedly from another's. A variety of techniques in your lessons will at least partially ensure that you will “reach” a maximum number of students. So you will choose a mixture of group work and individual work, of visual and auditory techniques, of easy and difficult exercises, Beware, however, of variety at the expense of techniques that you know are essential for the learner! If, for example, you know that three-quarters of your class prefers individual work, that should not dictate the proportion of time you devote to activities that involve silent work at their desks. They may need to be nudged, if not pushed, into more face-to-face communicative activities than their preferences would indicate. A teacher's greatest dilemma is how to attend to each individual student in a class while still reaching the class as a whole group. In relatively large classes of 30 to 50 students, individual attention becomes increasingly difficult; in extra-large classcs* it is virtually impossible. ‘The principle of strategic investment nevertheless isa reminder to provide as much attention as you can to each individual student. *In far too many language classrooms around the world, students number over 50;60 10 75 students is not uncommon. For years I have tried to persuade administrators t0 lower those numbers and to understand that communicative acquisition of a language is almost impossible under such circumstances. Nevertheless, the reality of school budgets sometimes provides few alternatives. See Chapter 13 for some practical suggestions for dealing with large classes. a i al Ni lt al ai i ee ek eek a a a ah ae ie, cet ey a Acuaprer 4 Teaching by Principles 61 Some aspects of the dilemma surrounding variation and the need for individu- alization can be solved through specific strategies-based instruction, the prin- cipal topic of Chapter 14. Meanwhile, simply as a “sneak preview” to that chapter, Fou might consider these questions as more grist for your teacher education mill: + Am I seizing whatever opportunity I can to let learners in on the “secrets” to develop and use strategies for learning and communication? + Do my lessons and impromptu feedback adequately sensitize students to the wisdom of their taking responsibility for their own learning? + How can 1 ensure that my students will want to put forth the effort of trying out some strategies? AFFECTIVE PRINCIPLES We now turn our attention to those principles that are characterized by a large pro- portion of emotional involvement. Here we look at feelings about self, about rela- tionships in a community of learners, and about the emotional ties between language and culture. Principle 6: Language Ego The Language Ego Principle can be summarized in a well-recognized claim: As human beings learn to use a second language, they also develop a new mode of thinking, feeling, and acting—a second identity. The new “language ego,” intertwined with the second language, can casily create within the learner a sense of fragility, a defensiveness, and a raising of inhibitions. ‘The Language Ego Principle might also be affectionately called the “warm and fuzzy” principle: all second language learners need to be treated with affective tender loving care. Remember when you were first learning a second language and how you sometimes felt silly, if not humiliated, when the lack of words or structure left you helpless in face-to-face communication? Otherwise highly intelligent adults can be reduced to babbling infants in a second language. Learners feel this fragility because the strategic arsenals of their native-language-based egos, which are nor- mally well developed and resistant to attack, are suddenty—in the perception of the learner—obsolete. Now they must fend for their emotional selves with a paltry tin- guistic battery that leaves them with a feeling of total defenselessness.64 cHarten 4 Teaching by Principles 2. Provide reasonable challenges in your techniques—make them neither too easy nor too hard. 3. Help your students to understand what calculated risk-taking is, lest some feel that they must blurt out any old response. 4, Respond to students’ risky attempts with positive affirmation, praising them for trying while at the same time warmly but firmly attending to their language. Principle 9: The Language-Culture Connection Language and culture are intricately intertwined. Any time you successfully learn a fan- ‘guage, you will also learn something of the culture of the speakers of that language. ‘This principle focuses on the complex interconnection of language and culture: Whenever you teach a language, you also teach a complex system of cultural customs, values, and ways of thinking, feeling, and acting. Classroom applications include the following: \iscuss cross-cultural differences with your students, emphasizing that no culture is “better” than another, but that cross-cultural understanding is an important facet of learning a language. 2. Include among your techniques certain activities and materials that illustrate the connection between language and culture. 3. Teach your students the cultural connotations, especially the sociolinguistic aspects, of language. 4, Screen your techniques for material that may be culturally offensive. 5. Make explicit to your students what you may take for granted in your own culture. A second aspect of the Language-Culture Connection is the extent to which your students will themselves be affected by the process of acculturation, which will vary with the context and the goals of learning. In many second language learning con- texts, such as ESL in the US, students are faced with the full-blown realities of adapting to life in a foreign country, complete with various emotions accompanying stages of acculturation (see Chapter 7 of PLT). In such cases, acculturation, social distance, and psychological adjustment are factors to be dealt with. This aspect of the principle may be summed up in this way: BAALLLKORLKAHCLLKOCHAOHKHKKRAREHKKR ARH KREAAAAALRALLALACHAPTER 4 Teaching by Principles 65 Especially in “second” language learning contexts, the success with which learners adapt to a new cultural milieu will affect their language acquisition success, and vice versa, in some possibly significant ways. j From the perspective of the classroom teacher, this principle is similar to the Language Ego and Self-Esteem principles, and all the concomitant classroom impli- cations apply here as well. An added dimension, however, lies in the interaction between culture tearning and language learning. An opportunity is given to teachers to enhance, if not specd up, both developmental processes. Once students become aware that some of their discouragement may stem from cultural sources, they can more squarely address their state of mind and emotion and do something about it. In the classroom, you can 1. help students to be aware of acculturation and its stages. 2. stress the importance of the second language as a powerful tool for adjust- ment in the new culture. 3. be especially sensitive to any students who appear to be discouraged, then do what you can to assist them. LINGUISTIC PRINCIPLES ‘The last category of principles of language learning and teaching centers on Jan- guage itself and on how learners deal with these complex linguistic systems. Principle 10: The Native Language Effect It almost goes without saying that the native language of every learner is an extremely significant factor in the acquisition of a new language. Most of the time, we think of the native language as exercising an interfering effect on the target lan- guage, and indced the most salient, observable effect docs appear to be one of inter- ference (see PLLT, Chapter 8). The majority of a learner's errors in producing the second language, especially in the beginning levels, stem from the learner's assump- tion that the target language operates like the native language. But what we observe may, like an iceberg, be only part of the reality. The facil- itating effects of the native language are surely as powerful in the process, or more66 CHAPTER 4 Teaching by Principles so, even though they are less observable. When the native French speaker who is learning English says “I am here since January” there is one salient native language effect, a verb tense error stemming from French. But the learner's native French may also have facilitated the production of that sentence’s subject-verb-complement word order, the placement of the locative (here), the one-to-one grammatical corre- spondence of the other words in the sentence, rules governing prepositional phrases, and the cognate word (January). The Principle of the Native Language Effect stresses the importance of that native system in the linguistic attempts of the second language learner: ‘The native language of learners exerts a strong influence on the acquisition of the target language system. While that native system will exercise both facilitating and interfering effects on. the production and comprehension of the new language, the interfering effects are likely to be the most salient. In your dealing with the Native Language Effect in the classroom, your feed- back will most often focus on interference. That's perfectly sound pedagogy. Learners’ errors stand out like the tips of icebergs, giving us salient signals of an underlying system at work. Errors are, in fact, windows to a learner's internalized understanding of the second language, and therefore they give teachers something observable to react to. Student non-errors—the facilitating effects—certainly do not need to be treated. Don’t try to fix something that isn’t broken. Some classroom suggestions stemming from the Native Language Effect: 1. Regard learners’ errors as important windows to their underlying system and provide appropriate feedback on them (see Principle 11 and Chapter 17 for more information on feedback). Errors of native language interference may be repaired by acquainting the learner with the native language cause of the error. 2. Ideally, every successful learner will hold on to the facilitating effects of the native language and discard the interference. Help your students to under- stand that not everything about their native language system will cause crror. 3. Thinking directly in the target language usually helps to minimize interference errors. Try to coax students into thinking in the second language instead of resorting to transiation as they comprehend and produce language. An occa- sional translation of a word or phrase can actually be helpful, especially for adults, but direct use of the second language will help to avoid the first lan- guage “crutch” syndrome. pepper eonearerannorgcaornareranenarannannnanne